Many Paths to One Goal? - A Comparative Analysis of The Major World Religions
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE MAJOR WORLD RELIGIONS FROM A CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE by Ernest Valea The goal of this site is to investigate whether or not there is sufficient evidence to prove that world religions are complementary and equally true, according to the model inspired by an old Indian tale - that of the blind men who tried to describe an elephant. It is said that once upon a time a king gathered a few men who were born blind. They were asked to describe an elephant, but each one was presented with only a certain part of it. To one was presented the head of the elephant, to another the trunk, to another its ears, to another the leg, the body, the tail, tuft of the tail, etc. The one who was presented with the head said: "The elephant is like a pot!" The one who was presented the trunk answered, "The elephant is like a hose". The one who touched only the ears thought that the elephant was a fan, the others said that it was a pillar, a wall, a rope, a brush, etc. Then they quarreled among themselves, each thinking that he was the only one right and the others were wrong. The obvious truth is that the elephant is a unity of many parts, a unity that they could not grasp in their ignorance. According to the pattern suggested by this tale, it is often said that world religions form a unity, and only this unity provides the right perspective on ultimate truth. http://www.comparativereligion.com/index.html (1 of 5) [10/27/2000 9:47:00 AM]
Many Paths to One Goal? - A Comparative Analysis of The Major World Religions
A similar syncretistic trend is encouraged by the suggestion to consider the various world religions as alternative paths to the same transcendental finality or, using a known illustration, many paths to the same mountain peak. Although this vision is arousing a lot of enthusiasm in many people today, it is important to know that it is not the only one, as Christianity and Islam each claim to be the only right path to God. Therefore the other option is that world religions are not pieces of the same puzzle (parts of the same spiritual "elephant") or alternative paths to the same goal. Judging theoretically, both possibilities exist. Therefore, a proper evaluation of such opposite views must be done before we decide on a course of action. If the first is true (all religions lead us to the same finality), and we choose the second (only one of them is right), we have not lost anything. Despite our ignorance, we will arrive at the same happy end as the other travelers who have chosen other spiritual paths. A less happy situation would be given by the second possibility, that a single spiritual path is valid and we have chosen the wrong one. In this case religious syncretism is only a way of misleading the travelers to spiritual disaster, so they at least should be warned. A third possibility, that all spiritual paths are wrong, is denied by the nature of our spiritual quest itself, which demands a real fulfillment. Otherwise, our hunger for ultimate truth could not be justified and all religions would be nothing but human fantasy. The following articles are not meant merely to generate a conflict of rational proofs for justifying one or another alternative. No matter how complex and logical the rational proofs on behalf of one or the other cause might be, it is possible to find counterpoints of the same nature, so that at a rational level, the dispute could fill a lot of books with no benefit to anyone. Nobody can be persuaded or converted to one or another religious perspective only through rational proofs. This may be possible in science, but not in religion. However, rational proofs have to be considered because we are rational beings. Reason should not be rejected and experience proclaimed the only way of knowing truth. No divorce between reason and experience should be accepted, because they are http://www.comparativereligion.com/index.html (2 of 5) [10/27/2000 9:47:00 AM]
Many Paths to One Goal? - A Comparative Analysis of The Major World Religions
complementary and work together, so that neither can exclude the other. As a result, we do not have to reject a priori the proofs of reason in our spiritual quest in order to abandon ourselves to the arms of mystical experiences, whatever their nature might be. Rather than generating sterile debates, the information presented here should help the reader clarify his/her own stand toward comparative religion and develop a critical ability to analyze today's spiritual market. Suggestions, comments and critiques are strongly encouraged, with the hope that they will improve the content of this site. Please make them as specific and clear as possible. The comparative analysis presented here is focused on Christianity and the major Eastern religions, especially Hinduism and Buddhism, because they play a major role in defining today's world spirituality. This is an obvious phenomenon on the Internet too, where a lot of spiritual movements indebted to classic Eastern doctrines and practices can be found. Some may believe that a comparative analysis of the major world religions like this may fuel religious hatred and intolerance, but this is wrong. Religious tolerance and freedom cannot be built on ignorance but rather on the understanding of commonalities and differences. Jesus Christ is the perfect example of teaching love for one's neighbor despite religious differences (see The Parable of the Good Samaritan). Unfortunately, some of His followers did the opposite. Loving the person is possible even if one rejects his or her religious convictions. The Christian approach will be done on an ecumenical basis, grounded on The Nicene Creed as statement of faith, which is common to all three branches of Christianity - Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Protestantism. The Holy Bible (NIV ecumenical translation) is acknowledged as the first doctrinal authority, and second the doctrinal commentaries of the Church Fathers of the first centuries AD, as far as they are accepted by each of the three branches of Christianity. The analysis will survey a comparison of the following defining aspects of all world religions: 1. God or the Ultimate Reality, and creation 2. Man’s condition http://www.comparativereligion.com/index.html (3 of 5) [10/27/2000 9:47:00 AM]
Many Paths to One Goal? - A Comparative Analysis of The Major World Religions
3. Man's salvation and eternal destiny 4. The nature of evil 5. Conclusion Special files are available concerning critical considerations regarding Eastern religions as spiritual paths toward Ultimate Reality: 1. Reincarnation. Its meaning and consequences. Reincarnation and Christianity. 2. Four criteria to evaluate any religious perspective 3. Critical considerations concerning pantheist religions and philosophies (Vedanta, Tantrism, Hatha Yoga, Tibetan Buddhism, Taoism, etc.) 4. Critical considerations regarding the dualistic Samkhya-Yoga metaphysics 5. Critical considerations regarding the Yoga technique as an instrument to attain liberation 6. Critical considerations regarding the philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita 7. Critical considerations regarding Buddhism 8. The divine incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity; Jesus Christ and other Saviors and religious founders 9. Alleged Eastern equivalent sayings of Jesus Christ 10. The Parable of the Prodigal Son in Buddhism and Christianity 11. Revelation and knowledge in Christianity 12. How can those who have never heard about Christ be saved?
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Many Paths to One Goal? - A Comparative Analysis of The Major World Religions
The quotes used for describing each religious perspective belong to scriptures considered to be first hand authority by its followers. In presenting some special features of Christianity some useful links will be mentioned. There are also many links available for a more thoroughly comparative study of Christianity and Islam. Since the domain of comparative religion is so vast, the present analysis had to be limited to a brief account, sacrificing many details and secondary aspects, but with the hope that global relevance will not be affected. The reader is invited to study this topic further, according to his interest in it, knowing that this is neither the first nor the last attempt to discuss the complementary and divergent thought among world religions. The discussions, arguments and debates in comparative religion did not start recently and will certainly not stop until the end of the world, the time when the Truth will reveal itself in fullness. © Ernest Valea, 1999 Last modified June 7, 2000
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The Nicene Creed (A.D. 325)
THE NICENE CREED We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of all things visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only - begotten of his Father, of the substance of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father. By whom all things were made, both which be in heaven and in earth. Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven and was incarnate and was made man. He suffered and the third day he rose again, and ascended into heaven. And he shall come again to judge both the quick and the dead. And [we believe] in the Holy Ghost. And whosoever shall say that there was a time when the Son of God was not, or that before he was begotten he was not, or that he was made of things that were not, or that he is of a different substance or essence from the Father or that he is a creature, or subject to change or conversion - all that so say, the Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes them.
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The Ultimate Reality in world religions
THE ULTIMATE REALITY IN WORLD RELIGIONS Each world religion admits an Ultimate Reality that is eternal and unchanging. But is it the same? If the world religions are only parts of a global and unique spirituality, it should be the same. There are three fundamental ways in which Ultimate Reality is defined: personal being (a personal and loving God), impersonal being (as origin and target of all personal beings) or an eternal truth or principle that governs the universe. Are these three possibilities mere manifestations of the same Ultimate Reality?
The Ultimate Reality in Hinduism Hinduism is not a unitary religion, but a multitude of religious and philosophical trends. Three main patterns can be identified among them. First, there is henotheism, the religion of the ancient Vedas and later Vaishnavism and Shaivism, which states that many gods exist, but one of them is more important than the others. Second, there is pantheism, the perspective brought by the Upanishads and later Vedanta, which considers Ultimate Reality to be an impersonal transcendent being. Third, there are the Samkhya and the Yoga darshana of Patanjali that admit two ultimate realities. Let's briefly describe them following an approximate chronological order. The Vedic gods The oldest sacred scriptures of Hinduism are the four Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Veda). They are four collections of hymns (Samhita) describing deities, their works and the praises that must be addressed to them in religious rituals. Each of the four collections of Vedic hymns is associated with three other kinds of Vedic literature - the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. Together they represent the most sacred religious literature (Shruti) of Hinduism. (NB: Remember that throughout the content of this website by “Vedas” we mean only the four collections of hymns, and not the whole corpus of Vedic literature.) The hymns of the oldest Veda, the Rig Veda, are almost all praises addressed to gods. The ancient Aryans worshipped many gods, associated with the elements of nature, among which we can discern at least two important generations. The oldest supreme god, according to the Vedas, seems to be Varuna, http://www.comparativereligion.com/god.html (1 of 15) [10/27/2000 9:47:16 AM]
The Ultimate Reality in world religions
the sustainer of creation and guardian of universal order. A hymn in the Atharva Veda proclaims: This earth belongs to Varuna, the King, and the heavens, whose ends are far apart. Both the oceans are the loins of Varuna, and He is merged within the small water drop. If one will go away beyond the heavens, still he cannot escape King Varuna; His envoys move about here from the heavens, and, thousand-eyed, they look upon the earth. (Atharva Veda 4,16,3-4) A second generation of Vedic gods has Indra as the most important representative. He takes over all the functions of Varuna after saving mankind from demon Vritra's influence, the embodiment of the rough aspects of nature. Vritra had locked the waters in the sky, which caused a catastrophic drought on earth. At humans' demand, Indra consumed a large quantity of ritual drink (soma), took the lightning (vajra) shaped by god Tvashtri and, with the help of other gods, killed the demon and brought back the rain on earth (Rig Veda 10,113). That is why he is praised in the hymns: Adorable Indra, our savior, Vritra-slayer and furtherer of our highest aims, May he be our protector from the end, from the middle, from behind, and from in front. Lead us to a free world, wise one, where lie divine luster, sunlight, and security. Valiant are the arms of thee, the powerful; we will take to their vast shelter. (Atharva Veda 19,15,1-2) It is important to notice that although Indra takes over the role of fertility god from Varuna, he fulfills it with much more effort than his predecessor does. Indra depends on the ritual drink soma, and consequently on the sacrifices done by people (which represents a weakness), and has to fight in order to maintain the universal order. His sovereignty over the world is not so striking as it was with Varuna. On the other hand, people appreciate him more than Varuna. They didn't understand Varuna's ways, but can influence Indra through the sacrifices and therefore get the earthly blessings they seek. Once proclaimed sovereign Lord, Indra takes over the title of maker of the universe, which he doesn't create, but rearranges after his conquest. Two other gods of this generation, with less important roles in the Vedas, but which will play major roles in later theistic Hinduism, are Rudra (forerunner of Shiva) and Vishnu. Rudra has a dual aspect; on the one hand he is monstrous, murderous and savage; on the other hand he is benevolent, divine healer and protector of cowherds. Vishnu, too, has a minor role in the Vedas, being just one of Indra's helpers in his combat against Vritra and in building the universe. At the same time, he is an intermediary between gods and people, a role that will certainly develop in his later special position. Along with praising the gods, there are passages in the Vedas that suggest another kind of Ultimate Reality of the universe, beyond the gods we mentioned. One of the most important Hindu cosmogonies is that of the golden egg (Hiranyagarbha), an entity that was the source of all existing beings and worlds: http://www.comparativereligion.com/god.html (2 of 15) [10/27/2000 9:47:16 AM]
The Ultimate Reality in world religions
At first was neither Being nor Nonbeing. There was not air nor yet sky beyond. What was its wrapping? Where? In whose protection? Was Water there, unfathomable and deep? There was no death then, nor yet deathlessness; Of night or day there was not any sign. The One breathed without breath, by its own impulse. Other than that was nothing else at all. Darkness was there, all wrapped around by darkness, And all was Water indiscriminate. Then That which was hidden by the void, that One, emerging, Stirring, through the power of ardor (tapas), came to be. (Rig Veda 10,129) There are two important aspects to be noticed here: 1) water produced the One; and 2) the whole process was realized by the power of ardor (tapas). This idea is very important because it opens the way towards the notion of One (the primordial matrix that encapsulates all existence) and also toward asceticism, the cosmic creative energy through which the unmanifested becomes manifested. Another important element here is the preexistence of an impersonal reality (the One) against personal beings. Gods and men are said to have their origin in this primordial impersonal entity. Considering an impersonal Ultimate Reality above the gods is a pattern that will dominate most Hindu religious elaboration. The cosmogony of the golden egg is continued in the Brahmana texts in a similar fashion as in the Rig Veda, adding the appearance of a Creator (Prajapati) from the golden egg (Shatapatha Br. 11,1,6). The same way as the golden egg appears as a result of ardor, this Prajapati created the world using the power released by his ardor. His words are fulfilled as a result of ardor and the material out of which he builds the universe is his own body. A similar view is presented in the Purushasukta hymn (Rig Veda 10,90), that can be found in a similar version in the Atharva Veda (19,6) and in the Taittiriya Aranyaka (3,12). According to this hymn, the product of the golden egg is the giant Purusha. By his consuming himself in the fire of creation all of the worlds came into existence, including our physical world, the four-caste system, the animals and the duality of the sexes. There is no doubt that Purusha and Prajapati are equivalent, both being produced out of that impersonal One of the Rig Veda 10,129. This passing from a personal Ultimate Reality (represented by the gods) to an impersonal One is an important feature of early Hinduism that will have major implications for later developments. The Ultimate Reality according to the Upanishads and Vedanta philosophy Already in the Brahmana writings (Shatapatha Brahmana 6,1,1) it is stated that the whole universe has its origin in non-existence (asat), meaning that existence must be the product of manifestation of some unmanifested potentialities. This topic is made clear in the Upanishads, which claim that the origin of any manifestation is Brahman, the One of the Vedic hymns: As the spider moves along the thread, as small sparks come forth from the fire, even so from this Self [Brahman] come forth all breaths, all worlds, all divinities, all beings http://www.comparativereligion.com/god.html (3 of 15) [10/27/2000 9:47:16 AM]
The Ultimate Reality in world religions
(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 2,1,20). According to the Upanishads, the Ultimate Reality is Brahman. It (neuter gender) is at the origin of any physical, moral or spiritual activity (see also Brihadaranyaka Up. 4, 1-2; Chandogya Up. 3,18,1-6; Taittiriya Up. 2,6; 3,1). Paradoxically, Brahman has two aspects: immanent, or manifested, and transcendent, or unmanifested. For a better understanding of this concept, we can compare it to the "Big Bang" theory on the origin of the universe. The point of infinite mass out of which all celestial bodies would have originated, according to the astronomic theory, has its ideological correspondence with the unmanifested Brahman of Hindu cosmogony. However, in the manifestation of Brahman, the product is not only matter, but also living beings, gods, humans and animals. The cause of the manifestation process is Brahman's desire to be multiplied: “Let me become many, let me be born” (Taittiriya Up. 2,6,1). (However, in a pantheistic context, this is a strange and contradictory idea, because the impersonal being cannot have desires. Probably a more accurate term would have been that of necessity of becoming manifested.) After the manifestation is completed, all its products tend to return to the initial state of unmanifestation, evolving from one level of manifestation to another. Then another manifestation will happen: As from a blazing fire, sparks of like form issue forth by thousands, even so, O beloved, many kinds of beings issue forth from the immutable and they return thither too (Mundaka Up. 2,1,1). Similar to the day and night cycle, the transformation of Brahman between the manifested state and the unmanifested one is everlasting (Kaushitaki Up. 3,3). The philosophical system (darshana) that follows the pantheistic teachings of the Upanishads is called Vedanta. The most important organizers are Badarayana (4th century AD) and Shankara (9th century AD), the one who conferred to it a pure monistic character as Advaita Vedanta - "the Vedanta of pure monism". Shankara's vision of the relation of the Absolute with the phenomenal world is reflected in an old Hindu parable, that of the rope mistakenly perceived in the dark as a snake. As the coiled rope in the dark is thought to be a snake, the same way the empirical world is mistakenly considered to have a distinct existence, independent to the Absolute, through the illusion (maya) produced by ignorance (avidya). As only the rope exists, not the snake, only Brahman has a real existence (sat) and is the true reality. The phenomenal world is real only if perceived as Brahman, as the "reality" of the snake's existence lays in the substratum that produced the confusion, namely the rope. The plurality of the phenomenal world is an illusion (maya), a veil that has to be put aside in order to perceive Brahman. The universe is not unreal, but has the same value as the snake in the parable - it produces confusion and causes man to pursue a wrong spiritual direction. All that goes beyond this vision of the world is illusion, produced by ignorance. Shankara tried to settle the relation of the Absolute Brahman (Nirguna Brahman - the One without any definable characteristics) with the origin of the world by proclaiming two distinct points of view: the absolute (paramarthika) and the relative (vyavaharika). In an absolute sense, Brahman is above any duality and external relation; nothing real exists outside him. But from our empirical and relative point of view, Brahman is the cause of the universe we know. In fact there is no real causality; the world is only an illusory sight of Brahman, as with the rope seen as a snake. Brahman's activity in the world and among human beings is nothing but lila, divine play. In conclusion, the Vedanta of Shankara is somehow different from Upanishadic philosophy; the universe is only a phenomenal appearance (vivarta-vada) of http://www.comparativereligion.com/god.html (4 of 15) [10/27/2000 9:47:16 AM]
The Ultimate Reality in world religions
Brahman and not his transformation (parinama-vada). From a substantial manifestation, the universe becomes only a dream (or self-forgetting) of Brahman. The gods of theistic Hinduism According to the pantheistic view of the Upanishads and Vedanta, the gods are merely inferior manifestations of the supreme impersonal Brahman. However, they continued to play an important role for the average Hindu. The gods that are worshipped today are not the same as in Vedic times. The most important ones became Vishnu and his avatars (especially Rama and Krishna), Shiva and the goddess Kali. Here is what is said in Vaishnavism about the relation between Brahman and Vishnu: Just as light is diffused from a fire which is confined to one spot, so is this whole universe the diffused energy of the supreme Brahman. And as light shows a difference, greater or less, according to its nearness or distance from the fire, so is there a variation in the energy of the impersonal Brahman. Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva are his chief energies. The deities are inferior to them; the yakshas, etc. to the deities; men, cattle, wild animals, birds, and reptiles to the yakshas, etc.; and trees and plants are the lowest of all these energies.... Vishnu is the highest and most immediate of all the energies of Brahman, the embodied Brahman, formed of the whole Brahman. On him this entire universe is woven and interwoven: from him is the world, and the world is in him; and he is the whole universe. Vishnu, the Lord, consisting of what is perishable as well as what is imperishable, sustains everything, both Spirit and Matter, in the form of his ornaments and weapons. (Vishnu Purana 1) Some pantheist thinkers consider that devotion is nothing but an easier path to the same impersonal union with the impersonal Ultimate Reality. According to them, devotion can serve to attain the extinction of personhood, the main source of illusion (maya). As the adored god is nothing but a form of Brahman, the mystical union with him would be, in this case, nothing more than the same impersonal fusion atman-Brahman. However, the theistic Hindu thinkers strongly disagree with this. They see the personal creator God (Vishnu in Vaishnavism or Shiva in Saivism) as having no preceding origin. Consequently, the One of the Rig Veda, Purusha of the Purushasukta, and Brahman of the Upanishads are considered nothing but the supreme personal God (Vishnu or Shiva). He is both the creator and the substance of the world (as a result of creating the world out of himself), the One that both creates and disintegrates the world at will, and the target of all religious rituals and devotion. The best known piece of literature representative of Hindu theism is the Bhagavad Gita, where the worshipped god is Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. Although in classic Hinduism Krishna is a manifestation of Vishnu, and Vishnu himself is one of the first manifestations of Brahman (along with Brahma and Shiva), in the Bhagavad Gita Krishna is granted a fundamental theological importance. He claims to be eternal (4,6), “the supreme Lord of all planets and demigods” (5,29) and the source of existence: “I am the source of all spiritual and material worlds. Everything emanates from me” (10,8). He is not only the creator but also the substance of the universe (9,16-19; 8,4; 10,20-42). The cycle of permanent transformation between the manifested state and the unmanifested one is characteristic for Krishna too, as it was with Brahman:
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The Ultimate Reality in world religions
At the end of an era (kalpa) all creatures disintegrate into my nature and at the beginning of another era I manifest them again. Such it is my nature (prakriti) to follow again and again the pattern of the Infinite manifestations and disintegrations. (Bhagavad Gita 9,7-8) Krishna has to "follow the pattern of the Infinite manifestations and disintegrations", which implies that the process is a necessity that surpasses him. He is just a detached (but also helpless) spectator to it. Therefore it is hard to accept his dominion over creation along with the periodic manifestation of nature (prakriti). Rather, we should conclude that the creation of the world is not an option for him, but a necessity at the end of each cosmic cycle, as was the case with the manifestations of Brahman of the Upanishads. Disagreeing with this, theistic commentators see this "necessity" rather as a divine play in which Krishna creates and disintegrates his creation at will. (For more information on this debate on the character of Krishna see our special file on the philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita.) The excess of Krishna's superlatives and his identification with the whole existence grants him a personal portrait that is difficult to grasp. A better Hindu theism will be founded later in time by the great theistic Hindu thinkers Ramanuja (1017 - 1137 AD) and Madhva (1238 - 1317 AD). They refused the idea that the Ultimate Reality is the impersonal Brahman, who has no attributes, no initiative and no influence on man. As it is impossible to take Brahman as an object of worship, both thinkers accepted the god Vishnu as Ultimate Reality. He is not limited by karma, time, space or any other factor, and has an infinite number of attributes (unlike Nirguna Brahman), the most important being love, absolute knowledge, and compassion. According to Madhva, Vishnu is said to be totally different from the substance of the world. Neither nature nor the souls of the universe fuse with him to form an impersonal primordial state. He created the world out of a primordial substance (prakriti) and helps it to attain perfection. In fact, creation is periodic and dependent on the karma acquired by souls in previous existences. At the moment of creation, karma works out the fruits of the soul under divine providence. However, that means that the act of creation is still not totally independent, as an act of God’s sovereign will. He is not free to create the world at will, but has to create it in order that souls may work out their karma. The Ultimate Reality in the Samkhya and Yoga darshanas Samkhya and Yoga are two of the six Hindu orthodox schools (darshana) developed in the post-Upanishadic period. As most of their metaphysical basis is common, in the absence of any supplementary explanation, what is mentioned here is valid for both schools. The origin of the Samkhya system is attributed to Kapila (7th century BC), and the real organizer is considered to be Ishvara Krishna (5th century AD). The Yoga system was structured by Patanjali (sometime between 2nd century BC and 3rd century AD), who only systematized the ancient traditions preserved until his time. The writing in which Patanjali formulated the essence of the Yoga system, which represents today the reference writing on this topic, is the Yoga Sutra. Considering how reality is defined, Samkhya and Yoga are dualistic philosophies, stressing two fundamental notions: purusha (the equivalent of atman) and prakriti (the primordial substance). More will be said about purusha in the next file, where we focus on man's destiny in the two darshanas. Prakriti, the primordial substance, is an impersonal matrix capable of manifestation through transformation. In some way it resembles Brahman through its periodic manifestations. Unlike Brahman, it does not contain the spiritual principle purusha. http://www.comparativereligion.com/god.html (6 of 15) [10/27/2000 9:47:16 AM]
The Ultimate Reality in world religions
As a result of the duality postulated by this system, the material world is the product of the manifestation of prakriti and has real existence (not illusory, as in Vedanta). Its manifestation is a result of the existence of three inner tendencies, called gunas: sattva, rajas and tamas. They are the material which evolves into the categories of existence when one or the other gains a dominating force. Sattva is the tendency that brings light, purity and knowledge; rajas is responsible for activity, energy and dynamism; and tamas opposes action, producing darkness, heaviness and ignorance. The world and individual beings came into existence as a result of the disturbance of the initial state of equilibrium between the three gunas. Any known form in which we see the world is generated by the participation of a certain proportion of the three gunas. The categories of prakriti's manifestation are, in hierarchical order, as follows: 1) mahat, the first product of manifestation, considered to be a mass of pure energy appeared as a result of the guna sattva domination. Its psychic aspect is the intellect, buddhi. 2) from mahat evolves ahamkara, the principle of individuation (the sense for the "I"). 3) after producing ahamkara, the evolutionary process bifurcates. Under the influence of the guna sattva, the psychical evolutes are produced: mind (manas), the five cognitive sense organs (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell) and the five conative sense organs (speech, movement, prehension, excretion and reproduction). Under the influence of the guna tamas the physical evolutes are produced: the five subtle essences (the essences of color, sound, touch, taste and smell) and the five gross elements, which emerge from the essences (the five fundamental elements in Hindu cosmology - earth, water, air, fire and ether). The guna rajas provides the force required for this evolution. The majority of the Yoga darshana metaphysics, at it was systematized by Patanjali, comes from Samkhya. It only adds the existence of a divinity, Ishvara. However, this Ishvara is not a personal god, but rather a macro-purusha that was never involved with psycho-mental activity and the law of karma (Yoga Sutra 1,24). We will return to this subject later, in discussing man's possible relation with Ishvara as it is stated in the Yoga darshana. The Ultimate Reality in Tantrism and Hatha Yoga As a distinct spiritual trend, Tantrism appeared in the 4th century AD. It is possible that it doesn’t have Vedic origin, because its theology is grounded on two deities that did not belong to the Vedic pantheon: Shiva and the Mother Goddess (Shakti), the goddess of land, fertility and life. The two deities Shiva and Shakti became the fundamental terms in which Tantrism developed a pantheistic view of life, Shiva as the transcendental aspect, the pure existence, and Shakti as the immanent and dynamic aspect, through which the phenomenal manifestation occurs. Hatha Yoga is also a pantheistic school, which shares the same metaphysic with Tantrism. Its forerunner is considered to be Goraknath (13th century AD). He and his followers used three sources to ground the new doctrine: Tantrism, devotional Saivism and ascetic practices of the so-called siddhas (the perfect ones). Hatha Yoga reached its full development through Svatmarama (15th century AD), the author of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika treatise. Other important writings are the Gheranda-Samhita and the Shiva-Samhita. They all belong equally to Tantrism.
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The Ultimate Reality in world religions
For both Tantrism and Hatha Yoga, the Ultimate Reality of the universe is the god Shiva. Together with his divine consort Shakti, they form a state of primordial unity and unmanifestation that corresponds in the Advaita Vedanta to Brahman Nirguna, the unmanifested Brahman. The world and the human beings came into existence through the dissociation of the primordial unity of Shiva and Shakti. In the Shiva-Samhita 1,92, it is stated: Out of the combining of the spirit, that is Shiva, with matter, that is Shakti, and by the interaction of one on the another, all creatures were born. The same manifestation of the Absolute in creation, as stated by the Upanishads, is presented in the Shiva-Samhita 1,52;69-77. The philosophy and ritual of Tantrism have penetrated most forms of today's Hinduism. It can be found in Buddhism too (where it generated the Vajrayana school), and also in Chinese Taoism, seeming to be a true panasiatiac movement.
The Ultimate Reality in Buddhism Buddhism is another important Eastern religion that extended beyond the boundaries of India, shortly after it was proclaimed by its founder, Siddharta Gotama - the Buddha (6th century BC). Two main forms of Buddhism are known today: the conservative branch, represented by the Theravada school, spread mainly in Sri Lanka and southeast Asia, and the liberal branch - Mahayana, spread in China, Tibet, Korea and Japan. The Theravada school, which claims to have guarded the unaltered message of its founder, teaches that there is neither a personal god, nor a spiritual or material substance that exists by itself as Ultimate Reality. The world as we know it does not have its origin in a primordial being such as Brahman. It exists only as a mental construction shaped by the senses. What we see is only a product of transitory factors of existence, which depend functionally upon each other. The Buddha said: The world exists because of causal actions, all things are produced by causal actions and all beings are governed and bound by causal actions. They are fixed like the rolling wheel of a cart, fixed by the pin of its axle shaft (Sutta-Nipata 654). That gods exist is not rejected, but they are only temporary beings that attained heaven using the same virtues as any human disciple. Gods are not worshipped, do not represent the basis for morality, and are not the givers of happiness. The Ultimate Reality is nothing but a transcendent truth, which governs the universe and human life. The Buddha expressed it in the following words: There is grief but none suffering, There is no doer though there is action. There is quietude but none tranquil. There is the path but none walks upon the path. (Majjhima Nikaya 1; Visuddhi Magga 16) We will analyze these concepts in the document aimed at analyzing man's destiny in Theravada Buddhism. The Buddha was concerned only with finding a way out of suffering. Therefore he refused to speak about things considered to be irrelevant or even hindrances in reaching nirvana, and this included a definition of Ultimate Reality.
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The Ultimate Reality in world religions
The other branch of Buddhism was grounded later, probably in the 1st century AD, and organized by Nagarjuna in the 2nd century AD. Although the texts of Mahayana Buddhism claim to be a recollection of early speeches of the Buddha, they sometimes contradict conservative doctrines of the Theravada school. It is said that the latter texts were revealed many years after the master's death, because at that time there were too few people able to understand them. Mahayana takes a different stand on the person of Siddharta Gotama. According to the traditional view he was a physical being, the founder of the "four noble truths" and the first man that reached nirvana. In Mahayana Buddhism he is considered to be only one of the many humans who attained the state of a boddhisattva, the celestial being that helps other humans to find liberation. Reality, according to Mahayana Buddhism, has three levels of perception, known also as the three bodies (trikaya) of Buddha: nirmanakaya, the physical body of the founder, that is subject to change; sambhogakaya, the body of the boddhisattvas; and dharmakaya, the ultimate nature of all things. The dharmakaya state is also called suchness or emptiness (devoid of attributes). Although any resemblance to the Hindu Vedanta is denied, there are at least two important aspects that suggest the contrary. First, the pure state dharmakaya, the absolute body of the Buddha and, at the same time, the fundamental nature of the universe is described in the same way as Brahman: How should enlightened beings see the body of Buddha? (dharmakaya) They should see the body of Buddha in infinite places. Why? They should not see Buddha in just one thing, one phenomenon, one body, one land, one being - they should see Buddha everywhere. Just as space is omnipresent, in all places, material or immaterial, yet without either arriving or not arriving there, because space is incorporeal, in the same way Buddha is omnipresent, in all places, in all beings, in all things, in all lands, yet neither arriving nor not arriving there, because Buddha's body is incorporeal, manifesting a body for the sake of sentient beings. (Garland Sutra 37) This statute of the Buddha allows him to become manifested whenever people become ignorant, have no more interest in getting spiritual wisdom, and are too concerned with carnal lusts. The same message appears in the discourse of Krishna of theistic Hinduism (Bhagavad Gita IV,7-8). The resemblance is even greater by the fact that the boddhisattva beings (as the Hindu avatars) are mediators between humans and Ultimate Reality. This is the second resemblance, the substitution of the Hindu gods with the Buddhist boddhisattvas, which might be interpreted as a penetration of the Hindu bhakti tradition in Buddhism. In conclusion, Mahayana Buddhism is a pantheistic religion, with an impersonal Ultimate Reality (the dharmakaya) and personal beings (the boddhisattvas) acting as intermediaries between humans and it.
Ultimate Reality in other Eastern Religions Taoism Like the Hindu Vedanta or Buddhist Mahayana, Taoism states an impersonal Ultimate Reality that is both the creator principle and the eternal truth of universe. It is the Tao, the immutable and unchanging principle that is the basis of multiplicity and the impulse that generates all forms of life. The founder of Taoism, Lao Tse (6th century BC), stated in his important writing, Tao-te Ching:
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The Ultimate Reality in world religions
There was something undifferentiated and yet complete, Which existed before heaven and earth. Soundless and formless, it depends on nothing and does not change. It operates everywhere and is free from danger. It may be considered the mother of the universe. I do not know its name; I call it Tao. (Tao-te Ching 25) In the same way as the Hindu Brahman or Buddhist Dharmakaya, Tao is the source in which originate and return all the manifestations of the world: All the flourishing things Will return to their source. This return is peaceful; It is the flow of nature, An eternal decay and renewal. (Tao-te Ching 16) Tao holds two complementary and opposite modalities that are present in all creation: Yin and Yang (Yin - the female principle of darkness, potentiality, regression; and Yang - the male principle of light, activity and progress). Their dynamic and the proportions in which they become mixed at a certain moment determine any given aspect of nature or living beings: day and night, seasons, life and death. Any personal existence, gods or humans, receive their wisdom from Tao, being merely inferior and temporary forms of its manifestation: [Tao] is its own source, its own root. Before heaven and earth existed it was there, firm from ancient times. It gave spirituality to the spirits and gods; it gave birth to heaven and to earth. (Chuang Tzu 6) The Taoist divinities are probably reminiscences of an ancient Chinese pantheon, many of them being humans at their origin and then proclaimed gods as time passed. This is probably the result of a late syncretism that tried to combine devotion to the ancient Chinese gods with classic Taoism, as a way of making it more acceptable to the lay people. Later religious developments such as deities, temples, priests, rites and symbolic images are foreign to the spirit of Taoism. Deities like the Jade Emperor (Yu-huang) and The First Principal (Yuan-shis Tien-Tsun) are considered in some traditions to be gods, while other deities like the three Pure Ones (San-ch’ing) are more like Buddhist bodhisattvas, acting as manifestations of Lao Tse. Confucianism Rather than a religion, Confucius (6th century BC) founded an ethical system in order to harmonize social relations in the Chinese state. For this reason it is hard to say that Confucianism, at least in its original form, is a true religion. Although Confucius respected the religious traditions of his time, he gave them a mere ethical interpretation. The supreme principle in the universe according to him is the moral law, a universal principle, omnipresent, hidden and eternal: There is no place in the highest heavens above or in the deepest waters below where the moral law is not to be found.
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The Ultimate Reality in world religions
(Doctrine of the Mean 12) Following the moral principles means to conform oneself to the will of heaven, but more metaphysical speculations about heaven and afterlife are useless (Analects 7,20).
ULTIMATE REALITY AS A PERSONAL GOD IN THE THREE MONOTHEISTIC RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD - CHRISTIANITY, JUDAISM AND ISLAM The three great monotheistic religions of the world have a personal God as Ultimate Reality. First we will present the difference brought by Christianity among the world religions in defining what God is, and then show the distinctive aspects of Judaism and Islam. The personal and triune God of Christianity Christianity presents an Ultimate Reality totally different to all we have found in the other religions. The intuition of the wise men of the East almost never diverged from pantheism as the determinant view of existence. Brahman of the Upanishads or of Shankara's Vedanta, Shiva of Tantrism, the Dharmakaya of Mahayana Buddhism or the Chinese Tao, all represent an impersonal Ultimate Reality. Most forms of theistic Hinduism are no exception, as their gods are merely inferior manifestations of the impersonal Absolute. Christianity holds a totally different position. The Ultimate Reality of the universe is the personal and triune God. He exists as God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit, without beginning and without having his origin in a primordial impersonal essence. As an early church creed states: In this Trinity there is nothing before or after, nothing greater or less, but the whole three Persons are co-eternal together and coequal. There are some important things to clear up about the origin and meaning of the term "person" (Latin persona, Greek prosopon). Initially used in the Greek ancient theater for the actors’ mask, the term designated in Hellenistic philosophy "the masked face of the impersonal being". The term used for the impersonal essence of reality was ousia, and its determined, singular forms were called hypostasis. If Christian theology had been only a form of Hellenistic philosophy, it should have said that the hypostases - Father, Son and Holy Spirit - are mere functional aspects of the divine nature ousia. The novelty brought by Christian theology is the fact that each person of the Holy Trinity has the fullness of divine nature, and the ontological character of the Ultimate Reality is defined only by the reality and relation that exists between the three hypostases, in the Holy Trinity "of one substance". A major contribution in defining this aspect was made by the Cappadocian fathers of the Church (Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzen). The Holy Trinity should be understood neither as a sum of three Gods (tri-theism), nor as a mono-personal God that assumes successively three distinct forms (the modalistic heresy). God’s being does not exist outside the three persons, but only as Father, Son and Holy Spirit, and they are the only way for God's existence. So there cannot exist an Ultimate Reality "beyond" or "above" the Holy Trinity, http://www.comparativereligion.com/god.html (11 of 15) [10/27/2000 9:47:16 AM]
The Ultimate Reality in world religions
as in pantheism (Brahman as the ultimate nature of the gods). Therefore none of the three hypostases, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, can be considered a kind of Hindu Ishvara, a first manifestation of the impersonal Brahman. Christian theology overthrew the values of Hellenistic metaphysics in order to adapt its terms to the new revealed reality. In defining divinity, the accent must be transferred from an impersonal Ultimate Reality to the personal character of the Holy Trinity and the relation between the three hypostases. Here is the origin of the term "divine person" (from the Latin persona), and (derived from it) the term "human person". The triune God of Christianity exists by Himself. He proclaimed to Moses: "I am who I am" (Exodus 3,14). He is sufficient in Himself and by Himself, not depending on any exterior element. His existence is expressed through love, omnipotence and omniscience, among which there is perfect unity and harmony. None is manifesting itself by infringing on the other because the Holy Trinity is perfect in love, will and deed. Associated with these characteristics are justice and immutability. God’s immutability is not a reminder of Brahman Nirguna's immobility, but an absolute stability in truth and good. Likewise, when the Apostle John proclaims that "God is love" (1 John 4,8) this should not be interpreted as an expression of the impersonal primordial energy, but as form of expressing the supreme unity of the tri-personal communion. It doesn't just mean that God has love, as a quality, but that He is love, that this is His way of being in the Trinity, each person existing not just for himself, but for the others, in a perfect communion of love. (The following links should be helpful for understanding the concept of Holy Trinity: Gregory of Nyssa, On the Holy Trinity, and of the Godhead of the Holy Spirit; On "Not Three Gods"; Early Christians on the Trinity) The God that presents Himself in the Bible cannot be equated with any god of the Hindu pantheon. They are only aspects of an impersonal Absolute, manifestations that will finally be absorbed by it. The triune God of Christianity is different from Krishna, who is a slave to the cyclic manifestation and annihilation of the universe (Bhagavad Gita 9,7-9). According to Christianity, God does not create the same world many times, but just once, and then not out of a necessity that surpasses him. Neither can He be equated with the "Hindu trinity" Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (the preserver) and Shiva (the destroyer). The three Hindu gods are reminiscences of the old Vedic polytheism, from where they have been later assimilated as primary products of Brahman's manifestations. The "Hindu trinity" cannot be an equivalent of the Christian Holy Trinity, but rather a kind of pagan tri-theism. The God of the Bible has no equivalent in the other world religions. There is no deeper Ultimate Reality above him, a kind of Brahman, as Meister Eckhart suggested. He is not an Ishvara manifested out of Brahman (or a Deus manifested out of Deitas, according to Eckhart), a god that comes and goes, located far beyond the impersonal absolute. The triune God of Christianity does not admit the existence of a "deeper reality" in which He originated, because He says: I am the first and I am the last; apart from me there is no God (Isaiah 44,6). As a consequence, it is absurd to define a superior and esoteric way (apara-vidya), that aims at the impersonal Absolute, and an inferior exoteric way (para-vidya) for those who are so limited that they are satisfied with a personal manifestation of the absolute. Christianity cannot be assimilated as a form of bhakti-yoga, a way accessible for the inferior and weak people to attain the impersonal Ultimate Reality of the world. We will return to this aspect in a further file.
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The Ultimate Reality in world religions
The nature of creation in Christianity Directly linked to what we accept as Ultimate Reality is the significance we grant to the physical world. Being consequent to the idea of the fundamental unity of the world in Brahman, pantheism has to consider the physical world and man as manifestations of Brahman, manifestations of the same primordial essence to which they are destined to return. For this reason, it can be said that the impersonal Absolute is incomplete without his "creation", i.e. without the manifestation of his potentiality. The manifestation of Brahman is a necessity derived from its very nature. A similar situation is to be found in the Samkhya-Yoga, where prakriti (the primordial substance) transforms itself into the forms of the world. In Eastern religions creation is always a transformation (or manifestation) of a primordial impersonal unity. It is not a replacement of "nothingness" with "something", but a transformation of the Ultimate Reality from one ontological condition into another. What once existed in unity becomes multiplicity and manifestation, an actualization of preexistent virtualities. Things are different with the creation presented in the Bible. An unprecedented element in world religions, God creates the universe out of nothing (ex nihilo) and not out of his own substance (ex Deo). This "nothing" has no ontological statute, it is not a primordial substance, because prior to creation, nothing existed except God. Creation ex nihilo is not an artifice of Christian philosophy, but the only possibility compatible with the existence of a personal God as Ultimate Reality. The psalmist writes about the act of creation: In the beginning you laid the foundations of the earth, and the heavens are the work of your hands. They will perish, but you remain; they will all wear out like a garment. Like clothing you will change them and they will be discarded. But you remain the same, and your years will never end. (Psalm 102,25-27) The creation presented in the book of Genesis is an act intended and completed by the Creator, not out of necessity, but of desire and love. The beginning or cause of the world is not an impersonal necessity or a blind manifestation of an undetermined nature, but the product of the free choice of the personal and triune God.
God and creation in Judaism and Islam The God of Judaism is the God of the Old Testament, God the Father of Christianity, so that the Old Testament is common to the two religions. Although there are some hints pointing to the Triune God in the Old Testament, Judaism accepts only God the Father as the true God. The rejection of Jesus Christ as God the Son represented precisely the appearance of Christianity as a new world religion. The God of orthodox Judaism is the same as God the Father of Christianity, having the same attributes. In time, however, some Judaic sects, such as the Kabbalah for instance, rejected the personal God and adopted a pantheistic view of Ultimate Reality: “Bear in mind, that before the emanations were emanated and the creatures were created, the upper simple light has filled entire existence” (The Tree of Life, 1). This “simple light” or “endless light” is not the personal creator of the Old Testament, but rather an equivalent of the Hindu Brahman. The other great monotheistic religion of the world, Islam, also has a personal god as Ultimate Reality. Allah is presented in the Quran as an eternal being, transcendent and almighty. In the 112th Surra it is
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stated: Say, He is God, the One! God, the eternally Besought of all! He neither begets nor was begotten. And there is none comparable unto Him. Allah seems to have the same attributes as God the Father of the Old Testament, since the influence of the Old Testament on the Quran is beyond doubt, given the many episodes taken over from the Bible and reinterpreted. The following links should be helpful for understanding how the content of the Bible and the Quran was transmitted during history: “The Bible and the Quran” - An Historical Comparison (manuscript, documentary and archaeological analysis) “The Textual history of the Quran and the Bible”, by John Gilchrist. The Triune God of Christianity is considered to be a heresy, both in Judaism and Islam, an attempt against monotheism. Therefore, Allah cannot be the same with God the Father of the Old Testament, because he clearly states that belief in the Trinity is one of the worst possible heresies and sins: Surely, unbelievers are those who said, "Allah is the third of the three [in a Trinity]". But there is no god but One God. And if they cease not from what they say, verily, a painful torment will befall the unbelievers among them (Quran 5,73). However a strictly mono-personal, not tri-personal, God cannot be perfect in his personal attributes because some of them are defined only in relation with another person (for instance love, goodness, and compassion). Such a god is conditioned by his creation in order to be loving, caring and good, because otherwise he has no one toward whom to express these attributes. A god that depends on his creation (mankind) to be perfect (or perfect since creation) in his personal attributes is less than perfect. A possible solution to this problem would be that God and creation should always coexist, but this would mean that God is not the creator, and that is absurd. The only possible solution is the Holy Trinity "of one substance" in which there is an absolute communion of nature, will and deed, who creates man not out of necessity, but out of his superabundant love.
Conclusion The world's religions hold very different views on Ultimate Reality. More than different, they are even irreconcilable one with another. Indeed, the impersonal Brahman of the Upanishads, who balances between the manifested state and unmanifestation (the same as Shiva in Tantrism), or the lack of any transcendental being, as stated by Theravada Buddhism, are positions that cannot be reconciled with the personal God of the monotheistic religions. Even among the many branches of Hinduism are stated irreconcilable positions (see for instance the gods of the Vedas, the Brahman of Vedanta, Vishnu of the theistic trends stated by Ramanuja and Madhva, and Ishvara of the Yoga darshana). On the other hand, a personal God as Ultimate Reality cannot be at the same time a manifestation of an impersonal Absolute (as in some cases of Hindu theism) and a being above whom there is no deeper reality (as the monotheistic religions claim). Even the three great monotheistic religions of the world
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state irreconcilable positions concerning the nature of God. He must be either tri-personal (the triune God of Christianity), or mono-personal (as in Judaism and Islam). Considering all these alternatives, we cannot accept the claim that the world's religions are parts of a unique spirituality, or parts toward the same transcendental finality. Next article: Man’s
condition
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Critical considerations regarding the philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita
Critical considerations regarding the philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita (henceforth referred to as the Gita) was probably composed sometime between the 7th and the 6th centuries BC and later incorporated into the great Hindu epic Mahabharata. It stated a new path towards liberation, a new kind of asceticism at hand for any human, independent of social status. It requires neither withdrawal from social life as the Upanishads do, nor performing severe austerities as the Hatha and Raja Yoga. This probably explains its great success both in the East and the West. The new Yoga presented in the Gita is mostly concerned with one's attitude of mind when performing normal social duties, and could be defined as a combination of Karma, Bhakti and Buddhi Yoga. Karma Yoga in the Gita means the performance of one's duties in a spirit of renunciation, of not being bound to its fruits (5,1-2), Bhakti Yoga is one's effort to bring all actions as sacrifices to Krishna (14,26), while Buddhi Yoga is a particular kind of wisdom one has to develop in understanding life (2,49; 10,10; 18,57). Let us analyze the way this new kind of Yoga works, as well as its natural implications.
Yoga according to the Gita The Gita is an episode of the great epic Mahabharata (6,25-42), which narrates the dialogue of Arjuna, one of the five sons of the Pandava family, and the Hindu god Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu. A major battle is about to begin in which Arjuna sees himself playing a contradictory role, that of fighting against his relatives, the Kaurava family. Caught between his warrior duty and the ethical meaning of fighting against his cousins, between his social duty and the threat of karma, he chooses to not fight and be killed rather than have his conscience loaded with the killing of his relatives. At this moment Krishna reveals himself to the distressed warrior and helps him understand the situation from a transcendental point of view. He performs a spiritual exegesis of Arjuna's situation, stating: "Not by abstaining from work can one achieve freedom from karma, nor by renunciation alone can one attain perfection" (3,4). "Abstaining from work" is practically impossible according to Krishna, as "everyone is forced to act according to the tendencies (gunas) he has acquired from the modes of material nature (prakriti)" (3,5). As a warrior, Arjuna must always follow his caste duties, in other words, his dharma. On this basis the Gita founds a new element in Hindu philosophy: Spiritual perfection is not attained by asceticism or abandoning
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Critical considerations regarding the philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita
action, but by giving a new meaning to action - that of detachment from its fruits, an attitude that does not feed karma and reincarnation. Krishna formulates the famous principle: Be focused on action and not on the fruits of action. Do not become confused in attachment to the fruit of your actions and do not become confused in the desire for inaction (2,47). Therefore one should not withdraw from the world of social involvement but live in it detached from the fruits of actions, as "action is better than inaction" and "renunciation of all action is impossible" (3,8). As a result, Krishna's command to Arjuna is: "Always act with detachment to the fruits of actions. The one who is acting without attachment attains God" (3,19). This is Karma Yoga, the path of attaining liberation through accomplishing one's normal duties with a totally detached attitude toward personal benefit. In his given context, Arjuna has to fight no matter who is going to die on the battlefield. There is also a new meaning for sacrifice and Bhakti Yoga. Written at the time when the authority of the Vedas has heavily decreased, the Gita states a hierarchy in the value of different kinds of sacrifice, with the lowest being the Vedic sacrifice, brought to a god in order to get personal favors, the next being the inner sacrifice of Raja Yoga (that of breathing - 4,29; of the mind and senses - 4,27; and that of empirical knowledge 4,33) and the best being that of detached action. Acting like this, one brings his actions as sacrifices to Krishna and therefore they do not generate karmic seeds anymore: Consider all your acts as acts of devotion to me, whether eating, offering, giving away, performing austerities. Perform them as an offering to me. In this way you will be free from karma, you will be liberated and you will come to me (9,27). According to this new understanding of Bhakti Yoga, there is no need for any kind of material sacrifices, rituals or other kind of performances, but only to act in a worshipping attitude toward Krishna, as if all acts are dedicated to him. This particular mindset in judging particular situations in life is called Buddhi Yoga. Following it, one should attain liberation.
Krishna, karma and grace A first inconsistency of the Gita concerns the relation between the law of karma and the grace granted by Krishna in helping his followers attain liberation. On the one hand it seems that Krishna is sovereign over the law of karma, using it as an instrument for punishment or reward. He says: "Those who are envious and mischievous, who are the lowest among men, I perpetually cast into transmigration, into various demoniac species of life" (16,19). And also: "Those who worship me and surrender all their activities unto me, being devoted to me without hesitation, engaged in devotional service and meditating unto me, I deliver them quickly from the ocean of birth and death" (12,6-7). On the other hand, karma seems to be a self-functioning rule that produces effects by its own power. One has to struggle alone against its drive and attain better incarnations from one existence to the next: "When the Yogi engages himself in making further progress, being washed of all karma, he achieves liberation after many, many births" (6,45). In the meanwhile, Krishna holds a detached position toward all humans: "I see all creatures equally disposed and I am not partial to anyone" (9,29). These two positions can hardly be reconciled. In trying to explain the relation between karma and the grace of Krishna, the Hindu analysts of the Gita had to choose between holding to the supremacy of Krishna and the ultimate power of karma in ruling the world. Consequently, we have theistic and pantheistic interpretations (and even translations) of the Gita, indebted to one or the other alternative. http://www.comparativereligion.com/Gita.html (2 of 6) [10/27/2000 9:47:20 AM]
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The first see Krishna as a super-personal god using karma as an instrument for awakening humans from ignorance, and the second see him as a mere form of Brahman's manifestation, with no real power in controlling karma. As the two positions contradict each other and the Gita leaves enough room for both, we wonder which could actually be the relation between karma and grace. In order to attain liberation, Arjuna is advised to strive hard to realize a detached attitude of mind, called Buddhi Yoga (2,49): To those who are constantly devoted to serve me, I give them the Buddhi Yoga by which they can come to me. I show my mercy to them by destroying their ignorance with the lamp of knowledge (10,10-11). Here it looks like Krishna burns karma by his grace only if one strives hard to deserve it. Therefore the major role in salvation belongs to the individual who performs Buddhi Yoga. The grace granted by Krishna is far away from the meaning it got later in the prapatti devotional trend. Therefore, Krishna must be understood rather as a kind of meditation object than a personal god who gets himself involved in one's reincarnation journey. He resembles Ishvara of the Yoga darshana of Patanjali from this point of view (i.e. one has to concentrate on Krishna and imitate his way of being in order to advance toward liberation). The only grace one benefits from Hrishna is receiving his advice. The rest depends on the disciple.
Dharma and karma In anyone's life the conditioning couple of dharma and karma is at work. The "duty" that forces Arjuna to fight (2,33) is his dharma, i.e. his caste-duty as warrior. In turn, Arjuna's dharma is generated by his karma. Therefore the real impetus of Arjuna's actions is his karma, which pushes him into action independently of his present intentions. Krishna states: "When you become confused in your false ego you say to yourself, 'I will not fight' you are misled. By your nature you must fight" (18,59). This "nature" is prakriti or, more specifically, the way the three gunas influence one's mind under the influence of past karma. Therefore, Arjuna is not free to fulfill his dharma, but is compelled by his karma to act according to it. The action that "is better than inaction" (3,8) is not a free decision of man, it does not follow the understanding of one's social duty, but is the way of accepting a pre-ordained scenario. Such an action is devoid of any sense of freedom, being a mere resignation to fate. The only freedom left to Arjuna is to give a certain meaning to his predetermined actions, that of sacrifices to Krishna: "Consider all your acts as acts of devotion to me, whether eating, offering, giving away, performing austerities. Perform them as an offering to me. In this way you will be free from karma, you will be liberated and you will come to me" (9,27).
Krishna as avatar and the periodical creation of the world Another inconsistency of the Gita is regarding the character of Krishna. According to classic Vaishnavism, Krishna is only an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu (which according to Vedanta is only a form of Brahman's manifestation). In the Gita Krishna becomes the Supreme Lord of the Universe (5,29), eternal (4,6) and the source of all existence: "I am the source of all spiritual and material worlds. Everything emanates from me" (10,8). Contrary to Vedanta, Krishna becomes the source of Brahman
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Critical considerations regarding the philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita
(14,27) and contrary to Vaishnavism he is the instrument of attaining fusion with Brahman (14,26). Although the intention of the Gita is to present Krishna as super-personal, he is rather a heterogeneous mixture of theistic, dualistic and pantheistic kinds of Ultimate Reality. He is not only the creator but also the substance of the universe (9,16-19; 8,4; 10,20-42). The cycle of permanent transformation between the manifested state and the unmanifested one is characteristic for Krishna too, as it was with Brahman: At the end of an era (kalpa) all creatures disintegrate into my nature and at the beginning of another era I manifest them again. Such it is my nature (prakriti) to follow again and again the pattern of the Infinite manifestations and disintegrations (9,7-8). Krishna has to "follow the pattern of the Infinite manifestations and disintegrations" (avasham prakriteh vashat, lit. "automatically, under the obligation of prakriti"), which implies that the process is a necessity that surpasses him as personal god. He is just a detached (but also helpless) spectator to it. Therefore it is hard to accept his dominion over creation along with the periodic manifestation of nature (prakriti). Rather, we should conclude that the creation of the world is not an option for him, but a periodic duty at the end of each cosmic cycle, as was the case with the manifestations of Brahman. S. Dasgupta comments on the contradictory personal character of Krishna: The Gita combines together different conceptions of God without feeling the necessity of reconciling the oppositions or contradictions involved in them. It does not seem to be aware of the philosophical difficulty of combining the concept of God as unmanifested, differenceless entity with the notion of Him as the super-person Who incarnates Himself on earth in the human form and behaves in the human manner. It is not aware of the difficulty that, if all good and evil should have emanated from God, and if there be ultimately no moral responsibility, and if everything in the world should have the same place in God, there is no reason why God should trouble to incarnate Himself as man, when there is a disturbance of the Vedic dharma. If God is impartial to all, and if He is absolutely unperturbed, why should He favour the man who clings to Him, and why, for his sake, overrule the world-order of events and in his favour suspend the law of karma? (S. Dasgupta, Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, 1991, vol.2, p. 533).
Acting without attachment to the fruit of actions The very demand to act in the world without attachment to the fruits of action seems itself contradictory. Could it actually be possible to act like this? How could one really perform his social duties without being attached to them? Otherwise what motivation remains for acting in the world? That of a robot, devoid of any personal input to his acts? The philosophy of the Gita itself aims at fulfilling a very personal fruit - liberation from reincarnation, which is useful for nobody else than oneself. Should this fruit be treated with detachment too? Could one act detached regarding his eternal destiny? If the philosophy of detached acting cannot be valid for the major aspect of existence, how can we know it works in other respects? On the other hand, how much could one know about his dharma, especially in a Western society, where the caste system doesn't exist? At what extent can one be sure he is fulfilling his dharma and not a personal attachment to a certain egoistic motivation? Where is the limit between my dharma and my neighbor's? Therefore, under the cover of religiosity, anyone can masquerade, pretending he follows his dharma, but having no altruistic motivations at all in what he does.
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Critical considerations regarding the philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita
The Gita and morality When Arjuna found himself in the process of choosing between his duty as warrior and the killing of his relatives (a severe violation of Vedic morality), Krishna explained to him that he must give another meaning to traditional morality. Traditional ethical values should not be a hindrance to acting detached to the fruits of action. He argued: "The wise men who reached true knowledge see with as equally a brahman (priest), a cow, an elephant, a dog and a dog-eater" (5,18). As only the soul (atman) is immortal, Krishna argues that it is actually impossible to kill anyone: "Those who think that they can kill or those that think they can be killed are confused in the manifestations of ignorance. The infinite, immortal soul can neither kill or be killed" (2,19). Therefore Arjuna is free to kill his relatives, considering them only temporary abiding forms for the eternal self, mere mortal frames. S. Dasgupta states in his commentary: The theory of the Gita that, if actions are performed with an unattached mind, then their defects cannot touch the performer, distinctly implies that the goodness or badness of an action does not depend upon external effects of the action, but upon the inner motive of action. If there is no motive of pleasure or self-gain, then the action performed cannot bind the performer; for it is only the bond of desires and self-love that really makes an action one's own and makes one reap its good or bad fruits. Morality from this point of view becomes wholly subjective, and the special feature of the Gita is that it tends to make all actions non-moral by cutting away the bonds that connect an action with its performer (Ibid, p. 507). The contrast with traditional morality is obvious. Its representative is another important character in the battle of Kurukshetra, Yudishthira, Arjuna's brother. He tried to expiate his sin of killing his relatives in battle through repentance, gifts, asceticism and pilgrimages (Mahabharata 12,7). For him a bad conscience could not be cleansed by a right attitude of mind, but by compensatory acts. On the other hand, the same mindset that Arjuna should have had in securing a clear conscience (Gita 2,19) was used by the demon Kamsa in the Bhagavata Purana (10,4,22) in order to comfort Krishna's parents and justify the killing of their other sons by him: In the bodily conception of life one remains in darkness without self-realization, thinking "I am being killed" or "I have killed my enemies". As long as a foolish person thus considers the self to be the killer or the killed, he continues to be responsible for material obligations, and consequently he suffers the reactions of happiness and distress. If the same "detached" perspective on moral values can be used both by the demon Kamsa, who caused the corruption of the dharma, and the divine avatar who came to save it (Gita 4,6-7) and kill the demon, it is hard to accept that such an approach could represent a true basis for morality.
Conclusion Rather than a consistent philosophy, S. Dasgupta considers the Gita only a manual of conduct: The Gita was probably written at a time when philosophical views had not definitely crystallized into hard-and-fast systems of thought, and when the distinguishing philosophical niceties, scholarly disputations, the dictates of argument, had not come into fashion. The Gita, therefore, is
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Critical considerations regarding the philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita
not to be looked upon as a properly schemed system of philosophy, but a s a manual of right conduct and right perspective of things in the light of a mystical approach to God in self-resignation, devotion, friendship and humility. (p.534) The Gita falls short of coherence and viability. A god that rules the world by the "help" of karma cannot be the super-personal embodiment of perfection. One's (mostly unknown) dharma fed by past lives' deeds cannot provide any real meaning for freedom. Acting without attachment to its results cannot be a valid solution for fulfilling one's social duty. And a morality that considers people temporary frames of the eternal self cannot grant social harmony. Therefore, it as hard to accept the message of the Gita as a proper teaching of conduct, especially in the Western world.
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Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
MAN’S SALVATION AND ETERNAL DESTINY IN WORLD RELIGIONS As we have seen in the previous file on the human condition, one of the few elements that world religions share is the fact that man doesn’t live in harmony with the Ultimate Reality. In other words, man doesn’t manifest his purpose of existence. Life is far away from pursuing the ideal claimed by religion, so that man needs salvation from his present condition. However, following how Ultimate Reality and human nature are stated, the meaning of salvation and eternal destiny differ to a great extent from one religion to another. Three important aspects must be analyzed here: The nature of the resources needed for attaining salvation, the actual way of getting saved and the meaning of salvation from an eternal perspective. Concerning the first two aspects, some religions claim that salvation can be attained by using only inner human resources. They demand the use of meditation, accumulation of wisdom, asceticism, performing rituals, good deeds, etc. Other religions state man can be saved only through the grace granted by an external personal agent. This can be God, a bodhisattva, an avatar, etc. Man’s duty is to recognize his impossibility to get saved by his own effort, and therefore accept grace unconditionally. There are also combinations of the two cases. As concerning the meaning of salvation from an eternal perspective, there are also important distinctions to mention. As emphasized in the previous file, the monotheistic religions state that the barrier between man and God is sin. Salvation means removing this moral barrier and restoring a personal communion with God, which will endure forever. Pantheist religions consider the human self a part of the impersonal Ultimate Reality, and therefore man’s problem is epistemological. Salvation means liberation from ignorance and corresponds to the fusion of the impersonal self with the Absolute, meaning dissolution of subject and object, knower and known. Other Eastern religions, such as Buddhism and Taoism, take salvation as an illumination, meaning a discovery of and conformity of oneself with an eternal law that governs existence. Dualistic religions see man’s salvation as a return to an initial angelic state, from which he has fallen in a physical body. In this file we will analyze closer these alternatives, trying to understand to what extent they can still be compatible with each other.
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Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
Salvation and eternal destiny in Hinduism The Upanishads and Vedanta philosophy As we have seen in the file on the human condition, the Upanishads view the problem man has to face as belonging to the domain of knowledge. The self is one with Brahman, but illusion prevents man from grasping it. The liberation of atman from the chain of reincarnation can be attained only during a human existence, so we are in a privileged stage of spiritual evolution. We have a better position even than gods do. They are in a stage of reaping one’s positive merits during a lifetime, as animals are the opposite, the stage of reaping bad merits. That is why devotion to a god is not a valid way toward liberation, as it perpetuates the illusion of personal existence. The following text indicates that the gods like to encourage man’s ignorance: Now, if a man worships another deity, thinking, “He is one and I am another,” he does not know. He is like an animal to the gods. As many animals serve a man, so does each man serve the gods. Even if one animal is taken away, it causes anguish to the owner; how much more so when many are taken away! Therefore it is not pleasing to the gods that men should know the truth. (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1,4,10) Atman’s liberation from samsara is called moksha and represents its return to Brahman. This kind of liberation is actually an impersonal fusion of atman with Brahman, resembling the fusion of a drop of rain with the ocean, thus becoming one with it: “As rivers flow into the sea and in so doing lose name and form, so even the wise man, freed from name and form, attains the Supreme Being, the Self-luminous, the Infinite. He who knows Brahman becomes Brahman” (Mundaka Upanishad 3,2,8-9). At this point any element of personhood is annihilated and the process of reincarnation ceases. First mentioned in the Brahmanas as necessary for knowing the laws of sacrifice, intuitive knowledge (jnana, vidya) here receives its full spiritual meaning. Vedic sacrifice (according to Mundaka Up. 1,2,7) and the knowledge of the Vedas (Chandogya Up. 7,1,3) have no value in attaining liberation. The cycle avidya-karma-samsara can be broken only by knowing and destroying its primary cause, which is desire. (This trend gets special attention in the Bhagavad Gita and also in Buddhism.) According to the Upanishads, the process of attaining intuitive knowledge of atman and liberation from desires requires passing through three states of consciousness, categorized as the wakeful state, the state of sleep with dreams and the dreamless sleep (Brihadaranyaka Up. 4,3,9-19). The first state of consciousness, the wakeful state (jagrat), represents the normal human state, in which the phenomenal world is completely involved in one’s psycho-mental activity. In the stage corresponding to sleep with dreams (svapna) the psycho-mental is detached from the objective world and engaged in a virtual world, a mere projection of the real one. Participation in the phenomenal world stops only in the dreamless state (susupti), when the world’s illusion ceases to manifest itself (Brihadaranyaka Up. 4,3,32). Some later developments concluded that in this stage atman is only temporarily united with Brahman, and for this reason a fourth state (turiya) was defined, when the unity of atman-Brahman is perfectly attained. There is no need to mention here actual methods for attaining liberation, since they are not yet fully developed in the Upanishads. Two important meditation formulas (mantras) are Aham Brahma asmi (“I am Brahman” - in the Brihadaranyaka Up. 1,4,10) and Tat tvam asi (“You are that” - in the Chandogya Up. 6,8-15). There is also to be noticed the importance of the sacred syllable OM (AUM), which is said to exert a powerful influence on the one who knows to use it and understands its metaphysical importance. The Mandukya Upanishad establishes a correspondence between the three letters that compound it (A, U, http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (2 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:42 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
and M) and the three states of conscience mentioned above. The Mundaka Upanishad (2,2,4) states: “The syllable aum is the bow; one’s self, indeed, is the arrow. Brahman is spoken of as the target of that. It is to be hit without making a mistake. Thus one becomes united with it as the arrow [becomes one with the target].” The same finality is stated in Shankara’s Vedanta. The liberation of atman is attained through intuitive knowledge. There are four qualifications prescribed for the one who follows this path: 1) discrimination of the eternal from the non-eternal; 2) no attachment to the things belonging to this or any other world; 3) possession of six virtues: calmness, equanimity, turning away from sense-objects, forbearance, concentration and faith in the doctrine; and 4) longing for release. The method that has to be pursued has three parts: study of the doctrine, reflection and contemplation. For a critique of pantheism, the way it states liberation and its significance click here and see our special file on this topic. The Samkhya and Yoga darshanas Liberation in the Samkhya and Yoga darshanas represents detaching purusha from any manifestation of prakriti, out of the domain of psycho-mental experience. The way of attaining it, in Samkhya, is metaphysical knowledge, i.e. analyzing and understanding the external and internal structures of nature and psycho-mental activity. It is stated that neither through sacrifices (Samkhya Sutra 1,84), nor by doing good deeds (1,56) nor by the help of Vedas (3,25-26), but only through getting spiritual knowledge can liberation be attained. It involves abandoning all common values that are created by our mind and thus do not belong to purusha. By knowing the absolute state of purusha, the confusion generated by the physical and mental world ceases, they are absorbed into prakriti and the self finds liberation (Samkhya Sutra 3,69). This is the way humans understand the liberation of the self, but as thinking itself belongs to prakriti, Samkhya holds that liberation is a mere acquaintance with purusha’s eternal freedom, unable to be normally perceived because of ignorance. The moment when discrimination (viveka) between the two categories has been fully realized, prakriti with all its manifestations departs from purusha, “like a dancer who leaves after satisfying her master’s wish” (Samkhya Karika 59). The self escapes from the illusory relation with prakriti and has nothing to do with it anymore. From that moment on the liberated purusha contemplates only itself and has no concern about the relation of other purushas with prakriti. The finality in this darshana is a world of free and totally isolated purushas, between which no relation can exist. In the Yoga darshana of Patanjali there are two elements added: 1) Ishvara, an entity improperly called God; and 2) the fact that liberation cannot be attained by spiritual knowledge only, but that a specific ascetic technique is needed. Ishvara is not a personal god, but rather a macro-purusha that has never been involved with psycho-mental activity or with karma. Having no personal status, Ishvara cannot have a personal relationship with man. It is rather a metaphysical sympathy, resembling that existing between a compass and the magnetic field of the Earth. Ishvara can help the Yogi towards liberation only as he is chosen as the object of meditation. The instinctual relationship between purusha and Ishvara is possible only because of the similarity of their structures, so that in the Yoga darshana of Patanjali, Ishvara is considered to be a “God” just of the Yogis. The liberation of purusha has the same meaning as in Samkhya. He remains isolated forever, http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (3 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:42 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
contemplating himself and without any relation with other purusha or with Ishvara. For more information on the Yoga technique as described by Patanjali see our special file on this topic. There is also available a special file aimed at analyzing some difficulties of the Samkhya and Yoga metaphysics.
Tantrism and Hatha Yoga Both schools are pantheistic, viewing liberation as the return of the self to the impersonal Ultimate Reality represented by Shiva. It is a process similar to the fusion of atman with Brahman, as stated in the Upanishads and Vedanta. In order to get a brief description of the actual techniques used by these two schools, and also an evaluation of the experiences they produce, see our special file on this topic. Here we summarize just a few key elements in order to get a global understanding of them. The self, represented in the form of kundalini energy, has to be awakened through complicated physical exercises (in Hatha Yoga) and also sexual practices (in Tantrism), joined with respiratory techniques. Then kundalini traverses a spiritual channel of the subtle body, which corresponds physically to the spine, and the moment it reaches the top of the head it unites with Shiva, the Ultimate Reality of the universe. This goal cannot be attained just by spiritual knowledge, as in other Hindu schools (Vedanta or Samkhya). The help of a teacher (guru) in assisting the practitioner is absolutely necessary, as the awakening and rising of kundalini is full of potential dangers for the Yogi. Although both schools are pantheistic, they hold a different view than Vedanta philosophy concerning the role of the human body. While the Upanishads and Vedanta despise the body, considering it the primary source of illusion that holds atman captive in the reincarnation cycle, Tantrism and Hatha Yoga take the body as the main instrument in attaining liberation. However, the attention granted to the body has a single purpose: to make it fit for getting control over the mind and thus liberating the self. Despite the fact that it is sometimes believed that Hatha Yoga is only a kind of harmless physical training, the most important writing of this school, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, clearly states that Hatha Yoga has to be taught only in order to reach the Raja Yoga level (1,2), which means “the integration of mind in a state where the subject-object duality does not exist” (4,77), or in other words, merging with the impersonal Ultimate Reality. Hindu theism The liberation of self (atman or purusha) through metaphysical knowledge (jnana, vidya) or asceticism (tapas), as was the case in the previous schools of Hinduism, cannot be a valid solution for the average Hindu. This is the reason why most people adopt a certain devotional practice (called bhakti) in order to transcend the world of suffering. The most important gods worshipped today are Vishnu and his avatars (especially Rama and Krishna), Shiva and the goddess Shakti (called also Kali or Durga). Consequently, Hindu theism has three main branches: Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism. They have the following defining characteristics: acceptance of a personal god as Ultimate Reality, performance of a certain ritual in order to worship him, invocation of his help to attain salvation and understanding salvation as uniting with god or attaining a perfect and eternal relation with him. We will not discuss here salvation according to the most famous piece of Hindu theism, the Bhagavad Gita. There is available a special file on this topic. Out of the many schools of theistic Hinduism existing http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (4 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:42 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
today, we will limit ourselves to a brief presentation of the Vaishnava schools grounded by the great thinkers Ramanuja and Madhva, and mention a few elements of their understanding about man’s salvation and eternal destiny. They stated the most coherent forms of Hindu theism known today as opposed to the traditional pantheistic schools, especially to the Advaita Vedanta of Shankara. (Similar views have been developed in the Shaivite tradition, but they are less important and we will not refer to them.) According to Madhva (1238 - 1317 AD), liberation can be attained only by the grace of Vishnu. Man has to realize that his independence from God is illusory and that material cravings distance him from God. Vishnu uses reincarnation to help the soul discover his true spiritual nature. The way of attaining liberation requires devotion, moral perfection and knowledge of God. The more God is known, the more he is loved, the more he is loved, he is known; these are two inseparable aspects. The moment the soul attains liberation, he does not lose his individuality in order to become one with God (as in Vedanta), but becomes perfect and shares an eternal communion and harmony with God. Although Madhva’s theism is genuine, there are some weak points in the way it defines free will and the role of karma. He stated that nothing can happen in the world or to souls without God’s will and initiative. Man can attain liberation only by God’s grace. On the other hand, souls are subject to karma, and God reveals himself only to the ones who deserve it. However, if all souls are entirely dependent on God for their functioning and he is the one who causes the creation, sustenance and dissolution of the world (and consequently of physical bodies), this implies that any spiritual progress of the soul is nothing but God’s work. If God’s will is responsible for both bondage by karma and liberation, how is it possible that some souls deserve liberation, while others do not? In other words, how can a just balance be set up in this system, between God’s grace and karma? The solution offered by Madhva to this dilemma is the idea that souls have a certain inner inclination, according to an innate nature. There are three kinds of souls according to these inner inclinations: those of noble inclination (sattvika), those of mixed inclination (rajasa) and those with base inclination (tamasa). Only those of the first category will reach liberation by God’s grace, the others being left to themselves. To avoid total predestination, Madhva stated that they are granted a small amount of free will (dattasvatantrya) and therefore can perform a small improvement of their nature from one existence to another. But by giving this solution, God is no longer the one who determines the souls’ actions, and his total control over them is abrogated. This contradiction arises out of the impossibility to reconcile the role of karma with the grace of an omnipotent god. According to Ramanuja (1017 - 1137 AD), man is responsible for his acts and capable of choosing between good and evil. What we experience now as evil in the world is the result of people’s past ignorant deeds against God. Liberation from the bondage of ignorance can be attained only by devotion. Once liberated, the soul is not dissolved in the Ultimate Reality, but becomes perfect through his integration into the functionality of God. Using a proper illustration, liberation is not the union of the raindrop with the ocean (as in Vedanta), but the adding of a new cell to a living body, without losing its individuality and conscious existence. Through this kind of liberation neither the transcendental supremacy of God is lost, nor the identity of the soul. There are basically two classical viewpoints on grace in theistic Hinduism, well-illustrated by two famous analogies, that of the monkey and that of the cat. The first view (the markata school) states that man has to cling to God like a monkey clings to its mother, thus having an important contribution in attaining salvation. The following elements are included: discrimination of food, freedom from passions, http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (5 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:42 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
longing for God and continuous meditation on him, doing good to others, having good intentions and truthfulness, integrity, cheerfulness and hope. So it is not only about stimulating positive feelings, but also using the intellect and will in order to love God with both heart and mind. Starting from this point, where man plays a certain role in his liberation (through the rituals and moral obligations he has to fulfill), Ramanuja grounded an even more radical way towards liberation, called prapatti, where there is no more room left for personal merit. This is the second view on grace (the marjara school), stating that the devotee must be like a young kitten, totally dependent on its mother’s will, picked up by her and carried here and there. Therefore man has to give up the control of his life to Vishnu and leave to him all responsibility for salvation. Two important notions here are the transferring of merits (bhara-samarpana) from God to man and taking refuge under God’s feet (sharanagati). The one engaged in prapatti acknowledges that he is not good enough to deserve liberation by performing rituals and moral obligations. He asks God to undertake the control of his life and use him as instrument in the world, so that the whole merit for attaining liberation pertains to God. There is no doubt that from the laborious techniques of other Hindu schools, that stressed the attainment of liberation through personal effort, to the prapatti alternative, where man is humble and helpless before God, Hindu spirituality went through radical transformations. In a few words, the whole prapatti philosophy can be summarized in a single verse, written by Vedanta Deshika, a 14th century follower of Ramanuja: Lord, I, who am nothing, conform to your will and desist being contrary to it, and with faith and prayer, submit to you the burden of saving my soul (Nyasadashaka 2).
Man’s salvation and eternal destiny in Buddhism Theravada Buddhism Salvation, according to Gotama Buddha, is possible only for the one who accepts and follows the four noble truths: 1) The nature of life is suffering. 2) Suffering is caused by desire, or thirst (tanha) to experience existence. 3) The complete cessation of desires leads to the cessation of suffering. 4) In order to escape suffering and attain enlightenment, one has to follow the Noble Eightfold Path, consisting of the eight practices of self-training. Before discussing the eightfold path towards liberation (nirvana), it is important to mention that the one who engages in it has to rely exclusively on his own inner strength. The Buddha taught: So, Ananda, you must be lamps unto yourselves. Rely on yourselves, and do not rely on external help. Hold firm to the truth as a lamp and a refuge, and do not look for refuge to anything beside yourselves. A brother becomes his own lamp and refuge by continually looking on his body, feelings, perceptions, moods, and ideas in such a manner that he conquers the cravings and depressions of ordinary men and is always strenuous, self-possessed, and collected in mind. Whoever among my disciples does this, either now or when I am dead, if he is anxious to learn, will reach the summit.... (Digha Nikaya 2,99-100) http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (6 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:42 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
There is no grace available from a personal god, because any personal existence belongs to the domain of illusion: Oneself, indeed, is one’s savior, for what other savior could there be? With oneself well-controlled one obtains a savior difficult to find. (Dhammapada 160) The point where the “chain of conditioned generation” can be broken is the ninth link, desire, which once eliminated prevents man from entering a new existence. The eight practices of self-training, which make the way out of suffering, can be classified in three categories: morality (sila), concentration (samadhi) and full knowledge (panna). Morality means right speech, action and livelihood. It has to generate a perfect state of self-control and contentment. Concentration requires perfection in efforts (right attitude of the mind in all deeds), mindfulness (awareness of mental and physical processes) and concentration (introversion and cessation of empirical consciousness). Full knowledge represents attaining perfection in all views (through understanding the impermanent nature of each phenomenon) and thoughts (renouncing all that is temporary and attaining equanimity in thought, speech and deeds). The techniques used in the concentration of mind are meditation and contemplation. Meditation is aimed at attaining tranquillity of mind and inner calm. By the use of contemplation, one seeks to destroy all attachments produced by the physical body, feelings, states of mind and objects of mind. Once man has attained nirvana, he becomes an arhat (“living enlightened one”). His karma is burned and at the time of his death he will cease to exist. Nirvana is neither a re-absorption in an eternal Ultimate Reality, because such a thing doesn’t exist, nor an annihilation of a self, because there is no self to annihilate. It is rather an annihilation of the illusion of an existing self. The proper image to describe it is the flame of the candle that is blown out. This represents the end of suffering but at the same time the end of any aspect that may define existence. (For some critical comments on the way Theravada Buddhism defines its fundamental doctrines, including nirvana, see our special file on this topic.)
Salvation in Mahayana Buddhism. The devotional way. The first significant difference between Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism is a new goal to be pursued in life. Instead of seeking nirvana just for himself in order to become an arhat, the disciple of Mahayana Buddhism aims to become a bodhisattva, a celestial being that postpones his own entrance into parinirvana (final extinction) in order to help other humans also attain it. The bodhisattva even swears not to enter nirvana until he fulfills this noble mission. Here is a part of a bodhisattva’s vow: I should accept all sufferings for the sake of sentient beings, and enable them to escape from the abyss of immeasurable woes of birth and death. I should accept all suffering for the sake of all sentient beings in all worlds, in all states of misery, for ever and ever, and still always cultivate foundations of goodness for the sake of all beings. Why? I would rather take all this suffering on myself than to allow sentient beings to fall into hell. I should be a hostage to those perilous places - hells, animal realms, the nether world - as a ransom to rescue all sentient beings in states of woe and enable them to gain liberation. “I vow to protect all sentient beings and never abandon them. What I say is sincerely true, without
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Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
falsehood. Why? Because I have set my mind on enlightenment in order to liberate all sentient beings; I do not seek the unexcelled Way for my own sake. (Garland Sutra 23) For its selfish way of seeking nirvana, the Theravada school was considered an inferior spiritual path, valid only for those who cannot accept the idea of becoming a bodhisattva (Saddharmapundarika, 2). From here derives the name given to the two branches of Buddhism: Mahayana means “the larger/superior path” (that of becoming a bodhisattva), while Hinayana is the “narrow/inferior path”, that reduces its goal in becoming an arhat. As stated in Theravada, nirvana is considered only an intermediary step of becoming, a kind of incentive toward a higher becoming. The true enlightenment is the becoming of a bodhisattva being (Saddharmapundarika, 3). Thanks to the help granted by the bodhisattvas, it is said that all beings will attain perfection: The Dharma of the Buddhas by the constant use of a single flavor Causes the several worlds universally to attain perfection, By gradual practice all obtain the Fruit of the Way. (Saddharmapundarika Sutra 5) As was the case with the Hindu avatars of Vishnu, the bodhisattva beings are mediators between man and Ultimate Reality. Man has to earn their favors through devotion and thus attains liberation. This new development was interpreted as a penetration of the Hindu bhakti tradition in Buddhism. The pattern of devotion, which seems to be a natural tendency of the human soul, works here the same way as in Hinduism. This trend will become the religious path for lay Buddhists, for whom liberation through intuitive knowledge is not at hand. The most famous bodhisattva of Tibet is Avalokiteshvara, who is said to be able to help anybody, even if one only hears his name and memorizes it. In his great compassion he assumes as many forms as necessary in order to save all beings (including people and demons in hell), if they simply accept the doctrine he preaches to them. Today it is considered that the Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhists, is a reincarnation of this bodhisattva. The mantra used for his invocation is Om manipadme hum. Other important bodhisattvas are Amithabha (Amida in Japanese), who became very important after the 8th century AD; Manjushri; Vajrapani; and Kuan Yin (the last one important mostly for the Chinese women). Taking Amida as the most important bodhisattva, a very influential form of devotional Buddhism known as Pure Land Buddhism was founded in Japan. According to its doctrine, Amida (the Buddha of Infinite Light) is able to save even the most despised sinner by his grace (tariki). In his vow, he promised to save all sentient beings that would only repeat his name ten times: Let him utter the name, Buddha Amida. Let him do so serenely with his voice uninterrupted; let him be continually thinking of Buddha until he has completed ten times the thought, repeating, “Adoration to Buddha Amida.” On the strength of [his merit of] uttering the Buddha’s name he will, during every repetition, expiate the sins which involve him in births and deaths during eighty million kalpas. (Meditation on Buddha Amitayus 3,30) The reward for invoking Amida with sincere devotion is rebirth in his Western Paradise, Sukhavati (known also as Pure Land or Pure Realm). It is not possible to get there using other means as meditation or good deeds, but only by his grace.
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Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
In Tibetan Buddhism it is stated that the help of the bodhisattvas is available even after death. According to the Tibetan Book of the Dead (8th century AD) the five bodhisattvas of Tibetan Buddhism (the Dhyani-Buddhas, or mental Buddhas) help the dead to avoid a bad reincarnation, trying to lead them toward happier lives in which they will be able to attain nirvana easier. Concerning the form in which the dead person survives in the transitory world and is punished in the temporary hells, Tibetan Buddhism (as the Yogachara Buddhist school too) accepts a self that reincarnates (a kind of atman), which represents an important distinction from classical Buddhism. However, this impersonal entity cannot really suffer, which means that the torments one has to suffer (because of his ignorance during lifetime) are in fact all hallucinations generated by his bad karma. According to the text, the dead is advised: When it happens that such a vision arises, do not be afraid! Do not feel terror! You have a mental body made of instincts; even if it is killed or dismembered, it cannot die! Since in fact you are a natural form of voidness, anger at being injured is unnecessary! The Yama Lords of Death are but arisen from the natural energy of your own awareness and really lack all substantiality. Voidness cannot injure voidness! (Tibetan Book of the Dead, 12) Although the bodhisattvas offer their help to the dead person, he is unable to accept it because of the projection of his bad karma and the attraction of “samsaric impurities”, which make him fall deeper and deeper into the intermediary state (bardo). For this reason it is wrong to pretend that the bodhisattvas save the dead through their grace, as only the merits he accumulated during lifetime make him able to accept the “rays of grace”. As was the case in theistic Hinduism, we are again faced with the incompatibility of grace, granted by an external agent (a bodhisattva), and the law of karma. In conclusion, we can see that Mahayana has brought significant changes to classic (Theravada) Buddhism. As Dr. Stcherbatsky writes: “When we see an atheistic, soul-denying, philosophic teaching of a path to personal final deliverance, consisting in an absolute extinction of life and a simple worship of the memory of its human founder - when we see it superseded by a magnificent High Church with a supreme God, surrounded by numerous pantheon and a host of saints, a religion highly devotional, highly ceremonious and clerical, with an ideal of universal salvation of all living creatures, a salvation by the divine grace of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, a salvation not in annihilation but in eternal life - we are fully justified in maintaining that the history of religions has scarcely witnessed such a break between new and old within the pale of what nevertheless continues to claim common descent from the same religious founder” (The Conception of Buddhist Nirvana, p. 36). Salvation in Mahayana Buddhism. The way of intuitive knowledge. Liberation through knowledge is the other important trend in Mahayana Buddhism. New doctrinal developments on the theme of non-existence of a self were the basis for founding a new doctrine, known as the doctrine of the void (shunyata). It was first stated in the Prajnaparamita Sutra(1st century BC) and then developed by Nagarjuna (2nd century AD). According to this doctrine, the true nature of the world is the void (shunya), which is not non-existence, but an Ultimate Reality free of any determinations, duality and limitations. Like Brahman, the void can be characterized only by using negations. Although Mahayana Buddhism rejects the major Vedantic notions, the void is nothing but an acceptance of Brahman in a new form. The world is considered to be the manifestation of shunya, which is altogether http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (9 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:42 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
the fundamental nature of any being. This true nature (called also Buddha Nature) has to be discovered by man through mystical introspection and liberation from the illusion of duality. It is nothing but an actualization in Mahayanic context of the atman-Brahman identity, as can be observed in the following text: Every being has the Buddha Nature. This is the self. Such a self is, since the very beginning, under cover of innumerable illusions. That is why a man cannot see it. O good man! There was a poor woman who had gold hidden somewhere in her house, but no one knew where it was. But there was a stranger who, by expediency, speaks to the poor woman, “I shall employ you to weed the lawn.” The woman answered, “I cannot do it now, but if you show my son where the gold is hidden, I will work for you.” The man says, “I know the way; I will show it to your son.” The woman replies, “No one in my house, big or small, knows where the gold is hidden. How can you know?” The man then digs out the hidden gold and shows it to the woman. She is glad, and begins to respect him. O good man! The same is the case with a man’s Buddha Nature. No one can see it. It is like the gold which the poor woman possessed and yet could not locate. I now let people see the Buddha Nature which they possess, but which was hidden by illusions. The Tathagata shows all beings the storehouse of enlightenment, which is the cask of true gold - their Buddha Nature. (Mahaparinirvana Sutra 214-15) Reality has three levels of perception, known also as the three bodies (trikaya) of Buddha. The first is nirmanakaya, the physical body, subject to change. The second is sambhogakaya, the body that appears in visions and, at the same time, the body of the boddhisattvas. The real body of Buddha is dharmakaya, which represents the ultimate nature and unity of all things. Those who surpass the duality of the world attain the perfection of wisdom and become identical with this absolute nature of the Buddha. It is no doubt an annihilation of personhood, identical to the one stated in Hindu pantheism.
Man’s liberation and eternal destiny in Taoism Given the human condition in Taoism, the solution for attaining perfection is not holding Confucian morality or rituals, but controlling the inner universe by practicing the principle of non-acting (wu-wei), a similar concept to the demand of Krishna presented in the Bhagavad Gita (3,19). Wu-wei does not literally mean to do nothing, but to follow the natural order of things, to be spontaneous in all actions, understand them and not strive against nature: The sage desires no-desire, Values no-value, Learns no-learning, And returns to the places that people have forgotten (childhood); (Tao-te Ching 64) In order to attain harmony with Tao a combination of the following different methods can be used, according to the different Taoist schools: a special form of physical and spiritual exercises (Thai Chi), alimentary diet, breath control (tai-yin), sexual techniques (fang-shong shu) similar to the Tantric ones, psychedelic drugs, meditation, etc. These methods are considered to revitalize the vital fluid of the body and assure long life. However, Lao Tse taught neither physical immortality nor personal survival after death. There are no clues in the Tao-te Ching indicating such things, so they have to be later additions to Taoism. http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (10 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:42 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
The seeking of physical immortality seems to have been added to Taoism at the time when it became mixed with alchemy (the search for an “elixir of life”) and religious rituals. It is foreign to the initial spirit of Taoism, which taught indifference to life and death as a condition for one’s integration in the flow of nature. Wang Ch’ung, an important Taoist thinker of the 1st century AD, had to correct the superstitions that invaded his religion, stating clearly that there is no involvement of deities in peoples’ lives and man does not become a ghost at death. The only true spiritual knowledge is the mystical one, attained when any duality is surpassed, when the disciple understands that life and death are only two aspects of the same Ultimate Reality. A famous parable of Chuang Tzu says: Once I, Chuang Tzu, dreamed I was a butterfly, and was happy as a butterfly. I was conscious only of my happiness as a butterfly, unaware that I was Tzu. Soon I awaked, and there I was, veritably myself again. Now I do not know whether I was then a man dreaming I was a butterfly, or whether I am now a butterfly, dreaming I am a man. Between a man and a butterfly there is necessarily a distinction. The transition is called the transformation of things. Therefore, empirical and mystical knowledge are interchangeable. One does not know what reality is: the state as man or as butterfly. The great awakening is a return in the primordial state of non-being, where all transformations cease and personal existence is annihilated: By cultivating one’s nature one will return to virtue. When virtue is perfect, one will be one with the Beginning. Being one with the Beginning, one becomes vacuous, and being vacuous, one becomes great. One will then be united with the sound and breath of things. When one is united with the sound and breath of things, one is then united with the universe. This unity is intimate and seems to be stupid and foolish. This is called profound and secret virtue, this is complete harmony. (Chuang Tzu 12)
Man’s salvation in the monotheistic religions Unlike the pantheistic religions of the East, the three monotheistic religions of the world - Judaism, Christianity and Islam - do not regard salvation as an impersonal merging with the Absolute, but as liberation from the bondage of sin and re-establishing a personal communion with the Creator. However, there are some basic differences between them on how sin is to be overcome by man, on the identity of Jesus Christ, the role He plays in salvation and what our attitude should be towards Him.
Man’s salvation in Christianity According to Christianity, sin did not mark an irreconcilable end of God’s relation with man. After stating that all mankind is sinful, the next and final doctrine of the Bible is not the judgment and eternal damnation of man. Although the triune God is perfect in His justice and holiness, implying that sin should have kept man eternally separated from His presence, His love for us is also perfect. Out of this balance of God’s character and attributes, Christianity states a unique doctrine of salvation, completely foreign to any other religion.
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The remission of sins in the Old Testament vs. religious patterns of other nations The account of man’s restoration from his fallen state begins in the first book of the Old Testament. God called Abraham to leave his country and his father's household and follow Him to an unknown land, promising that he would become the ancestor of a blessed nation. Abraham trusted God against all odds, and this attitude, called faith, determined that God would declare him righteous and the beneficiary of an overwhelming promise: He took him outside and said, "Look up at the heavens and count the stars-- if indeed you can count them." Then he said to him, "So shall your offspring be." Abraham believed the Lord, and he credited it to him as righteousness (Genesis 15,5-6). The nation born out of Abraham is Israel, God’s chosen people to make Himself known in the midst of nations and correct their wrong patterns in understanding Him. This was meant in a time when mankind turned its back to the real God and sin became man’s “true inner nature”. Although all nations had priests, offerings and temples - showing that communion with God was always man’s greatest need - all ritualism was wrong oriented and needed correction. In the book of Exodus is recorded how God redeemed Israel from the Egyptian bondage through His grace (1-19), presented the law according to which they should live (20-24) and then indicated the way to solve any trespassing of the law, through the tabernacle (25-40), which was later replaced by the Jerusalem temple. This given order redemption-law-temple was not randomly chosen. God instituted the Mosaic Law as a covenant with His people after redeeming the nation. Israel had to obey God and to live according to the demands of the law in order to have a right relation with Him (Exodus 19,5). The tabernacle (and later the temple) was the place where sacrifices were brought in order to solve the trespassing of the law and to keep in mind their total dependence on God. Obedience to the law was of first importance and the sacrifices in the temple were second, prescribed only as solution for repairing the failures in fulfilling God’s demands. The other nations of that time had a different view of worship. They were attempting to satisfy their gods and even fulfill their needs through the religious rituals performed in temples. Following this principle, the nations that surrounded ancient Israel (and many more) had to bring more and more substantial offerings in order to accumulate more and more influence on the gods. Soon they came to perform even human sacrifices. In this way their priests reached a point where they were actually manipulating the gods and considered themselves (through the rituals performed) the keepers of universal order, providers of fertility, wealth, victory over enemies, etc. The tendency to manipulate the gods is obvious in Vedic ritualism and was the cause for its decline. The priests held the ropes of heaven and soon became more important than the gods. After all, it was their sacrifices that kept the universe properly functioning. No wonder that asceticism appeared as a revolt against this order. The temple and the sacrifices in the Old Testament have different meanings from the other religions of that time. In the Old Testament, the condition for maintaining a proper relation with God was obeying and conforming to His revealed standards, not the performance of religious rituals that could empower Him to fulfill His divine attributes. Sacrifices are not necessary for Him, but for the sake of sinful people, as the solution for their trespassing of the law. If not absolved, the sins of the people would have brought God’s punishment on the nation. Therefore, the sacrifice had to perform its work in man, not in God. This is why the tabernacle and the sacrificial system is added to the covenant with Israel (Exodus 20-24), as a further grace. Although Israel also had, as the other nations, a temple, priests and sacrifices, their
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Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
role was different. This perverted way of relating to God had to be corrected through Israel. God commanded: The Lord your God will cut off before you the nations you are about to invade and dispossess. But when you have driven them out and settled in their land, and after they have been destroyed before you, be careful not to be ensnared by inquiring about their gods, saying, "How do these nations serve their gods? We will do the same." You must not worship the Lord your God in their way, because in worshipping their gods, they do all kinds of detestable things the Lord hates. They even burn their sons and daughters in the fire as sacrifices to their gods. See that you do all I command you; do not add to it or take away from it (Deuteronomy 12,29-32). Out of the many sacrifices and religious feasts mentioned in the Old Testament, we will emphasize the significance of the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), described in Leviticus chapter 16. It was performed once a year, only by the high priest and for the benefit of all God’s people. Its purpose was to remove all the sins committed during the year and mark the rededication of the nation to God. The high priest had to offer first a bull as an atoning sacrifice for his own sins. Only in this way was he cleansed of his sins and therefore capable of performing the atonement ritual for the nation. Then he took two goats and established one for the Lord and the other as scapegoat. The goat for the Lord was slaughtered and the blood sprinkled on the atonement cover, located in the Most Holy Place of the temple. Under the atonement cover were kept the Ten Commandments carved on stone. As they represented the witness of the high standards of God that were transgressed by the people, the act of the priest symbolized the covering of the transgressions with blood, as ransom price paid for their remission. Then the high priest had to “lay both hands on the head of the live goat and confess over it all the wickedness and rebellion of the Israelites - all their sins - and put them on the goat's head. He shall send the goat away into the desert in the care of a man appointed for the task” (v. 21). This symbolically represented the fact that the sins were carried away from the people, so that their relation with the Holy God could continue. The Israelites thus learned that any trespassing of the Mosaic Law is a sin and any sin demands a specific sacrifice, in order that God, the giver of the law, could forgive the sinner. The principle pointed to the fact that the punishment for sin had to be borne by an innocent animal, as substitute for the sinner. Through the ritual performed by the priest, it was clearly shaped in the mind of any Israelite the fact that his sins are forgiven due to the animal sacrifice, or more specifically, through its blood. The animal became man’s substitute in order to fulfill God’s justice. However, as the Old Testament indicates, the Israelites did transgress the Mosaic Law very often and seriously, especially by worshipping other gods, an act forbidden by the very first command. At the time the prophet Jeremiah lived (627-580 BC), the function of the Temple itself was perverted, and those who came to worship there were condemned for performing empty rituals aimed at gaining God’s goodwill, according to the idolatrous patterns of other religions, without any desire to obey God’s Law (see Jeremiah 7,1-11; 22-23). As a result of this attitude they were punished by the Babylonian captivity. It seemed that all the sacrifices failed to produce a change of attitude in the people’s hearts. A better sacrifice was required to solve the problem of sin once for all, one that should be perfect and unique, and also available for all nations. This is what the New Testament speaks about. Jesus Christ, the perfect solution for our sins The Apostle Paul expresses God’s attitude toward sin in very straightforward terms: http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (13 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:43 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of men who suppress the truth by their wickedness (Romans 1,18). Although God is omnipotent, He could not simply erase all people’s sins by a decree, as some people suggest. He could have thrown us all into hell instead, as He is holy and just and we are all sinners. However, God is perfect not only in power and justice, but also in His love for us. This is why the solution for the problem of sin could not be a simplistic one. His love would not be perfect if not united with His justice, wisdom and power. His wrath toward sin, on the one side, and His love for man and desire to bring him back into communion with Him, on the other side, could have been reconciled only by His initiative, by His power and wisdom. It is important to remember here that Satan is not the one that had to receive satisfaction, as if he became the one in charge of man’s destiny and therefore should have received a reasonable price in order to set him free again, but God Himself. The Apostle Paul makes this point clear in the first chapter of his Letter to the Romans, where he doesn’t even mention Satan. Man came under the dominion of Satan because he deliberately rejected God, but this doesn’t mean that Satan has any rights over man at the moment he wants to return to his rightful master. The New Testament reveals how God took the initiative to solve the problem of sin by using the most dramatic solution ever stated in the world religions: God the Son willingly left His divine glory, took a human body and descended into our world through the virgin birth, limiting Himself into space and time in order to be the perfect and unique sacrifice for us. The Apostle Paul states: Christ Jesus, being in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something to be grasped, but made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness (Philippians 2,6-7). This “making Himself nothing” performed by God the Son is called in theology “the kenosis of Christ” (lit. = “emptying”). It does not mean a subtraction of deity, but the addition of humanity with its consequent limitations. Although taking a human nature was a real humbling for God the Son, it did not involve the giving up of any divine attributes. The doctrine of the kenosis involves the veiling of His preincarnate glory (John 17,5), taking on Himself the likeness of human sinful flesh (Romans 8,3) and the temporary nonuse of divine attributes during His earthly ministry. The kenosis of Christ was His free will initiative and not a necessity imposed by His nature, as is the case with the periodical incarnations of Vishnu. According to Christianity, Jesus Christ is the only incarnation of God, descended into our world with a unique and non-repeatable mission in history. He is not a mere avatar, a periodical incarnation of a Hindu god, but the unique incarnation of God the Son, become God the Man, perfect in both His divine and human nature. This double nature of Jesus Christ is the key for understanding His mission of reconciling man with God. In Vaishnava Hinduism none of the avatars has a perfect union of the two natures. As they have no historical basis, it is very difficult to speculate on how their divine nature combined with the physical one (animal or human). Due to considering the physical body a mere garment that is put on and off (according to Bhagavad Gita 2,22), there cannot be any real association of god with a physical body. Christ came to redeem the physical body as well, therefore His association with it was real. For the same reason there is so much accent laid on His physical resurrection, which for a Hindu avatar would be completely absurd. Therefore the avatar fits best in the Docetic understanding of Christ (the appearance of a physical body, with no intrinsic value to it), which is considered a classic heresy in Christianity. (For more information on classic Christian heresies click here). The double nature of the incarnated Christ, divine and human, is of fundamental importance for His mission. Here is a fragment of the definition of Chalcedon on this topic:
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Following, then, the holy fathers, we unite in teaching all men to confess the one and only Son, our Lord Jesus Christ. This selfsame one is perfect both in deity and in humanness; this selfsame one is also actually God and actually man, with a rational soul and a body. He is of the same reality as God as far as his deity is concerned and of the same reality as we ourselves as far as his humanness is concerned; thus like us in all respects, sin only excepted. Before time began he was begotten of the Father, in respect of his deity, and now in these "last days," for us and behalf of our salvation, this selfsame one was born of Mary the virgin, who is God-bearer in respect of his humanness. We also teach that we apprehend this one and only Christ-Son, Lord, only-begotten -- in two natures; and we do this without confusing the two natures, without transmuting one nature into the other, without dividing them into two separate categories, without contrasting them according to area or function. The distinctiveness of each nature is not nullified by the union. Instead, the "properties" of each nature are conserved and both natures concur in one "person" and in one reality . They are not divided or cut into two persons, but are together the one and only and only-begotten Word of God, the Lord Jesus Christ. Thus have the prophets of old testified; thus the Lord Jesus Christ himself taught us; thus the Symbol of Fathers has handed down to us. We do not intend to analyze here some important historical issues of Christianity. Historical and archaeological research have proved that the New Testament is a reliable information source on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. There are enough reasons to accept that it was not written later than the first century AD. You can use the following links for getting information on this: Dating the Oldest New Testament Manuscripts, by Peter van Minnen; Textual Criticism and Manuscript Interpretation; The Gospels As Historical Sources For Jesus, The Founder Of Christianity, by Prof. R. T. France Now let us turn to the significance of the life and death of Jesus Christ. He always claimed to be divine, having the same nature with the Father. For an analysis of Jesus' sayings concerning His divinity, see the following articles: Jesus' Claims to be God, by Sue Bohlin; Beyond Blind Faith; by Paul Little; The Uniqueness of Jesus, Liar, Lunatic, or Lord?, by Pat Zukeran; The Deity of Christ, by Don Closson; A Response to "From Jesus to Christ", by Rick Wade. The are also other resources available for evaluating the claims that Jesus was a remarkable man who only became a deity in the minds of his followers. The sayings of Jesus concerning His divinity must not be interpreted from a pantheistic point of view, as being valid for anyone. He didn’t preach in India to some pantheist gurus, who believe that everything is a manifestation of Brahman and the spiritual masters are special incarnations of the divine. If He had preached there, surely He would not have been sentenced to death. Therefore, when interpreting His sayings, we have to remember that Jesus Christ came to Israel, to the only monotheistic culture of that time, not to the Far East. Unlike other religions of the world, Judaism clearly stated the notion of a personal and unique God. Anyone daring to claim divine attributes was guilty of blasphemy and had to http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (15 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:43 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
be sentenced to death. This means that the formula "Aham Brahma Asmi" ("I am Brahman") and Jesus’ words "I and the Father are one" (John 10,30) have a totally different meaning, because they are addressed to a totally different context. Jesus could not give pantheistic teachings in a strictly monotheistic culture such as the Judaic one. Such a schizophrenic attitude would be the last thing of which He could be accused. On the contrary, He was always extremely explicit, using common language, so that anyone could understand Him. As a result, the claims about His divinity were interpreted as blasphemy by those who refused to see in Him the fulfillment of the Old Testament’s messianic prophecies. Another attempt to find Eastern connotations in the New Testament uses the prologue of John’s Gospel, where it is stated that “the Word was God” (v. 1) and “through Him all things were made” (v. 3). However, this “Word” was neither the sacred syllable AUM, nor the manifestation of Brahman as Ishvara (the Hindu Logos), but the Person of Jesus Christ, who took the initiative to descend into His own creation: “The word became flesh and made His dwelling among us” (John 1,14). Jesus Christ was not the manifestation of an impersonal Ultimate Reality, but the Person of God the Son. This and all other speculations that try to prove the equivalence of His sayings with those of the East ignore the cultural and religious context in which they were taught. The same is true of the hypothesis that He lived in India from the age of 12 until 30. (Click here for more information on this topic.) He never did teach as a Hindu guru, exhorting people to find their “forgotten divine nature”. Because of this, Gnosticism and its writings present a false portrait of Jesus, totally out of His real context. Jesus Christ cannot merely be placed in an equal position with other spiritual leaders of the world because He is God the Son, who came into our world to reconcile us with the Creator. According to the syncretistic trend of our days, Jesus Christ should be considered as one of the great spiritual masters of the world, but not the only Son of God; one to be followed, but not to be worshipped. Gandhi, the great Indian leader, put it like this: "I cannot ascribe exclusive divinity to Jesus. He is as divine as Krishna or Rama or Mohammad or Zoroaster" (M. Gandhi, Christian Missions, Ahmadabad, 1941, p. 113). However, given His identity, Jesus is more than a great teacher; He is the Master of masters and has no equal among them. Even if there are attempts to find some similarities between His life and that of other important religious leaders, they cover only a few aspects of His life. The most striking differences concern His death. Here we reach the turning point of His incarnation: Jesus had to die on the cross for our redemption from sin and reconciliation with God. The Apostle Peter states in his epistle: He himself bore our sins in his body on the tree, so that we might die to sins and live for righteousness; by his wounds you have been healed (1 Peter 2,24; see also 1,18-21; 3,18). Jesus Christ as “the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1,29), is the cornerstone of Christianity and its non-paralleled element. Toward this fulfillment pointed the sacrifices of the Old Testament (see Hebrews 9,12-14) and the highlights of prophecies. If man had the slightest chance to rehabilitate himself through his own power or wisdom, such an extreme solution would have been absurd. The tragedy of the cross proves the reality and gravity of human sin, the spiritual misery in which we are all stuck and the impossibility of saving ourselves. Mocked and spit upon by the human race, nailed on a cross and forsaken by the Father, Jesus Christ took our place in punishment. The prophet Isaiah wrote about this event about seven centuries before it happened: Surely he took up our infirmities and carried our sorrows, yet we considered him stricken by God, smitten by him, and afflicted. But he was pierced for our transgressions, he was crushed for our iniquities; the punishment that brought us peace was upon him, and by his wounds we are healed
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Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
(Isaiah 53,4-5). Although man did his best, he couldn’t destroy Him. On the contrary, the most horrible crime ever committed by mankind - the crucifixion of the incarnated God - was reversed to become the very source of our salvation. While dying on the cross, Jesus shouted, “It is finished” (John 19,30). In Greek, the expression used was “Tetelestai”, which means, “the debt was paid in full”. What was meant here is the debt that man deserved to pay for his sins in hell, through eternal torment. By His death, Jesus paid in full the price required for the salvation of mankind from sin. Was the suffering of Christ on the cross a mere illusion? Obviously not! His torment and death were so real that none of those who saw it could expect a future victory over death. This proves the full incarnation of God the Son. He did not die only in physical appearance, as the Docetist heresy suggests, but as a poor miserable man, experiencing suffering in its fullest sense. His death proves both the seriousness of our sin and the unfathomable love of God, as Jesus once proclaimed: For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life (John 3,16). His death on the cross put an end to the sacrificial system of the Old Testament. Jesus Christ is the perfect fulfillment of the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). He fulfilled both the role of the goat for the Lord, by the fact that He shed His blood for us, and of the scapegoat, as He took our sins away from the presence of God. However, death and hell had no power over Christ and couldn’t hold Him captive, because He had no sin. The Gospel (“The Good News”) does not end with the crucifixion. If so, Christianity would have been a hopeless religion, bound by the impossibility of conquering suffering and injustice. But Christianity holds a unique element: the morning of the Resurrection. Of what use would have been a special spiritual master if he too, as all others, could not defeat death? What meaning would His teachings and His example have for us? Without His resurrection, the best way to confront suffering would have been Eastern pessimism. Escape from suffering by the destruction of personhood, by the negation of life, would have been the natural result of man’s failure in his combat against evil and suffering. Christianity is not a pessimistic religion, demanding the abolition of life, but an optimistic one, full of affirmation of life, according to the model represented by Jesus Christ. This is emphasized by the fact that the Resurrection was a physical one, in the body, not only in the spirit. According to the Eastern view, the resurrection of the body is absurd, as the liberation of the self cannot be a return to the physical wrapping. A physical resurrection does not solve anything from an Eastern point of view; it only brings man back to his initial unsolved problem. For this reason the resurrection of Jesus is usually understood as a physical resuscitation of His body (as some Yogis can do today), or as a purely spiritual resurrection, a view which holds that the physically resurrected body was only an illusion. Given the cruelty of the crucifixion method, the first possibility is out of the question. Concerning the second, although the resurrected body was a transformed one, it was not an ethereal form, as those produced in spiritualistic manifestations, but one completely liberated from any terrestrial limitation. (Click here for an examination of the Gnostic interpretation of Jesus' mere spiritual and mystical resurrection.) During the 40 days He spent with His disciples after the Resurrection, Jesus appeared to “more than five hundred of the brothers at the same time” (1 Corinthians 15,6), so that people could accept the reality of His bodily resurrection. Despite the fact that there are legends in the mythology of other nations telling stories of other “resurrected saviors” - as Osiris, Attis, Mithra, Adonis, Tammuz, etc. - in comparison with the resurrection of Jesus, they are nothing but non-historical legends. You can use the following links for getting more information about the proofs of Jesus’ resurrection: http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (17 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:43 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
Contemporary Scholarship and the Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, The Bodily Resurrection of Jesus, The Historicity of the Empty Tomb of Jesus, The Disciples' Inspection of the Empty Tomb, by Prof. William Lane Craig Evidence for the Resurrection, by Josh McDowell Not only did Jesus keep His physical body after the Resurrection, but He also ascended “at the right hand of the Father” in this body. The reality of the resurrected body overthrows misconceptions about the illusory state of the physical world and emphasizes the value of life here and now. Only if we are convinced that this earthly life is important can we engage in solving its problems. If the only victory of Jesus over death had been the survival of his spirit, the value of this present physical life would have remained unclear and our interest placed only on the other side of the grave. But Christianity proclaims the victory over death to be won here and now, and this embodied victory gives us hope and strength in our struggle with suffering and sin. It is true that Eastern religions also claim the possibility of attaining liberation during the physical life. There exists the concept of jivan-mukta in Hinduism (the “liberated from rebirth while living in a human body”) and that of arhat in Buddhism. They are said to have pierced the veil of cosmic illusion and realized their true spiritual nature. The difference to be emphasized here is that jivan-mukta despises his body and awaits to get rid of it at physical death, when he will survive in his true spiritual essence - of atman or purusha. True liberation (moksha) is defined against any personal existence and must break any bondage of the physical body. The jivan-mukta has to act in the world completely detached, taking care not to involve himself in any association with the physical world. The resurrection of Jesus contradicts such a perspective, indicating that the created matter has nothing wrong or illusory in itself. The true problem of man is not his involvement in the physical world, rather it is a moral problem called sin, which is a personal attitude toward the Creator. According to Christianity, liberation (salvation) is not deliverance from personal existence, but redemption out of slavery to sin and Satan, into a transformed life of eternal communion with God. By His atoning death, Jesus Christ crushed the power of Satan over us (1 John 3,8) and liberated us from the curse of sin. Another crucial element of Christianity is the fact that Jesus Christ is not one of the many ways to God, but the only way to God, as He claimed Himself: I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me (John 14,6). This statement is very bold, clear and embarrassing for those who try to find other ways to God, ignoring the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. However, this does not mean that those who never heard about Christ are damned to spend all their eternity in hell, simply because they had no opportunity to hear about Him. (On this topic see our special file How can those who never heard about Christ be saved?) The Eastern religions are not so exclusive regarding liberation because they are not grounded on such a dramatic solution for our salvation as the one Jesus Christ offers. These religions emphasize the role of one's own efforts in order to reach the Ultimate Reality, by rituals, sacrifices, morality, asceticism, meditation, etc. As most of them cultivate trust only in the efficiency of one's own resources, they reject any possibility of accepting a Savior. The doctrine of karma has a strong contribution to this attitude. The idea of finding liberation through the merits of an external savior cannot be reconciled by any means with karma without contradicting its basic demands. There can be no escape from the consequences of karma by grace, because the personal forms of manifestation of the impersonal Ultimate Reality cannot be above this law. Sins have to be paid for, not forgiven. (See our file on the Parable of the Prodigal Son http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (18 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:43 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
in Christianity and Buddhism.) In Christianity, the situation is completely different: Man has no chance to save himself. He cannot ascend by himself from the misery of sin, therefore God the Son had to descend to man’s state and lift him up. Unlike the founders of other religions, Jesus Christ didn’t bring us only wisdom and parables, but also His flesh and blood. This is the major difference, which cannot simply be ignored. The meaning of salvation in Christianity According to the Bible, the sacrifice of Jesus Christ is our only chance for returning to a communion relation with our Creator. This solution is the gift of God to mankind, an undeserved gift, called grace in Christian theology. Without God’s grace, no one can deserve salvation on the basis of his own resources. The Apostle Paul wrote: For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith - and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God - not by works, so that no one can boast (Ephesians 2,8-9). Most Eastern religions refuse this possibility, as they consider that all resources to attain liberation are inherent to human nature. The major spiritual paths for attaining liberation in Hinduism are karma yoga (the way of good deeds and fulfillment of social duties), bhakti yoga (the way of devotion toward a personal deity in order to accumulate merits), raja yoga (the way of controlling the mind, as the ascetic technique of Patanjali requires) and jnana yoga (the way of getting spiritual knowledge). Excepting some developments in bhakti yoga, all are based on human effort and capacity for attaining liberation. In most Eastern religions, man doesn’t need forgiveness, because there is no personal God as Ultimate Reality against whom one could sin. Consequently, sin is mere ignorance, so that the “sinner” needs only help to reason the right way and realize that he is responsible for his actions, for which he must pay the consequences in samsara. If there is no need for forgiveness, the need for grace cannot exist either. Although Mahayana Buddhism accepts the help of the bodhisattva beings, it has no equivalent to the Christian idea of grace. The bodhisattvas help people by bringing them to heavenly realms where they have the privilege to hear the proper doctrine. Only by perseverance on this doctrine can liberation be attained. However, there are also trends that invoke the necessity of grace from a personal god. Remember the theistic schools grounded by Ramanuja and Madhva in India. They stated that grace is an absolute necessity to attain liberation, which represents a remarkable similarity to the Christian view of grace. A similar situation is to be found in Pure Land Buddhism. Although remarkable, these theistic trends have only secondary importance in Eastern religions. The Christian perspective on salvation is that no one can deserve the grace of God by performing rituals, good deeds, asceticism or meditation, because grace is the result of His initiative. However, this does not mean that man has no responsibility and is saved whatever his attitude toward the Savior might be. In order to be forgiven and brought back into a personal relation with God, it is not enough that the grace of God exists, as potential solution. It must be accepted personally by the sinful man. Only then can the atoning death of Christ become an actual solution for one’s sins. The recognition of one’s sinful state, followed by personal acceptance of the atoning sacrifice of Christ as the God-given solution for salvation, is called repentance. The Apostle Peter used this term in his preaching on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2,38). In that given context, repentance had a wider meaning http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (19 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:43 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
than simply regretting the mistakes of the past. We are all sorry for the mistakes we do, but this is not repentance as required in the Bible. When the Holy Spirit descended at Pentecost, repentance meant to be sorry for rejecting Jesus Christ as Savior (see Acts 2,22-37), accompanied by a subsequent change of mentality: If until that moment the Jews considered Jesus to be only a strange guy that pretended to be equal with God, the Scripture describes a total change of that mentality, toward considering him God the Son, incarnated for their salvation. The same change of attitude toward Jesus is required today. He was not a mere man, prophet, guru or something similar, but the Savior of the world, the only “name under heaven given to men by which we must be saved" (Acts 4,12). The “effort” man has to do in order to be saved is to open his heart and receive the free gift of God, through faith. Saving faith means more than to know that God exists and what He says is true. This is a knowledge that even demons believe “and shudder” (James 2,19). Faith requires total trust in God's promises. In the Epistle to the Hebrews faith is defined as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11,1). It is the proper human response to God’s initiative, not a mere form of positive thinking. Faith has as object the Person of God, while positive thinking requires trust in oneself. The initiative of God to make Himself known to us, without which we couldn’t know anything about Him by our initiative, is called in theology revelation. It was progressive in the Old Testament and reached its climax in the incarnation of Christ, an undeniable historical event. God’s revelation touched human history, which is why the Christian faith requires trust in a certain line of historical events that culminate with the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. This historical element confers to the Christian faith enough relevance to be set apart from both positive thinking and the parallel concept in Hinduism, that of shraddha. Hindu “faith” has its origin in Vedic ritualism and meant trust in the efficiency of the ritual, being in fact just a form of positive thinking. (Only in the bhakti movements it came to be oriented toward a god or a guru, but then also mostly as an instrument to accumulate merits.) Christianity is often criticized because its solution to man’s present condition is too simple. “How could it be possible to attain salvation only by the merits of Christ?”; “How could one receive it without hard perseverance, through asceticism and meditation?”; etc. Although man’s desire to do something for his salvation seems to be justified, under this attitude stays hidden an offended pride. In order to accept God’s free gift in Christ, man has to constantly admit his failure to attain salvation by himself. This situation conflicts sharply with his tendency toward self-justification, with his pride. On the other hand, pride is a bad product of personhood, and we therefore meet another paradox: The follower of Eastern spirituality refuses the grace of God as a result of his pride, an attitude he should have eradicated from his life, according to his own Eastern religious teaching. Paradoxically, he seeks to destroy his personhood, rather than a bad attachment of it (pride). This raises important questions about the Eastern religion’s consistency within itself. As man finds it so hard to give up his pride, preferring to attain salvation by his own efforts, even if it would take several lives, we could ask: Which of the two alternatives is harder to follow: the one which requires abandonment of self-justifying pride or the one of personal hard striving? If Christianity is such a simple way, why is it refused by so many? Is it not really harder to constantly defeat your pride and consider yourself powerless before God, than to continue your asceticism? Looking for an answer in human nature, corrupted by sin and full of rebellion against God, the answer is obviously positive. This means that Christianity isn’t at all a “simple” alternative, as it demands us to abandon the very thing we love most: our pride, the tendency to prove our independence from God. God wishes that all people should accept His gift of salvation (see 1 Timothy 2,4; 2 Peter 3,9), but http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (20 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:43 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
without forcing anybody to do it. Jesus Christ says: I stand at the door and knock. If anyone hears my voice and opens the door, I will come in and eat with him, and he with me (Revelation 3,20). The responsibility for “opening the door” belongs to each of us, without exception. However, the one who continues to ignore Christ in this life will after death spend the rest of his eternal existence behind the closed door. Christianity does not proclaim universalism, the doctrine of universal salvation of all souls, regardless of their spiritual option during this earthly life. Universalism is rather a characteristic of Eastern religions, but not as a result of divine love, but rather of the necessity imposed by the cyclic manifestations of the Ultimate Reality. Nor does Christianity support the idea of some people being predestined to hell while others to paradise. Being chosen in the Bible has to do with God's sovereign will in choosing some people for a special ministry, for instance the prophets in the Old Testament and Jesus’ apostles in the New Testament. But this has nothing to do with others being rejected from attaining salvation. In other words, one's salvation does not depend on if he is chosen or not for a certain ministry appointed by God. It is possible that even chosen people may end in eternal damnation. For instance, Balaam among the prophets (Numbers 22-24) and Judas among the apostles were both chosen for a special ministry, but because of their disobedience were rejected from salvation. Therefore it depends solely on humans, on how they respond to God's grace, to be saved. It is hard to imagine a loving God who chooses to enter our world and die on a cross, who could randomly choose some people and reject others. Christianity proclaims man’s free will and responsibility toward God. Spiritual freedom is the real possibility offered to man to choose one out of two eternal destinations, heaven or hell. A third option, that of absolute independence, is impossible, as Jesus Christ himself stated: “He who is not with me is against me, and he who does not gather with me scatters” (Matthew 12,30). On the other hand, in the Eastern religions, karma discredits any notion of individual freedom. The only “freedom” left to man is the possibility to give a detached sense to his predetermined actions (see Bhagavad Gita 18,59-60). In other words, the only freedom left is that of “choosing” the predetermined destiny stated by karma, which means resignation to fate. Not having available (at least) two possible destinations to express a real choice (God or Satan), but only one (the unique impersonal Ultimate Reality), a real freedom of will cannot be defined. Whatever man chooses, finally he has to return to the impersonal origin of all existence. Refusing karma and reincarnation, the Christian point of view states that we live only once in this physical world, and then follows the judgment of God (Hebrews 9,27). (For more information on reincarnation and its relation to Christian theology click here.) After death man either enters into a close and eternal communion with God, or into a state of total isolation from Him, according to the option chosen during this earthly existence. Although the second possibility is frightening (and because of this some people accuse God of being cruel), He doesn’t allow it without first offering us as solution the free gift of salvation through the atoning death of Jesus Christ. Nothing can save us from this unwanted destiny except Him. Instead of calling Him cruel, we should remember that God the Son was so deeply concerned with mankind that He entered space and time, took a human body and died on a cross as our substitute. What more do we expect from God as proof of His love and concern for us? In order to accept His sacrifice, one life is enough. The Christian solution is much better than those of the East, which leave man alone in his endless struggle with karma.
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Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
On the other hand, if God would not isolate evil, if He would accept in His eternal presence those who do not want it, He wouldn’t be just. If someone persists in his rebellion toward Him, manifested through indifference or desire for independence, God does not force him to enter into the kingdom of heaven, where this man should worship Him against his will. This would be an abuse against man’s freedom. Hell is the result of man's choice to be independent from God and reject His offer. There is nothing unfair or cruel in God’s withdrawing any intervention from this alternative existence. The fact that hell is an eternal torment (according to Matthew 25,41,46) cannot be called a cruelty on God’s part. Those who will be there will know why, without questioning divine justice (see the parable of Lazarus in Luke 16,19-31). (Click here for some comments of the Early Church Fathers on hell and eternal punishment.) In conclusion, it has to be remembered that according to Christianity, the eternal destiny of man is not the annihilation of soul and personhood, but a state of perfect and eternal communion with God. Belief in the survival of personhood after death is not an illusion but is grounded on the creation of man as a person, on the promises of the Bible and the resurrection of Christ. God does not intend to annihilate our personhood in order that we might discover an impersonal hidden nature, but to annihilate sin and its products which compromise His image in us. Therefore, the highest experience human beings could have is not merging with an impersonal Ultimate Reality but entering into a perfect communion of reciprocal love with God our Creator. Man’s salvation in Islam Unlike Christianity, Islam teaches salvation by works, not by faith. Although all people are sinners (Quran 16,61), salvation can be attained through observing the Five Pillars of Islamic practice: 1) the belief that Allah is the only god and Muhammad his messenger; 2) performing the five daily prayers; 3) fasting throughout the month of Ramadan; 4) charity, giving to the poor; 5) the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime, if one can afford it. By performing these works, the Muslim hopes that at the judgment day his good deeds will exceed the bad ones, and so he will reach the paradise of material and sensual delights (56,16-41). Yet, despite all deeds, Allah reserves the absolute right to send the deceased to wherever he pleases, paradise or hell. Those who do not conform their lives to the demands of Islam will surely be thrown into hell, a place of extreme physical pain (56,42-45; 94-95). Christianity is not the only religion that claims to be the only valid way to God. Islam states the same: “Whoever seeks a religion other than Islam, it will never be accepted from him and in the hereafter he will be one of the losers” (3,85). Jews and Christians are all said to be misled by their religions (9,30-31), because they reject Muhammad as the most important prophet of God. Jesus Christ has a totally different character in the Quran than in the Bible. It is said that he was created out of clay, like Adam (3,60), that he was not God (5,17-72), not crucified (4,157-158) and that he announced the coming of Muhammad (61,6). There are some useful sites we invite you to visit in order to get more information on a comparison between Islam and Christianity:
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Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
The Person of Christ in the Gospel and the Quran, by Abd al-Fadi Sin and Atonement in Islam and Christianity, by Iskander Jadeed The Cross in the Gospel and the Qur’an, by Iskander Jadeed Christ in Islam and Christianity, by John Gilchrist A Question that Demands an Answer, by Abd al-Masih The Textual History of the Qur’an and the Bible, by John Gilchrist Six Muslim Beliefs and a Christian Response, by Jay Smith The Bible and the Qur’an, An Historical Comparison
Conclusion Considering all these views on salvation and man’s eternal destiny, it is hard to believe that they could ever be reconciled. The world’s religions hold rather irreconcilable positions in all of the three aspects mentioned in the beginning of this file: the nature of the resources needed for attaining salvation, the actual way of getting saved and the meaning of salvation from an eternal perspective. The resources for attaining salvation belong strictly to our human nature according to most of the Eastern religions, excepting some schools of devotional Hinduism and Buddhism. Man needs only to know the right things in order to be saved, having the ability to pursue the religious path by his own strength. Christianity holds the opposite view, stating that our “true inner nature” is sin and therefore all our efforts aimed to earn God’s favor are useless. Based on the resources human nature has, the actual way of getting saved will take two divergent possibilities. Religions that claim we have all the resources in ourselves for attaining salvation naturally stress personal effort, materialized as good deeds, devotional rituals, meditation techniques, physical asceticism, accumulating wisdom, etc. This is the case with most religions in the world. While pantheistic religions stress certain meditation and ascetic techniques aimed at discovering man’s inner nature, most theistic religions demand good deeds and devotional rituals in order to earn God’s grace and therefore deserve heaven. The situation in Christianity is again opposite, stating that we cannot do anything to deserve salvation and eternal communion with God, but only to accept His grace revealed in Jesus Christ. By no means can man have God indebted to him. Only God can save man, at His initiative. Therefore the course of action in salvation has an opposite sense in Christianity vs. most other religions. It is God who takes the initiative and descends into His own creation in order to save man, not man accumulating merits and working out his way toward God, by his own strength. Concerning the meaning of salvation from an eternal perspective, the views are again irreconcilable. In the pantheistic religions salvation means liberation from ignorance and corresponds to the fusion of the impersonal self with the Absolute, implying dissolution of subject and object, knower and known. Others, such as Buddhism and Taoism, take salvation as an illumination, meaning a discovery of and conformity of oneself with an eternal law that governs existence. For most Eastern religions liberation leads to extinction of any personal existence, whether the self remains eternally isolated (according to the Samkhya and Yoga darshanas), merges with the Ultimate Reality (in pantheism), or is itself an illusion that ceases to exist (in Buddhism). Dualistic religions see man’s salvation as a return to an initial angelic http://www.comparativereligion.com/salvation.html (23 of 24) [10/27/2000 9:47:43 AM]
Man's salvation and eternal destiny in world religions
state, from which he has fallen into a physical body. The monotheistic religions define salvation as entering a state of eternal communion with God, which means that personhood will not be abrogated but perfected. However, they differ greatly on the way man can be saved and on the role Jesus Christ has in it. According to Judaism and Islam, salvation is attained by performing good deeds and following the moral law. According to Christianity this is not enough and the role of Jesus Christ as Savior is essential. Given these facts, it is impossible that the world’s religions could be only aspects of the same true spirituality, as present day syncretism suggests. The contradictions between them are so significant that there can be no way to reconcile them. Next article:
The nature of evil
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Critical considerations regarding pantheist religions and philosophies
Critical considerations regarding pantheist religions and philosophies We will now proceed to evaluate how the first three criteria mentioned in the previous file are fulfilled by a pantheistic view of life. The classic example of pantheist philosophy was stated by the Upanishads (7th to 5th century BC) and then developed by the Hindu philosopher Shankara to become the well-known Advaita Vedanta philosophy.
1) Internal consistency of Hindu pantheism As mentioned in a previous file on the Vedantic view on liberation, it is claimed that the unity atman-Brahman is perfectly attained during the last level of meditation, called turiya. The Mandukya Upanishad (12), considered by Shankara to express the quintessence of Vedanta philosophy, ends with the following verse: The fourth state has cognizance of neither what is inside nor what is outside, nor of both together: it is not a mass of wisdom, it is not wise nor yet unwise. It is unseen; there can be no commerce with it; it is impalpable, has no characteristics, unthinkable; it cannot be designated. Its essence is its firm conviction of the oneness of itself; it causes the phenomenal world to cease; it is tranquil and mild, devoid of duality. Such do they consider this fourth to be. He is the Self; he it is who should be known. (Translated by R.C. Zaehner, in Mysticism - Sacred and Profane, p. 154) This passage emphasizes the necessity for transcending any duality in order to know Brahman (the Self). However, there is a logical contradiction between these two elements. When transcending any duality, nothing can be known anymore, because the elementary duality between knower (subject) and known (object) is obliterated. Duality is essential for any type of epistemological process. When the subject is atman and the object Brahman, no normal knowledge can be involved, because atman and Brahman are one. The point here is that Ultimate Reality cannot be known in a pantheist religion. Man cannot know something with which he has to impersonally merge. Although the Hindu Vedanta claims that Brahman is known at the moment of liberation, this has no logical basis. (The laws of logic are the result of our dual thinking, which makes differences and operates with them, so logic itself does not work in a system where any duality is excluded.) S. Radhakrishnan defines liberation as “the highest experience where all intellectual activity is transcended and even self-consciousness is obliterated” (Indian Philosophy, vol. II,
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Critical considerations regarding pantheist religions and philosophies
p. 640). But who actually has this experience? Who can confirm that liberation is the highest point of one’s existence, if personhood ceases to exist? An impersonal atman, that is beyond any duality? If any personal attribute is lost, there is nothing left to describe the liberation experience. As a result, the "knowledge of atman-Brahman identity" cannot be considered a real epistemological process. S. Radhakrishnan states: “As the distinction between the highest self and the individual is one of false knowledge, we get rid of it by true knowledge.” (Ibid., p. 622). This “true knowledge” corresponds to experiencing a pantheistic perspective on reality. Therefore, a better term that replaces the concept of knowing, is that of experiencing unity with Ultimate Reality, through certain meditation techniques. Meditation is a way of transcending duality through entering altered states of consciousness, or, in other words, a way of deliberately perverting one’s natural cognitive faculties (senses and mind). It doesn’t represent an actual process of knowing, but rather a way of imposing a non-dual reality to one’s consciousness. Terms such as “direct knowledge of truth” represent the actual experiences one has in meditation. In order to find out more about the veracity of these experiences, click here. On the other hand, in this given context, when there are no real distinctions between atman and Brahman, it is not the individual knower who has the cognitive experience, but only Brahman. If the cognitive experience belongs not to man but to Brahman, not even one’s own experience (called “true knowledge”) can really be a valid way of knowing Brahman, because Brahman can only know himself. We reached this strange conclusion as a result of both denying the importance of man’s personal status distinct from Ultimate Reality, and considering real only that which is one with Brahman. In conclusion, the pantheistic premise of oneness generates internal inconsistencies in the system (or at least an incoherent epistemology).
2) The requirement for harmony between empirical and absolute knowledge in Hindu pantheism Not only knowing Ultimate Reality is impossible in a pantheist system, but also balancing empirical and absolute knowledge. This consequent difficulty results from the doctrine of world-illusion (maya), according to which the phenomenal world is ultimately illusory. Therefore, the senses, through which we interact with the phenomenal world, as well as mind, which operates with this data, are considered to provide illusory and confusing information when trying to grasp spiritual reality. They perpetuate man’s ignorance (avidya) of the true reality, which is Brahman, and therefore feed karma. The problem with this way of interpreting empirical knowledge is that we can consider it illusory only by using an objective standard as reference. As long as the knower is inside the system, bound to its illusion, he cannot know what is wrong with his empirical way of knowing. In other words, in a closed system where illusion works as a rule, we can prove that empirical knowledge is true or false only by comparing it to an absolute standard, which must not belong to the same system. Without this epistemological basis we cannot make objective judgments on reality. What could be the standard for establishing the illusory value of empirical knowledge? If it is a god, a being external to our system and able to communicate with humans, we arrive at what is called revelation in a theistic system. In this situation, which represents a totally different religious perspective, we should accept duality and intelligible communication inside a dualistic system, but this obviously cannot be the case. If the required standard were an internal one, such as experience (the effect of living out “reality” in one’s personal life, or experiencing life as suffering), we arrive at another contradiction of an epistemological nature: If we knew from experience that http://www.comparativereligion.com/pantheism.html (2 of 6) [10/27/2000 9:47:49 AM]
Critical considerations regarding pantheist religions and philosophies
phenomenological knowledge is false, then no room would be left for reaching “absolute knowledge” because it is always introduced and mediated by empirical, or first hand, experience. In other words, as long as all information we get about spiritual reality is mediated by our senses (sight and hearing) and mind, and these have ultimately illusory value, how can we know that the pantheist perspective itself is not a deceptive illusion? (We learn about it primarily by using the same empirical knowledge, which is false, so it should be rejected.) Because of the impossibility of harmonizing absolute and empirical knowledge, a supplementary difficulty arises in discerning between what is real and what is not. A pantheist can reach the same existential doubt as Chuang Tzu, and say “I do not know whether I was then a man dreaming I was a butterfly, or whether I am now a butterfly, dreaming I am a man”. Although this may seem to be too speculative, there are enough people practicing Eastern meditation who have real problems in discerning between what belongs to real life and what (really) is illusion. From an ontological point of view, it is impossible to state a logical balance between absolute reality and worldly illusion. In Advaita Vedanta the option was to consider the world either an illusion (maya), or a result of ignorance (avidya). But as illusion and ignorance belong themselves to the phenomenal reality, one cannot explain its existence in regard to absolute truth.
3) The viability of Hindu pantheism Let us now examine the meaning of human life in a pantheist view of reality, and understand to what extent it can work at personal and social level. As long as atman, the core entity that defines human existence, has an impersonal nature, personhood is a hindrance to attaining liberation and, consequently, has to be abolished. This is a logical necessity given by the fact that all forms of Brahman’s manifestation (including man) have to return to the primordial state of non-manifestation at the end of each cosmic cycle. The oblivion of personhood does not refer only to some of its products, such as egoism, but to the very existence of the psycho-mental faculties which define it - intellect, will, emotions, consciousness, communion, etc. All these are said to belong to the inferior ego, totally distinct from the self (atman). Between them no possible relation can exist. However, it is only personhood that makes us distinct humans and confers personal identity, not the impersonal atman devoid of any attributes. Therefore, it is hard to accept that liberation from personhood and merging with an impersonal Absolute (according to the model of the raindrop that falls into the ocean and becomes one with it) could represent any form of spiritual fulfillment or progression. The extinction of self-consciousness and entering a state of “absolute silence” is rather a terrible perspective on human destiny. Such a frightening end should raise serious doubts to those who become adherents of pantheist religions. Therefore it is not surprising that discussing the meaning and consequences of liberation is constantly avoided by turning the adherents’ attention to the practice of meditation and the experiences which accompany it. But no matter how convincing such experiences could be, they end in a tragic kind of liberation, which does not correspond to our personal status. As personal beings, we tend to attain personal fulfillment in the afterlife. The result of rejecting personhood is that some important human values are thoroughly affected. We will briefly examine some aspects concerning freedom, morality, social involvement and compassion, trying to understand their actual meaning in pantheism.
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Critical considerations regarding pantheist religions and philosophies
The first of them, freedom, is discredited by the doctrine of karma. As the self is forced to enter a new material existence until all karmic debt is paid, man’s present life is shaped according to the dictates of karma. Whatever man chooses to do, finally he has to return to the impersonal origin of all existence. Therefore, for the one searching for liberation, the only freedom left is that of avoiding being trapped in new attachments (by the use of his free will) and submitting to fate. According to the pantheist view, real freedom is experienced only at liberation. But this means liberation out of personhood, not becoming a free person. Pantheism does not view freedom as being free to make your own choices but as liberation from karma, and, as a result, from personal existence. However, the kind of freedom one experiences at the moment of liberation cannot be called real freedom, because when the self gets merged with Brahman, there is no conscious agent left to experience it. Second, consequent pantheist teaching does not offer a solid ground for morality. As emphasized in a previous file reincarnation is not a good stimulant for moral living. From an ontological point of view, if all things are manifestations of the same unique essence, good and evil are relative and therefore a real distinction between them cannot be stated, nor a sound motivation for ethical action. (It would be useful here to review our file on The nature of evil in Eastern religions.) S. Radhakrishnan states: The moral world, which assumes the isolation and independence of its members, belongs to the world of appearances. So long as we occupy the standpoint of individualistic moralism, we are in the world of samsara, with its hazards and hardships. The end of morality is to lift oneself up above one’s individuality and become one with the impersonal spirit of the universe (Indian Philosophy, vol. II, p. 625-26). But who could live consistently with the conviction that moral values are ultimately illusory? In fact, it is that old-fashioned “individualistic moralism” that holds our society in balance. Actually, pantheism does not demand immorality, but amorality, which represents indifference to well-established moral values. However, in everyday life the adherents of pantheism do not reject morality, but consider it important only for the inferior stages of one’s quest toward liberation. In other words, morality is necessary at first, but then becomes a hindrance in attaining liberation by the attachments it produces. But this is nothing but another inconsistency of pantheism. How could one pursue a moral conduct if convinced that all good or bad things ultimately belong to the world of illusion? Third, social involvement of the individual person is not encouraged by a pantheist view of life. In order to attain liberation, one should abandon social life because its basis is the illusory world of duality, which produces attachments. This is a hindrance toward realizing the truth of non-duality and should be avoided. One possible solution would be that only those who have already attained liberation (jivan mukta) can participate in social life, as they have gone beyond dualism and therefore cannot accumulate karma anymore. A second possible solution is suggested in the Bhagavad Gita (selfless action as karma yoga), and will be discussed in another file. A third possible solution for social involvement is proposed by the Upanishadic tradition of the four ashramas, which holds that withdrawing from social life should occur only at a certain age. According to it, a man should first be a young disciple, then have a family, and only when his children are big enough to support themselves is he allowed to leave them and society. However, this solution is not followed today. (Which guru asks his disciples to first establish a family, raise their children until they become independent, and only then dedicate their life to the quest for liberation?) Even if it were followed, it is doubtful that one could truly get himself involved in family affairs, knowing that all attachments are illusory and produce bad karma.
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Critical considerations regarding pantheist religions and philosophies
Fourth, there is a strange way of understanding compassion in pantheism. Compassion is not recommended as being intrinsically good for the sake of the other persons in need, as in theistic religions, but as an efficient instrument for liberating one’s own mind of the erroneous idea of individual personality. Man cannot be helped as an individual, because it is individuality (non-integration into oneness) which is the source of his problems. Compassion is therapeutically good for the one who performs it, and does not primarily aim to improve the condition of the person in need. In other words, compassion (as well as morality) may be considered useful only as an aid for oneself’s journey towards knowledge and union with the impersonal Absolute. Otherwise it may conflict with the manifestation of karma in the life of the one who is suffering (and needs compassionate help), which would be bad for him and bad for the “compassionate” helper. Similar criticism is valid for other pantheist religious schools The same comments can be addressed to other pantheist religious schools such as Tantrism, Hatha Yoga and Tibetan Buddhism. In Tantrism and Hatha Yoga, instead of the Brahman-atman impersonal fusion, we have that of Shiva-Shakti (Shakti being represented in man as the kundalini spiritual energy). In Tibetan Buddhism it is consciousness that merges with the impersonal essence of the world (shunya). The epistemological inconsistencies (see the first two criteria) are the same as in Vedanta. The viability of these schools face similar problems. Difficulties concerning morality arise especially in Tantrism of the left-hand school, where liberation is experienced through sexual union. In order to symbolize and overcome the duality Shiva-Shakti, man assumes the role of Shiva and the woman that of Shakti. The preliminary ritual requirements break many traditional taboos, by consuming fish, meat and wine. Although all elements need to be interpreted at a purely spiritual level, there are many cases (especially in the West) in which so-called Tantric procedures become pretexts for abandoning oneself to lustful instincts and embracing the less spiritual path of today’s “total sexual freedom”. Scientific pantheism Attempts are made today to ground a so-called scientific pantheist view of life, which should get rid of all the embarrassing religious stuff and be accepted by the scientific community. Developments toward this new ideology were encouraged by the latest discoveries in science, especially in the field of quantum physics. Research on elementary particles revealed that an equivalence between matter and energy can be stated, according to Einstein’s principle, E=mc2. Therefore it can be considered that any aspect of our material universe is a manifestation of energy. This was believed to confirm the fact that there is a unique reality at the basis of our universe corresponding to Brahman, the impersonal Ultimate Reality of Hindu Vedanta. In other words, as religious pantheism holds that our world is a manifestation of Brahman, in a similar way the so-called scientific pantheism states that energy is the source of any given aspect of the universe. Consequently, “scientific pantheism” replaces Brahman with energy. This new "religion" claims to reconcile traditional religion and science. It is stated that “it requires no faith other than common sense, no guru other than yourself” and also that it accepts “all evidence that is either a matter of common experience, or that is scientifically validated”. Because of its “scientific” orientation, it rejects even the basic tenets of traditional pantheism, such as reincarnation and any form of afterlife. According to the new way of understanding afterlife, “mind is an aspect of the body, and at
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Critical considerations regarding pantheist religions and philosophies
death dissolves with the body to merge into the elements from which it was formed”. Instead of worshipping any god, scientific pantheism worships nature, which is not at all considered to be illusory. However, the problem with “scientific pantheism” is that being so “scientifically” oriented, it isn’t at all a religion, but only a new form of atheism. It is a new form of rejecting anything that passes human understanding, a trend that isn’t new at all in mankind’s history. “Scientific pantheism” and scientific atheism are synonyms, nothing but forms of rejecting traditional religions, and therefore have nothing to do with the goal of this site. Conclusion Pantheism states that Ultimate Reality has an impersonal nature. It can be known only by merging with it and thus by abolishing personhood. However, this can have no cognitive meaning. It is also impossible to state a logical balance between absolute reality and empirical experience. From a pragmatic point of view, as long as we cannot live consistently with rejecting the reality of the phenomenal world and aiming toward the annihilation of personhood, as long as we cannot live amorally and reject social involvement, pantheism cannot provide a viable way of living. It is contrary to reason, personhood, common sense and society. Anything we do in this world is based on the premise that distinctions are real, and therefore knowledge is possible, moral values are necessary, as well as social involvement. Abandoning these values would not lead us to a direct experience of Ultimate Reality, but rather toward spiritual schizophrenia.
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Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence In the previous files we dealt with the metaphysical basis of some important Eastern religions, the way they define Ultimate Reality, man’s conditions and the meaning of liberation. As it is usually taught that one cannot grasp the meaning of these important issues without getting involved in practicing the actual path toward liberation, we will now analyze the famous discipline of Yoga and understand to what extent it could be the answer to one's quest toward transcendence. The origin of Yoga as ascetic discipline is probably found in the ascetic practices of a religious group called the Vratyas in the Atharva Veda (XV). They are the first mentioned to practice the control of breathing and some sexual rituals, with the goal of attaining ecstatic trance states. The term “yoga” has its root in the Sanskrit word yuj, which means “to yoke”. In its present meaning, this term was first used in the Taittirya and Katha Upanishads (around the 5th century B.C). In the second, the god of death (Yama) explains to a young disciple how to attain the perfect knowledge of Brahman and thus merge with it, through restraining the senses and concentration. The parable of the chariot states: Know the self (atman) as the lord of the chariot and the body as, verily, the chariot, know the intellect as the charioteer and the mind as, verily, the reins. The senses are the horses; the objects of sense the paths; the self associated with the body, the senses and the mind - wise men declare is the enjoyer. He who has no understanding, whose mind is always unrestrained, his senses are out of control, as wicked horses are for a charioteer. He, however, who has understanding, whose mind is always restrained, his senses are under control, as good horses are for a charioteer (Katha Up. 1,3,3-6). The lord of the chariot (the self) is silently enduring the foolishness of the charioteer (the mind) and the madness of the horses (the senses). Yoga is here defined as the method through which the mind (the charioteer) can bridle the wicked senses, in order that the self may get off the body and be united with Brahman: “This, they consider to be Yoga, the steady control of the senses” (Katha Up. 2,3,11). There are two major meanings for Yoga in Hindu spirituality. The first designates the specific darshana organized by Patanjali, while the second has a broader sense, implying any effort undertaken in order to attain liberation, independent of its meaning. Therefore, any spiritual discipline aimed at liberating the self can be called Yoga. As a result, the term is used with various meanings, having more or less in http://www.comparativereligion.com/Yoga.html (1 of 12) [10/27/2000 9:48:05 AM]
Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
common with the Yoga darshana of Patanjali. For instance, Mantra Yoga is the method that consists of using mantras in order to attain liberation (as in Transcendental Meditation). Kundalini Yoga follows a Tantric view, stressing the awakening of kundalini and its final reunion with Shiva. The same goal is to be pursued in Hatha Yoga, but following a strict physical discipline. Jnana Yoga follows a Vedantic ideology, aiming to find liberation mostly by one's effort to achieve a monistic view of reality, laying less emphasis on physical effort. Karma Yoga refers to a specific mindset that has to be followed in social life, i.e. the demand to act completely detached from personal interests and desires, which may complicate one’s karma. This trend was best stated in the Bhagavad Gita and will be analyzed in another file. Bhakti Yoga is the name given to the large variety of devotional practices of Hindu theism, aimed at pleasing a god and earning eternal abode in his realm. In this file we will refer to the Yoga technique as organized by Patanjali, usually called Raja Yoga (“the royal Yoga”), and also to the Hatha Yoga school. Few elements will be mentioned about the metaphysical differences between them, as this topic was already discussed in previous files.
Brief description of the Raja Yoga path toward liberation In the period of the late Upanishads (Yogatattva, Dhyanabindu, Nadabindu and some other 15 composed after the 5th century BC), the tendency appeared to consider that spiritual liberation cannot be attained exclusively by the means of contemplation but has to be accomplished experimentally, by following a certain ascetic technique. The Shvetashvatara Up. (2,8-15) had already described some instructions for body postures, breathing control and focusing the mind exercises for being able to perceive Brahman. In grounding the new Yoga darshana, Patanjali used the technical elements brought by these Upanishads and used them as a tool for achieving the goal of the Samkhya metaphysics, the liberation of purusha from the bondage of prakriti. The Raja Yoga of Patanjali is properly described in his treatise called Yoga Sutra. The purpose of Yoga is clearly stated from its very beginning (1,2): “the inhibition of the modifications of the mind” (citta vritti nirodhah). The normal states of consciousness are the product of ignorance (avidya), which generates the sense duality and separatedness from others (asmita) and the will to live (abhinivesha). The continuous flux of thoughts and mental representations induced by such a mindset is called a sum of "modifications of the mind”. They perpetuate ignorance and the captivity of purusha in the world of prakriti’s manifestations. In order that liberation may be attained it is necessary that empirical consciousness be extinguished and replaced by a different state of consciousness, in which the experience gained through senses and mind (produced by prakriti) is replaced by extra-sensory and extra-rational experience. The above mentioned “modifications of the mind” are produced not only through interacting with the phenomenal world, but also by a category of latent tendencies present in our subconscious mind called vasanas. They are considered to be conglomerate results of subconscious impressions (samskaras) created in previous lives through ignorant experience. During the present life they tend to manifest in the mental realm, being a further obstacle in attaining liberation. Therefore, the control of the mental states as required in Yoga has a double focus: Both the external illusion (the false identification of purusha with the psycho-mental fluctuations) and the internal source http://www.comparativereligion.com/Yoga.html (2 of 12) [10/27/2000 9:48:05 AM]
Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
of illusion produced by the vasanas have to be conquered and burned. The Yoga technique shows the practical way in which the entire human potential, both physical and psycho-mental, is brought under control (“yoked”) in order to attain the liberation of purusha. According to Patanjali (Y.S. 2,29), there are eight steps to be followed, a reason for which the method is also called Ashtanga Yoga (the Yoga of the eight limbs): 1. Restraints (yama) 2. Observances (niyama) 3. Postures (asanas) 4. Breath control (pranayama) 5. Withdrawal of the senses (pratyahara) 6. Concentration (dharana) 7. Contemplation (dhyana) 8. Enstasis (samadhi) Here is a brief description of what each of them involves: 1) The restraints (Y.S. 2,30) are five important moral rules that the Yogi has to observe: ● non-violence (ahimsa) - abstinence from harming any living creature; ● truthfulness (satya) - concordance between speech, deeds and thoughts; ● honesty (asteya) - nonstealing; ● continence (brahmacarya) - controlling lustful desires; ● non-acceptance of gifts (aparigraha) - refusing attachments to any material goods. 2) The observances (Y.S. 2,32) are also five physical and psychical disciplines: ● purity (shaucha) - avoiding impurity in body and mind; ● contentment (samtosha) - seeking joy and serenity, independent of life’s sorrows; ● austerity (tapas) - accepting any extreme condition in life; ● scriptural study (svadhyaya); ● concentration on Ishvara (Ishvara-pranidhana) - imitating Ishvara's way of being. This is not devotion toward Ishvara, because he is nothing more than an impersonal macro-purusha (Y.S. 1,24), and there cannot exist any personal relation between him and man. 3) Practicing the postures (Y.S. 2,46) is the first stage of physical asceticism. Its aim is to immobilize the body, bring it under control and refuse movement, with the only goal of helping concentration. Therefore, the purpose of performing asanas is not (as often believed in the West) to confer harmony and health to the body, provide relaxation, etc, but to be a physical support for concentration. 4) Breath control (Y.S. 2, 49-51) means the refusal of breath, following the refusal of movement by performing the asanas. It is believed that just as psycho-mental tension affects the rhythm of breath, likewise the action of stilling the breath can contribute to stilling the “modification of the mind”. Therefore, pranayama is an important instrument in attaining a perfect state of concentration.
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Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
However, pranayama has a deeper meaning than just controlling breath. It rather represents the control of prana flow through the human body, which is the energy that controls any possible process or movement. Vivekananda defined it as following: It is the Prana that is manifesting as motion; it is the Prana that is manifesting as gravitation, as magnetism. It is the Prana that is manifesting as the actions of the body, as the nerve currents, as thought force. From thought down to the lowest force, everything is but the manifestation of Prana. The sum total of all forces in the universe, mental or physical, when resolved back to their original state, is called Prana (Vivekananda, The Complete Works, 1931, p. 148). As psycho-mental activity is itself generated by prana, and breathing is the main channel for prana’s influx into the body, it has to be strictly controlled in order to attain control over the mind. In the Hatha Yoga practice, which has strict observances for controlling breath, the reducing of prana influx is realized by progressively retarding the rhythm of breathing. One begins with an inhalation/exhalation ratio of 1/2, then a retention of the inhaled air is introduced in between, attaining a ratio inhalation/retention/exhalation (puraka/kumbhaka/rechaka) of 1/2/2, which in the advanced practitioners becomes 1/4/2. The total amount of time for a breathing cycle can therefore attain several minutes. Theos Bernard, the author of a famous book on Hatha Yoga (Hatha Yoga, Rider & Co., London, 1982), mentions that “until the breath suspension (kumbhaka) had been developed to at least three minutes nothing of any significance could be done” (p. 89). 5) The withdrawal of the senses (Y.S. 2,54-55) is the result one achieves through the previous stages of physical asceticism. At this stage the senses do not disturb the mind anymore, so it becomes shut down against all impressions from outside. Therefore the battle for stilling the mind is easier to win. 6) Concentration is defined by Patanjali as “confining the mind within a limited mental area” (Y.S. 3,1). It is not a simple exercise of attention control, but a way of slowing down mental activity by focusing it on a particular spot, i.e. on a particular object of meditation. 7) Contemplation is an “uninterrupted flow of the mind towards the object of meditation” (Y.S. 3,2). In this stage meditation is undisturbed and the object of meditation assimilated and penetrated to its utmost level. 8) Enstasis (Y.S. 3,3) is attained when the sense of self-identity is lost, and all products of prakriti’s manifestation fade away. Purusha is liberated from involvement with prakriti and remains eternally isolated. Through the continuous practice of concentration, contemplation and enstasis (together called samyama) some practical results for the Yogi are said to appear, the so-called psychic powers (siddhi). In the 3rd chapter of the Yoga Sutra the following such phenomena are mentioned: knowledge of the past and future (16), comprehension of the meaning of sounds uttered by any living being (17), knowledge of the previous birth (18), knowledge of the mind of others (19), invisibility of the body (20), knowledge of the time of death (23), strength of an elephant (25), knowledge of the solar system (27), knowledge of the arrangement of stars and their movements (28-29), knowledge of the organization of the body (30), cessation of hunger and thirst (31), entering another’s body (39), levitation (40), superphysical hearing (42) and passage through space (43). Once he attains this spiritual level, the Yogi is tempted by gods and other spiritual beings to use his powers for selfish desires, or to participate in their divine condition (Y.S. 3,52). However, following such
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Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
temptations would lead the Yogi to interrupt his spiritual journey toward final liberation. Although he could reach the spiritual level of becoming a god, this would be a spiritual failure. Therefore, such temptations have to be rejected. When, finally, liberation is attained, purusha becomes free of karma and independent. Its state is called one of total isolation (kaivalya).
Liberation techniques in Hatha Yoga As the pantheistic metaphysics of the Hatha Yoga school was analyzed in previous files, the emphasis will be laid here on the actual way it prescribes in order to attain the final reunion of Shakti with Shiva. Shakti, the self, is located at the base of the spine as the dormant spiritual energy called kundalini. The ascetic practice demanded for awakening kundalini consists in certain physical exercises joined with respiratory techniques. After kundalini awakens, it travels through a spiritual channel (sushumna) of the subtle body, which corresponds physically to the spine, crossing seven important points called chakras. Each chakra corresponds to a Hindu guardian deity and is associated with its mantra and governing cosmogonical element. This is a supplementary reason for acknowledging the religious character of the Hatha Yoga practice.
Chakra
Guardian deity
Mantra
Cosmogonic element
1. muladhara
Brahma
lam
Earth
2. svadhishtana
Vishnu
vam
Water
3. manipura
Maharudra
ram
Fire
4. anahata
Ishvara
yam
Air
5. vishuddha
Sadashiva
ham
Ether
6. ajna
Shiva
AUM
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Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
7. sahasrara Once kundalini reaches the last chakra, it returns to its primordial union with the impersonal Ultimate Reality, represented by Shiva. The awakening and rise of kundalini through the sushumna channel is achieved by following a precise ascetic technique in which the body plays an important role. Given its religious background, Hatha Yoga must not be understood as a mere harmless physical training, as it is sometimes claimed. The most important writing of this school, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, clearly states that Hatha Yoga has to be taught only in order to reach the Raja Yoga level (1,2), which means “the integration of mind in a state where the subject-object duality does not exist” (4,77), or in other words, only for merging the self with the impersonal Ultimate Reality. Therefore, the attention granted to the body has a single purpose: to make it fit for getting control over the mind and thus liberating the self. The steps to be followed in order to attain liberation are similar to the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika describes them as following: 1. cleansing practices (dhauti), needed for both physical and mental health; 2. body postures (asana) (H.Y.P. 1,17); 3. breath control (pranayama) (H.Y.P. 2); 4. locks (bandha, which temporarily restrict local flows of prana) and hand gestures (mudra), which regulate the flow of prana (H.Y.P. 3). They combine body postures, breath control and concentration; 5. samadhi (H.Y.P. 4), which combines the withdrawal of the senses (pratyahara), concentration (dharana), contemplation (dhyana) and enstasis (samadhi) of the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali (H.Y.P. 4,87-97). The help of a teacher (guru) in assisting the practitioner is absolutely necessary, as the awakening and rising of kundalini is full of potential dangers for the Yogi. This and other aspects of the Yoga practice will be analyzed in the following section.
Critical evaluation of the Yoga practice The moral demands Although the moral demands Yama and Niyama (also called "The 10 Commandments of the Yogi") have nothing intrinsically bad, in the larger context of the Yoga metaphysics they demonstrate some inherent contradictions. One is regarding the very precept of non-injury (ahimsa). The demand for a strict vegetarian diet has its root in the religious precept that meat and other animal food are related to the slaying of animals, which are living beings endowed with spiritual essence (atman), as well as us humans. But why should this principle be limited only to the animal kingdom? Plants are considered living beings too. For instance, while explaining reincarnation, the Katha Upanishad (2,2,7) states: "Some souls enter into a womb for embodiment; others enter stationary objects according to their deeds and according to their thoughts" (see also The Laws of Manu 12,6). As the term "stationary objects" (sthanum) is mostly translated as "plants" (see, for instance, Swami Sharvananda, Kathopanishad, Mylapore, 1968), the ahimsa principle should apply to them as well. Another, even more convincing, http://www.comparativereligion.com/Yoga.html (6 of 12) [10/27/2000 9:48:05 AM]
Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
paragraph that questions vegetarianism is the following in the Chandogya Upanishad, which explains the mechanism of the self returning to the physical world in the reincarnation cycle: After having become mist they become cloud, after having become cloud they rain down. They are born here as rice and barley, herbs and trees, as sesamum plants and beans. From thence the release becomes extremely difficult for whoever eats the food and sows the seed he becomes like unto him (Chandogya Up. 5,10,6). So why are plants “killed” for preparing food? Even more, bacteria should also be spared by not boiling water when preparing food. Although such requirements are practically absurd, they should be respected in order to be consistent with the ahimsa principle. A second aspect concerns the fact that the moral demands in Yoga do not have the purpose of achieving social harmony, but only to feed the Yogi's own spiritual progress. One should not have in mind what is good for his neighbor, but only his personal quest toward liberation. Considering the meaning of liberation (detaching purusha from its psycho-mental attachments), one has to surpass moral values, attain a state of total detachment toward them, and not become attached to them. Only in this way can one act without accumulating new karmic debt. As long as morality makes sense only in communion with other people, and Yoga demands detaching oneself from the illusory status of such involvement, the Yama and Niyama morality is different from what we commonly understand by morality, i.e. following positive demands in order to seek what is good for our neighbor. Another paradoxical aspect is that, while advancing in practice, many Yogis (especially in the West) forget the basic moral requirements and become arrogant, acquiring a feeling of superiority toward the profane world. Instead of being humble and pure (shaucha), they often behave like they feel pity for the inferior fellow-humans. Although they claim that the ego has to disappear, as it is a primitive character feature, their pride and contempt grows. This reveals a lack of truthfulness (satya), self-control and purity (shaucha) of mind. Far from detaching from any egoistic attachments, the result a Yogi often reaches is weakening or even breaking his relations with "ignorant people" (usually the family) and establishing an idolatrous relation toward the guru, the one in charge of interpreting his experiences and keep him moving along the right path. The relation with the guru usually becomes very subservient, with the disciples surrendering their entire life to him and even worshiping him as a god. Therefore, the requirement of abandoning personal attachments seems to be valid only toward the profane world, while the strongest personal relation (attachment) becomes that with the guru. The scriptures seem to encourage this attitude: When the sleeping kundalini awakens by favor of a guru, then all the chakras are pierced through (H.Y.P. 3,2). There is no doubt that the Guru is father, mother, and even god. He has to be served with all thoughts, words and deeds. By the favor of the guru, everything that is bound to the self can be attained. Therefore, the guru has to be served day and night; else nothing of great value can be attained (Shiva Samhita 3,13-14). The postures It is usually taught today that Yoga is nothing more than a method of maintaining body fitness, physical vigor and mental health, etc., having nothing in common with religion. This way of defining Yoga regards primarily the practice of asanas, well known today as an effective way for inducing relaxation. However, as mentioned above, the purpose of the asanas is to immobilize the body, bring it under http://www.comparativereligion.com/Yoga.html (7 of 12) [10/27/2000 9:48:05 AM]
Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
control and refuse movement, in order to help concentration. If the asanas are performed without following the 10 moral precepts and not as a step on one's spiritual path toward liberation, they have nothing in common with true Yoga. Through the symbol each posture represents (the locust, the fish, the candle, etc.), it involves a change of personality and is prescribed by the guru according to the spiritual needs of his disciple, so that he may easier surpass his ignorant condition. Therefore, Yoga cannot be reduced to a mere form of psychophysical therapy. It has always been considered a path toward transcendence, a way of surpassing our world of illusion and reaching the Ultimate Reality. It was and will always be religious. This aspect has never been doubted in the East. Only after it was brought in the Western world, the terms in which it was described were changed. However, its goal has not changed. It still aims to annihilate man's psycho-mental life and anything that can define personhood. Breath control Just as the asanas are not aimed at enhancing physical fitness, but the immobilization of the body, neither is the purpose of breath control (pranayama) to enhance the respiratory flow, but rather its refusal in order to attain a perfect state of concentration. The reason is the "metabolism" of prana, that form of subtle energy in which any form of physical and mental activity originates. As Yoga practice aims at “inhibiting the modifications of the mind” (Yoga Sutra 1,2), and these modifications are sustained by the prana flow through the organism, it is believed that psycho-mental activity can be slowed down and even stopped by reducing the respiratory inflow of prana. Theos Bernard, the author of a famous book on Hatha Yoga (Hatha Yoga, Rider & Co., London, 1982), mentions that “until the breath suspension (kumbhaka) had been developed to at least three minutes nothing of any significance could be done” (p. 89). In the Shiva Samhita treatise it is mentioned that one has to reach 90 minutes in the retention of the inhaled air (kumbhaka) in order to attain the psychic powers (3,53), 180 minutes in order to attain the withdrawal of senses (pratyahara) (3,57) and 150 minutes for each chakra in order that dharanamay be attained (3,64-65). The Hatha Yoga Pradipika treatise (2,11) recommends the practice of 320 breathing suspensions (kumbhaka) daily. The mudras are important aids in attaining such performances. (For instance the khecari mudra requests a progressive sectioning of the tongue fraenum, until the tongue is fit to get down the throat and lock breathing.) One possible effect of dramatically reducing the rhythm of respiration is hypoxia (the decrease of the oxygen concentration in blood below a certain limit of safety for one's health). The pathologic manifestations of hypoxia mentioned in medical literature are convulsions, body shaking beyond control, itching sensations, muscles contracting unexpectedly, headaches, and perspiration. Curiously, such manifestations appear during the practice of pranayama. Even the sacred texts acknowledge them: In the beginning there is perspiration, in the middle stage there is quivering, and in the last or the third stage one obtains steadiness; and then the breath should be made steady or motionless (Hatha Yoga Pradipika 2,12). In the first stage of Pranayama the body of the Yogi begins to perspire. [. . .] In the second stage there takes place the trembling of the body; in the third, the jumping about like a frog; and when practice becomes greater, the adept walks in the air. (Shiva Samhita 3,40-41). Far from being considered dangerous, they are considered normal and transient. Interesting to mention http://www.comparativereligion.com/Yoga.html (8 of 12) [10/27/2000 9:48:05 AM]
Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
are also the known mental experiences provoked by the increase of carbon dioxide concentration in blood as a result of hypoxia: "sensations of light and brightness, a sense of bodily detachment, the revival of past memories, a sense of communicating telepathically with a religious or spiritual presence, and feelings of great spiritual ecstasy and significance" (E. Hillstrom, Testing the Spirits, IVP, 1995, p. 94). Could it be a simple coincidence between the appearance of such manifestations and the practice of pranayama, so that hypoxia could not be involved?
Stilling the mind through meditation and mystical experiences that accompany it Meditation and its experiences are considered key elements in any Eastern path toward liberation. The last three of the eight steps prescribed by Patanjali, called together samyama, aim at attaining the perfect control of the mind, which results in annihilating any influence generated by prakriti. Consequently, the final liberation of purusha must follow. It is therefore wrong to consider the practice of samyama as mere "relaxing techniques" for eradicating one's daily stress. Relaxation may be a result of meditation exercises, but it is only a by-product on the way toward liberating the impersonal self from reincarnation. A paradoxical aspect to be mentioned here is the appearance of the psychic powers (the siddhis) through the practice of samyama. From a naturalistic viewpoint, it seems that they are nothing more than illusions induced by the practice of meditation. For instance, although the Yoga Sutra mentions the attainment of powers such as the profound knowledge of the solar system (3,27) and that of the organization of the body (3,30), all the knowledge we have in this area was produced by classic scientific research, and never as a result of meditation insights. But if such knowledge is truly available through the practice of samyama, and as the demands for such knowledge are not egoistic at all, why has nothing been revealed until now? Although the purpose of Yoga is not to provide such information, there is no other way to prove that the so-called psychic abilities are real. Therefore, the experience of having such powers must be subjective, useful only for the spiritual advance of the Yogi but with no relation to the external world of empirical experience. The most intriguing aspect of these "psychic powers" is the fact that they can be attained by using other means as well. The Yoga Sutra (4,1) mentions "drugs (aushadi), mantras and severe austerities (tapas)". What could be the connection between them? Let us first analyze what meditation could have in common with the use of drugs. The Hindu tradition knows the use of hallucinogenic drugs from ancient times. The oldest reference is to the use of the soma drink by the Vedic priest during the sacrificial ceremony (Rig Veda 9). Similar ecstatic potions were used in other ancient religions (for instance in shamanism, in its worldwide forms of manifestation). Although the way of attaining mystical experience through Yoga and drugs is different, the actual experiences are similar. The psychedelic drug users also claim to attain a superrational, superconscious level of liberation from profane existence, a sense of fulfillment and finding a deeper meaning of existence, etc. For instance, it is a known fact that Aldous Huxley experienced mystical states induced by the use of mescaline and concluded this must be a valid path toward experiencing unity with Brahman: The beatific vision, Sat Chit Ananda, Being-Awareness-Bliss, for the first time I understood, not on
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Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
the verbal level, not by inchoate hints or at a distance, but precisely and completely what those prodigious syllables referred to (The Doors of Perception, 1963, p. 18). Although the use of drugs in the practice of Yoga is forbidden, the meditation experiences are amazingly close to those obtained by the use of hallucinogenic drugs. For more information on this topic, see the article: Do Psychedelic Drugs Mimic Awakened Kundalini? Hallucinogen Survey Results, by Donald J. DeGracia. It tests the hypothesis that the effects of psychedelic drugs (e.g. LSD, mescaline, peyote, etc.) are similar to the effects of the awakening of kundalini, or, in other words, the phenomenology of both states overlaps to a considerable degree. This data suggests that the awakening of kundalini and the "psychic powers" which accompany it have a physiological basis. In order to understand their effect on consciousness, we must analyze deeper the meaning and goal of meditation exercises. They play a major role in detaching oneself from the world of illusion. As empirical experience (that produces false attachments) is mediated by the mind, ignorance (avidya) cannot manifest itself apart from mindful experience and therefore can be annihilated by stopping the natural way of the mind's functioning. This means that the normal state of consciousness has to be abolished and replaced with a new one, which does not perpetuate illusion. On the way toward attaining such a state, the sensorial input of the senses has to be shut down (pratyahara) and the mind forced to ignore any normal psycho-mental experience, by performing concentration on a single point (an exercise called ekagrata). However, by forcing the mind to work in totally opposed conditions to what is natural, it will naturally get distorted perceptions of reality. The practice of samyama breaks the normal sensorial input from its normal functioning in serving consciousness. As a result, the senses come to a point where they do not process a continuous flux of information from the outer world that varies much from one moment to the next. Instead they stay immobilized on the same stimulus. As a result, one gets a totally distorted view of surrounding reality and one's own body. The very sensation of unity with the outer world can be a result of distorting the sense of perception, as Elizabeth Hillstrom points out in her book Testing the Spirits (IVP, 1995): In addition to the enhancement of boundaries in our visual systems, we have a built-in, highly developed tactile sense of the boundaries of our own body. This sense is apparently maintained by the continual flow of sensory information from the surface of our skin (feelings of touch, pressure, stretching of skin and muscles, and the like). If experiencers' awareness of the flow is significantly reduced, as it is during sensory deprivation and other altered states, they could easily conclude that their body boundaries were suddenly dissolving or that they were expanding or merging with other objects, even with God or the entire universe. Other features of the unity experience may be due to the fact that experiencers are in an altered state and realize that they have just reached a highly prized and hard-won goal. Acting together, these factors could produce profound feelings of reality, sacredness, ultimate meaning, bliss and ecstatic sensations throughout the body (p. 126). Scientists have been studying the psycho-physiological results of sensory deprivation for many years. Many reports indicate that as sensory deprivation deepens, the hallucinations experienced by the subjects of such induced experiments become more significant, consisting in visual, auditory, tactile hallucinations, out-of-body experiences, visions of other worlds, and even encounters with spirits (Hillstrom, p. 60-63). Similar distortions of perception can be the result of other extreme austerities (mentioned in the Yoga Sutra 4,1 as tapas), known long before Patanjali. These experiences seem to the one involved as very real because of the psycho-physiological conditions in which they appear, and also because of his expectations (usually induced by the guru). However, despite the fact that much of what http://www.comparativereligion.com/Yoga.html (10 of 12) [10/27/2000 9:48:06 AM]
Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
one is experiencing in the Yoga practice can be explained on a physiological basis, a mere naturalistic theory isn't adequate to cover all its aspects. As E. Hillstrom points out: Unusual effects, like automatically assuming difficult yoga postures, the inability to control or stop the kundalini process, speaking in unlearned languages, temporary manifestations of clairvoyant abilities and the like, certainly suggest that something supernatural is afoot. There are parallels between kundalini symptoms and symptoms that are currently associated with demonized states, including deranged thinking, emotional extremes (deep melancholy, ecstasy), trancelike states or periods of unconsciousness, apparent seizure activity, and unusual pain unrelated to illness and injury (p. 128). This leads us to consider another way of producing the psychic powers mentioned in the Yoga Sutra (4,1), namely the repeating of mantras. More than a simple formula used as a tool for concentrating the mind, the mantra is a name of a Hindu god and a tool for invoking him and his powers. If the siddhis are attained as a result of invoking a god, they are likely to originate in him, and not out of developing one's own inner potential. This leads us to search for explanations for the psychic powers in a realm that does not belong to physical existence. The common element in meditation, the repeating of mantras and, to some extent, the use of psychedelic drugs is the annihilation of critical thought and normal state of consciousness. This is considered of primary importance for entering the appropriate state of consciousness for liberating the self. However, shutting down the mind in order to grasp irrational higher realities and giving up critical discernment opens the way for the phenomenon of spiritual possession, i.e. the taking of control of one's life by an external personal being. As during meditation such openness toward external spirit guides exists, the experience of meeting certain spiritual beings occurs pretty often. Could they be harmless, or even trustable? The answer depends on the authority we use in order to judge them. Taking a Christian standpoint, such external spirits may be demons, treacherous beings that present themselves as angels of light (2 Corinthians 11,14). A weird fact is that the same psychic powers attained by the Yogis while practicing samyama are available to some people involved in black magic. The knowledge of the past and future, reading one's thoughts, dematerialization, acquiring supernatural physical powers, telekinesis, clairvoyance, entering another person's body, levitation, etc., are abilities that such people also claim, but acknowledging the fact that their source is the world of demons. Could this be a simple coincidence? The Apostle Peter warns: Be self-controlled and alert. Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour (1 Peter 5,8). Knowing the fact that demons use any given opportunity to take over one's body and use it as an instrument, why should they not use the proper mindset offered by a Yogi while practicing meditation? Despite the fact that the mantra is associated with a Hindu protector god, why should we reject the possibility that by calling his name, instead of a god being the one who awakens dormant energies inside us, a demon may come instead, take over consciousness and then manifest psychic powers which actually belong to him? Could the intensity of the experience be a sufficient reason to be assured that there is no evil entity involved in producing it? Why should we reject the possibility that a demon is wise enough to avoid violent manifestations (which normally describe demonic possession) in order to delude us? As examples of how so-called deities are invited to enter one's body, we can look at most forms of Eastern initiation. For instance, in Tantrism are prescribed specific rituals in order to omologate the http://www.comparativereligion.com/Yoga.html (11 of 12) [10/27/2000 9:48:06 AM]
Critical considerations regarding Yoga as spiritual path towards transcendence
deities with different parts of the body. The maithuna ritual even represents a sexual union with a woman in which Hindu spirits are residing. While performing the mandala ritual the disciple has to locate the gods in his heart, with the climax being the descent of the god essence into him and fusion with his consciousness. Possession-like states are reported very often during the initiation ritual, sometimes perceived as the entering of the guru into the disciple's body (Shakti-diksha), or the uniting of the disciple's being with that of the guru (Anavi-yaugi-diksha). Far from being considered dangerous, such experiences are considered useful, necessary for one's spiritual growth. Therefore Yoga practice can lead to a quite different end from that much-advertised peace of mind and inner balance. The experiences it produces may be very dangerous because they are either the premise or the actual experience of demonic possession. If this interpretation seems absurd for some, in what other way could we explain the experience of Eastern initiation, especially when trying to be consistent with Christian theology? Back to Top | Back to Contents | E-Mail
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Critical considerations regarding the dualistic Samkhya-Yoga metaphysics
Critical considerations regarding the dualistic Samkhya-Yoga metaphysics In order to emphasize some basic difficulties of the dualistic Samkhya and Yoga darshanas, we will use the same criteria of internal consistency, harmony between empirical and absolute knowledge, and viability. (Remember that it is the specific Yoga darshana of Patanjali endorsed here, and not other of the many modern Yoga schools that exist today.) As their metaphysical basis is mostly common, in the absence of any supplementary explanation, what will be mentioned here is valid for both schools. 1) The internal consistency of the Samkhya-Yoga metaphysics is affected by the way it states the plurality of souls (purushas). As purusha is devoid of any attributes that could individualize it (which was also the case with atman), there no difference can be made between one purusha and another, and therefore we cannot admit their plurality. S. Radhakrishnan makes the following comment from a Vedantic point of view: The self is without attributes or qualities, without parts, imperishable, motionless, absolutely inactive and impassive, unaffected by pleasure or pain or any other emotion. All change, all character belong to prakriti. There does not seem to be any basis for the attribution of distinctness to purushas. If each purusha has the same features of consciousness, all-pervadingness, if there is not the slightest difference between one purusha and another, since they are free from all variety, then there is nothing to lead us to assume a plurality of purushas. Multiplicity without distinction is impossible (Indian Philosophy, vol. II, p. 322). 2) As a result of the way it states the relation existing between purusha and prakriti (nature), the Samkhya-Yoga metaphysics also lacks harmony between empirical and absolute knowledge. Here is how S. Radhakrishnan appreciates the contradictory relation between the two elements: When the Samkhya breaks up the concrete unity of experience into the two elements of subject and object and makes them fictitiously absolute, it cannot account for the fact of experience. When purusha is viewed as pure consciousness, the permanent light which illuminates all objects of knowledge, and prakriti as something opposed to consciousness and utterly foreign to it, the latter can never become the object of the former. The Samkhya cannot get across the ditch which it has dug between the subject and the object. [...] Unless the subject and object are akin to each other, how can the one reflect the other? How can buddhi, which is non-intelligent, reflect purusha? How can the formless purusha which is the constant seer be reflected in buddhi which is changing? The two cannot, therefore, be absolutely opposed in nature (Indian Philosophy, vol. II, p. 303-4).
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Critical considerations regarding the dualistic Samkhya-Yoga metaphysics
In other words, the Samkhya and Yoga darshanas dissociate knowledge into two distinct realms (absolute and empirical) between which stands an insurmountable gap. Because they belong to different worlds, purusha cannot know prakriti, and on the other hand, prakriti and all its forms of manifestation cannot do anything to help liberation. Between the domain of empirical knowledge produced by prakriti and the absolute knowledge of purusha, no possible relationship can exist. An attempt to solve this epistemological difficulty was done by postulating the fact that prakriti operates instinctively for purusha’s liberation. The Samkhya-Sutra (3,47) states that “creation (prakriti) works for the sake of purusha, so that it may attain supreme knowledge”. The Yoga-Sutra of Patanjali (2,21) also mentions that prakriti exists only for the sake of serving purusha's liberation. But in the absence of a personal creator god who could “inspire” a teleological instinct to prakriti, such a postulate is absurd. The Samkhya darshana rejects the existence of a creator god, since he could be conceived only as a liberated self, or a self bound to karma (Samkhya-Sutra 1,93). However, neither a self enslaved by karma can be the creator, nor a free purusha, because, being totally detached from matter (prakriti), it could not have perception, desire for action or any means to influence matter. To this second category belongs Ishvara of the Yoga darshana. He is not a personal god, but rather a macro-purusha that was never involved with the psycho-mental activity and the law of karma (Yoga-Sutra 1,24), being devoid of any creative abilities. The teleological instinct of prakriti was explained the Samkhya and Yoga darshanas by using the image of a horse that pulls a wagon out of his instinct, an act to which the wagon driver is a simple spectator. In the same way, prakriti would conduct purusha toward liberation without any external directive. It is omitted, however, in this example, that the horse was first trained by the driver before he knew the way home. Samkhya metaphysics does not allow such an external “coach” for prakriti to learn how to liberate purusha. Another poor illustration used by the Samkhya followers is that of a blind man and a lame man helping each other on their journey. Neither can this be a valid illustration to symbolize the teleological instinct of prakriti, because both the blind man and the lame man possess intelligence and language, and therefore can cooperate in realizing a common purpose. Such cooperation between purusha and prakriti cannot exist, because they have nothing in common. Therefore, the epistemological problem generated by the impossible communication between purusha and man’s psycho-mental abilities cannot be properly solved. How could intellect help to distance purusha from prakriti, if intellect itself is a category of prakriti? Another solution suggested to explain the purusha-prakriti relation was that a certain similarity could exist between buddhi (pure intellect) and purusha, a similarity given by the guna sattva. According to this opinion, when the guna sattva is dominating one’s psycho-mental life, the intellect can become as pure as purusha, and therefore capable of perfectly reflecting it, a moment which precedes their separation and, consequently, purusha’s liberation. However, there are two major problems arising from such a hypothesis: 1) How could the intellect possibly attain the purity of purusha? By its very essence, intellect is a category of prakriti, different from purusha’s immutability. 2) If such purity of intellect could be attained only at the moment of liberation, how can buddhi and purusha cooperate all the way prior to reaching this stage? In other words, how can intellect, a category of prakriti, be purified in order to reflect purusha while it is still dominated by the gunas rajas and tamas? Not even “knowing the knowledge” of buddhi by purusha, through purusha’s reflection in the intellect, can be a solution. In order that communication might be possible between two totally different entities (one being purusha and the other one the psycho-mental abilities, which belong to prakriti), one's data http://www.comparativereligion.com/Samkhya.html (2 of 3) [10/27/2000 9:48:11 AM]
Critical considerations regarding the dualistic Samkhya-Yoga metaphysics
have to be “translated” to the other one, a requirement which is impossible to fulfill according to the Samkhya and Yoga. Although this translator (or mediator) role was attributed to purusha’s reflection in the intellect, it was not stated to which category this reflection belongs. If it belongs to prakriti, it brings nothing new in solving the dilemma. It also cannot belong to purusha (as its product or attribute), because it would institute a new category, intermediary and different to both purusha and prakriti, which is absurd. The epistemological dilemma we face here is similar to that encountered in pantheism. The same illusory status of empirical knowledge makes communication impossible between the self and the world. Therefore, empirical knowledge is of no use in attaining liberation. The gap that exists between empirical knowledge (psycho-mental data) and absolute knowledge (purusha’s self-knowledge) is impossible to cross.
3) As a result of the illusory status granted to personhood, the Samkhya and Yoga darshanas face similar problems to those of pantheism concerning their viability. Personhood is considered to be a product of prakriti’s manifestation, a sum of psycho-mental experiences that cease to exist at the moment of liberation. Instead of the pantheist view of liberation, consisting of an impersonal merging of the self with the Absolute, the Samkhya and Yoga darshanas state that the liberated self (purusha) remains eternally isolated, devoid of any relation with other purushas (or Ishvara, in Yoga) and having as the only possibility that of knowing itself. But given the fact that purusha is devoid of any attributes, it is hard to grasp what could that self-contemplation possibly consist of. Due to the same attitude toward personhood, the problems faced in defining freedom, morality, compassion and social involvement are similar to those mentioned in analyzing pantheism, and therefore will not be repeated. The solution for passing over all the above-mentioned inconsistencies is considered to be practice, or, in other words, having a direct experience of Ultimate Reality. This is why we dedicate the next file to examining the Yoga practice and appreciating to what extent it could provide the answer for man’s spiritual quest for transcendence.
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Critical considerations regarding Buddhism
Critical considerations regarding Buddhism Although it was meant to bring a whole new perspective on what Hinduism had to say on Ultimate Reality, man and liberation, Theravada Buddhism could not escape some basic inconsistencies. Let us summarize the most debated:
Reincarnation without a self One of the key elements in Theravada Buddhism is the denial of a self (atman). The illusion of personal existence (puggala) is considered to be the product of five aggregates (skandha), which are in a cause-effect relationship and suffer from constant becoming. Therefore, human existence is nothing but impermanence (anitya), a constant process of transformation devoid of any abiding principle. The rejection of a self is considered important mostly for practical reasons. One should not engage in philosophical debates concerning the existence of a self (as well as the character of the universe and the existence of an Ultimate Reality), because this will only generate suffering and lead one astray from seeking liberation (Majjhima-nikaya 1,426). But if there is no self, what reincarnates from one existence to another? Buddha stated that only karma passes from one life to another, determining a new configuration of the five aggregates in the next existence. Therefore samsara works without implying a self, relying only on a causal chain of determination. Such a strange definition of reincarnation has naturally raised strong objections from the opponents of Buddhism. Not only they contradict it, but even the Buddhist scriptures contain passages that are inconsistent with the lack of a self. Some of them seem to confirm the continuity of personal existence, or at least of an impersonal self along the reincarnation process. For instance, although the five aggregates are supposed to break apart after death and personhood to vanish, it is stated that the dead will be judged by Yama, the god of death, and afterwards sent into hell and tormented for his sins (Khuddaka-nikaya 10,1,59). However, hell is not eternal, so the soul will eventually return as an animal and then continue to reincarnate until he reaches again the human state. There is no doubt that this Vedic reminiscence is totally inconsistent with the Buddhist doctrine of no-self. On the other hand, if there is no self, on what basis could the Buddha have said, "This is my last birth, I will have no further existence" (Majjhima-nikaya 3)? Whose last birth is it, if there is no self to rebirth? There are also the texts in Khuddaka-nikaya 10, referring to the previous lives of Buddha and his friends, in which each one's identity is always perfectly known. Such passages suggest that the doctrine of no-self was hard to accept even for the one who proposed it. http://www.comparativereligion.com/Buddhism.html (1 of 5) [10/27/2000 9:48:15 AM]
Critical considerations regarding Buddhism
The liberation of no self The Buddhist term for liberation (nirvana) derives from the verbal root va (lit. "to blow") and the negation nir, from which its significance corresponds to the blowing out of a candle. Once man attains nirvana, the five aggregates are scattered forever without entering a new combination again. This corresponds to a total extinction of any ontological element that could define human existence. The scriptures state: When a man is free from all sense pleasures and depends on nothingness he is free in the supreme freedom from perception. He will stay there and not return again. It is like a flame struck by a sudden gust of wind. In a flash it has gone out and nothing more can be known about it. It is the same with a wise man freed from mental existence: in a flash he has gone out and nothing more can be known about him. When a person has gone out, then there is nothing by which you can measure him. That by which he can be talked about is no longer there for him; you cannot say that he does not exist. When all ways of being, all phenomena are removed, then all ways of description have also been removed. (Sutta Nipata 1072-76) Once the adherent of Theravada Buddhism has attained nirvana, he becomes an arhat (“living enlightened one”). His karma is considered extinct and at the time of his death he will cease to exist. However, from a Buddhist point of view, this perspective isn't horrifying at all, because it represents the cessation of an illusion. When human existence is blown out, nothing real disappears because life itself is an illusion. Nirvana is neither a re-absorption in an eternal Ultimate Reality, because such a thing doesn’t exist, nor the annihilation of a self, because there is no self to annihilate. It is rather an annihilation of the illusion of an existing self. Unlike in Hindu pantheism, which defines liberation as the fusion of atman with Brahman, no one and nothing is attaining liberation. This means that nirvana is a state of supreme bliss and freedom without any subject to experience it. Paradoxically, Buddhism confers reality to this ultimate stage of moving toward nothingness, and the only proof of it, as expected, is the mystical experiences one has on the way toward it. As the one engaged on the way to nirvana experiences gradual liberation from illusory attachments, by extrapolation it is speculated that there will follow a moment of reaching total freedom from the present conditioned state. However, this reasoning is false, because the domain of definition (the substratum of existence) ends before reaching the desired result. Nirvana is a state beyond any description, knowledge and experience, with nobody and nothing left to reach it. Therefore, this liberation of no-self, or in other words, the liberation of an illusory combination of impermanent elements, seems to be nothing more than sheer nonsense.
The meaning of morality Following other impersonal Eastern religions, Buddhism values morality only as an instrument for transcending personal existence, which is seen as the major hindrance in attaining liberation. Morality has no ultimate importance, but is only an instrument used for developing a detached status toward personal attachments and interests in life. Moral perfection (sila), i.e. right speech, action and livelihood,
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Critical considerations regarding Buddhism
aims at annihilating one's false attachments to the world of illusion, by no way encouraging one's social involvement. As long as man is not an everlasting entity (a personal soul in theistic religions, or an impersonal atman in pantheism), but a mere mechanism which appears and disappears according to its karma, compassion toward one's neighbor is absurd. According to Buddhist teaching, bad habits such as envy, anger, gossip and pride must be abandoned, but not because other people may be hurt by them, but because they feed one's false ego and the thirst (trishna) for experiencing personal existence. Because of its radical way of defining human existence, Theravada Buddhism cannot be a valid way of living for modern man. How could one become socially involved in a world that is considered nothing but an illusion shaped by his own mind? Buddhism can be followed best by monks, in retreat, away from any kind of social involvement. As a result, contrary to its claims, Buddhism cannot solve the problem of human suffering but only to ignore it by redefining its meaning; it cannot help one have a positive role in society but only a passive one; and it cannot give strength for overcoming life's stress and tensions but only to teach withdrawal from its harsh realities. No wonder then that Buddhism is criticized for developing a fatalist view of life.
Buddhist meditation and its experiences The actual techniques used for attaining liberation belong to three categories: meditations (jhana), contemplations (samapatti) and concentrations (samadhi). The most important are those belonging to the second category, the contemplations, revealed by the Buddha in the famous Satipatthana-sutta (Majjhima-nikaya 10, Digha-nikaya 22). The four contemplation exercises focus on the physical body (kaya), the feelings (vedana), the mental states (citta) and the mental objects (dhamma). The false attachments they produce must be destroyed so that one can understand their impermanent nature. As was the case in Yoga, psychologist Elizabeth Hillstrom points out in her book Testing the Spirits that instead of being glimpses of the impermanent nature of things, the experiences that accompany Buddhist contemplation can be explained as misperceptions of the surrounding reality due to imposing on the senses and mind an abnormal way of functioning: As meditators passively watch their own mental states come and go without trying to control them, these begin to fluctuate more and more rapidly and unpredictably. After a while this chaotic activity creates the strong impression that the mental events are springing into life on their own, from some separate source, rather than the observer's own mind. As meditators persist with this practice, they also notice that there is a definite separation between the mental events being observed and the mind that is doing the observing. As meditation progresses still further, both the mental events and the observing mind begin to seem alien and impersonal, as if they do not really belong to the observer. At about this point the meditator's sense of "self" becomes confused and weakened, and finally it disappears entirely for brief periods of time. This experience of dissolution strongly reinforces the Buddhist notion that there actually is no such thing as an "I" or "myself" - that such concepts are actually false constructions of the mind. At still deeper levels, meditators eventually reach a stage in which their awareness of events and the events themselves seem inextricably bound together and the whole scene churns in a wild state of flux. Ideas, images and thoughts seem to appear and then dissolve into nothingness with great rapidity. At this point every aspect of mental life (and the physical world itself) seems impermanent, transitory and alien, and disturbed meditators desperately want it all to stop. Relief http://www.comparativereligion.com/Buddhism.html (3 of 5) [10/27/2000 9:48:15 AM]
Critical considerations regarding Buddhism
finally comes when meditators break through Nirvana, a state in which all awareness of physical and mental phenomena ceases, at least for a short time. Reaching this stage ostensibly produces permanent changes in consciousness. Inner processes are set in motion which fill the meditator with equanimity and bliss. These presumably destroy defiling mental states like self-interest, ambition, greed and hatred, and ensure advanced placement in the next life. When interpreted through Eastern lenses, these experiences strongly reinforce the Buddhist belief that the physical universe, our concepts of self and even our inner mental life are only illusions. (E. Hillstrom, Testing the Spirits, IVP, 1995, p. 114-15) The meditator's prior expectations, as induced by the guru, as well as the refusal of any conscious control over the process, probably contribute to a great extent to one's accepting the truthfulness of these experiences. However, as long as they depend heavily upon forcing the mind to work in improper conditions, it is more likely that they rather represent perceptions of defective cognitive phenomena than true perceptions of an Ultimate Reality. Therefore they cannot be trusted.
Mahayana Buddhism and Hindu pantheism According to the doctrine of momentariness (kshanikavada), not only the self is to be considered illusory, but also the five aggregates and all other aspects of the world. All things are impermanent and follow a continuous process of becoming. Therefore from an ontological point of view, everything is but a succession of transitory moments. The true nature of the world is the void (shunya), which is not non-existence or nothingness, but an Ultimate Reality free of any limitation, duality or determination. Like the Hindu Brahman, the void can be characterized only by refusing any positive attributes. Although Mahayana Buddhism rejects the major Vedantic notions, the void is nothing but an acceptance of Brahman in disguise. Following the pattern of Hindu pantheism, the world is considered to be the manifestation of shunya, which is altogether the fundamental nature (also called Buddha Nature) of any being that has to be discovered through mystical introspection. This is nothing but an actualization in the Mahayanic context of the atman-Brahman identity, and therefore much of the criticism addressed to pantheism is valid here as well.
The boddhisattvas and grace Instead of seeking nirvana just for himself and become an arhat, as Theravada Buddhism demands, the disciple of Mahayana Buddhism aims to become a bodhisattva, a celestial being that postpones his own entrance into parinirvana (final extinction) in order to help other humans also attain it. As was the case with the Hindu avatars of Vishnu, the bodhisattvas are mediators between man and Ultimate Reality. Through devotion and proper moral conduct humans receive their grace and attain liberation. This new development has been interpreted as a penetration of the Hindu bhakti tradition into Buddhism. However, we meet here the same contradiction between karma and grace as in theistic Hinduism. For instance, according to the Tibetan Book of the Dead, although the bodhisattvas offer their help to the dead person in order that he may attain a better new birth or even final liberation, he is unable to accept it
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because of the projection of his bad karma and the attraction of “samsaric impurities”, which make him fall deeper and deeper into the intermediary state (bardo). For this reason it is wrong to pretend that the bodhisattvas save the dead through their grace, as only the merits he has accumulated during lifetime make him able to accept the “rays of grace”. Therefore, it is either karma that rules one's existence and journey toward liberation, or the grace of the bodhisattvas. The two elements are hard to reconcile. On the other hand, due to the rejection of any abiding principle that could define human existence, the idea of grace becomes absurd. Who is suffering and who needs the boddhisattvas' grace in order to be liberated, if all existence is nothing but illusion? S. Dasgupta comments on this absurd situation: The saint (bodhisattva) is firmly determined that he will help an infinite number of souls to attain nirvana. In reality, however, there are no beings, there is no bondage, no salvation; and the saint knows it but too well, yet he is not afraid of this high truth, but proceeds on his career of attaining for all illusory beings illusory emancipation from illusory bondage. The saint is actuated with that feeling and proceeds in his work on the strength of his paramitas, though in reality there is no one who is to attain salvation in reality and no one who is to help him attain it (S. Dasgupta, Indian Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 127).
The equivalence of samsara and nirvana A further consequence of the doctrine of the void in Mahayana Buddhism is the equivalence of samsara and nirvana. If voidness is to be projected not only on personal existence, but on any concept and experience, it means that all major Buddhist terms such as aggregates, karma, samsara, nirvana and the four noble truths, must also be void. Therefore they are nothing but conventional truths, products of momentariness which are operational only in language use. If samsara is impermanent and has no abiding subject, it cannot have a true nature. The same is true about nirvana. If samsara and nirvana are both void, they must be identical, and any difference empirically experienced between them must also be illusory from the absolute point of view. Therefore the two pillars of early Buddhism are abolished in Mahayana. What then remains of the whole Buddhist philosophy? Once we arrive here we have to face the same objection as in pantheism: Empirical knowledge cannot be correlated with absolute knowledge because ultimate truth cannot be expressed through language. However, there is an inconsistent attitude to this conclusion because there has been a huge amount of literature produced trying to express "the inexpressible". The very statement of Mahayana Buddhism that "any conventional term is void" is self-contradictory, as it itself must be void in order to be true. Otherwise it cannot communicate anything and the best way of transmitting Buddhist doctrine would be silence. See also on this topic: Comparing Christianity & Buddhism, by Peter Kreeft Back to Top | Back to Contents | E-Mail
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The divine incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity
The divine incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity The only religions that admit a true incarnation of Ultimate Reality in human form and consider it very important in their theology are Vaishnava Hinduism and Christianity. They both assume that God descended into the world and dwelt among humans in order to save them. Vaishnava Hinduism ascribes ten incarnations (avatars) to the god Vishnu, while Christianity proclaims the sole incarnation of God the Son in Jesus Christ. Could they be equivalent? In other words, could Jesus Christ be considered a mere Western avatar, come into our world according to the Hindu pattern? On the other hand, could the avatars of Vishnu have fulfilled the same goal as Jesus? Or are there irreconcilable differences between them? As we witness today many claims that they express a similar theology, a proper investigation is necessary for unveiling the mystery that surrounds this topic. The following analysis will investigate why the incarnation of God was necessary, how the problem arose that he came for, what the form of the divine embodiment is and how it actually solves the problem.
The periodical manifestation and dissolution of the world Vaishnava Hinduism states in its major writings, the Puranas, that the god Vishnu causes a cyclic manifestation and dissolution of the world. Each cosmic cycle (mahayuga) has four ages (Krita Yuga - 1.728.000 years, Treta Yuga - 1.296.000 years, Dvapara Yuga - 864.000 years and Kali Yuga - 432.000 years) followed by the dissolution (pralaya) of the physical world. The whole cycle is repeated 994 times, which is a period called kalpa, and then a dissolution (pralaya) of both the physical and subtle world follows. 36.000 kalpas and pralayas make the lifespan of Brahma, the creator god, which is followed by a total dissolution (mahapralaya) of the physical, subtle and causal world. Then all worlds, time and space return into Brahman, and the whole cycle starts again in an endless process of manifestation and dissolution. In Christianity, on the other hand, the world was created only once, and not as a necessity (as the cyclic manifestation of Vishnu implies) but out of God's superabundant love. Although the world became corrupted by sin, this situation doesn't belong to a normally repeated scenario (as in Hinduism) but is the result of a wrong human response to God's love. Despite the fact that our world is different from what God has originally intended, it will not follow a repeated cycle of manifestation and dissolution. The "new heaven and new earth" presented at the end of the Revelation account (21,1) is not a new creation similar to the one presented in Genesis. Otherwise it would indeed confirm a cyclic manifestation of the world according to the Hindu pattern. The Bible doesn't confirm such a mechanism. The "new heaven and new earth" is rather an everlasting world where sin is eradicated and there will be "no more death or mourning or crying or pain" (Revelation 21,4). It will belong to those who accepted His grace through Jesus Christ (21,27) and will never have a pralaya to end it.
The ten avatars of Vishnu The god Vishnu is said to descend ten times into our world during each cosmic cycle (mahayuga) in order to restore the balance between good and evil. His incarnations (avatars) vary depending on the Hindu writing that describes them. The Mahabharata gives three lists of Vishnu's avatars: First there are mentioned four, then six, and finally there is a list of ten, in the form of: (1) swan, (2) tortoise, (3) fish, (4) boar, (5) man-lion, (6) dwarf, (7) Bhargava Rama, (8) Dasaratha Rama, (9) Krishna, and (10) Kalki. The Garuda Purana lists 19 avatars of Vishnu, while the Bhagavata Purana lists 22 in one place and 23 in another. Since the time of the Bhagavata Purana the number of avatars has been uniformly recognized as ten. Therefore we will use the following list in the present analysis: (1) fish, (2) tortoise, (3) boar, (4) man-lion, (5) dwarf, (6) Parasurama, (7) Rama, (8) Krishna, (9) Buddha and (10) Kalki. The first nine have occurred already and the last one is still to come. Let us give a brief description of each avatar and see what its goal was and the method used for fulfilling it. (1) The fish (Matsya). The Vedas were stolen from Brahma by a demon, so the gods sent a flood on the earth to drown him and thus recover the holy scriptures. Vishnu took the form of a fish, predicted the coming deluge to the saint Manu and saved him together with his family by leading his ship to safety. (2) The tortoise (Kurma). During the deluge that destroyed the world the cream of the milk ocean (amrita), by which the gods renewed their youthfulness and avoided death, was lost. Both gods and demons together set about producing amrita by churning the ocean of milk, using a mountain as churning stick and the incarnation of Vishnu as a pivot on which to rest it. Their action was successful and the amrita recovered. http://www.comparativereligion.com/avatars.html (1 of 5) [10/27/2000 9:48:24 AM]
The divine incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity
(3) The boar (Varaha). Brahma had been forced to grant the boon of immortality to a demon that had performed austerities. Under the cover of this boon, the demon persecuted both men and gods and even stole the Vedas from Brahma and dragged the earth under the ocean, down to his dark abode. However, he forgot to mention the boar when reciting the name of gods, men and animals from which to be immune, so Vishnu took the form of a huge boar, descended into the ocean, killed the demon with his tusks, recovered the Vedas and released the earth. (4) The man-lion (Narasinha). A demon had obtained the boon of immunity through asceticism from the attacks of men, beasts and gods. He had the assurance from Brahma that he could not be killed either day or night, inside or outside his house. This demon grew very powerful and forbade the worship of all gods and substituted it with worship for himself. Vishnu took the form of half-man, half-lion (neither man nor beast) and tore the demon into pieces in the evening (neither in the day nor in the night) in the doorway of his palace (neither inside nor outside it). (5) The dwarf (Vamana). The king Bali had gained too much power by his sacrifices, so the gods were endangered of losing their heavenly position to him. Therefore Vishnu was incarnated as a dwarf and asked the king the gift of three paces of land. Once accepted, the dwarf suddenly grew to an enormous size and covered all the earth and the heavens by his paces and Bali was left with only the nether regions. (6) Parasurama (Rama with the ax). The warrior caste (kshatriya) was exercising tyranny over all men, especially over the Brahmins, so the priestly caste was endangered. Vishnu came to earth as Parasurama and exterminated the whole kshatriya caste with his ax. While he was still on earth, the next avatar (Ramachandra) came and the two had to struggle. Ramachandra defeated him in a trial of strength and broke his bow. (Both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata recollect this episode. In the Mahabharata Parasurama is knocked senseless by Ramachandra.) (7) Ramachandra (Rama), the hero of the Ramayana epic. The demon Ravana had practiced austerities in order to propitiate Brahma, who had granted him immunity from being killed by gods, gandharvas and demons. Under this cover, Ravana persecuted gods and men. Vishnu took the human form of prince Rama, for Ravana was too proud to ask immunity from men. Many adventures followed in his trip to save his wife Sita, who was kidnapped by the demon and taken to the Lanka Island. Rama raised an army of monkeys and bears led by the monkey-god Hanuman and a great battle was fought in front of the gates of the city. Rama used a magic weapon infused by the power of many gods, killed Ravana and rescued his wife. (8) Krishna. The objective of Vishnu's incarnation as Krishna was to kill the demon Kamsa, who had become a tyrannical king, killing children and banning the worship of Vishnu. Krishna's mission had three phases: childhood, youth and middle age. During childhood he performed many feats of strength, killing all demons sent against him by Kamsa. In his youth, Krishna had many amorous adventures with married cowgirls. At last, in his middle-age, he killed Kamsa and took part in the Bharata war (with the most famous episode being the one recollected in the Bhagavad Gita). His mission accomplished, Krishna retreated into the forest in meditation. A hunter mistook his foot for a deer and shot it, thus piercing Krishna's one vulnerable spot and mortally wounding him. (9) Buddha. The demons had stolen the sacrificial potions of the gods and performed asceticism, so the gods could not conquer them. Vishnu incarnated as a man of delusion in order to propagate false ideas and lead them astray from their old faith. Buddha preached that there is no creator, that the three major gods (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) were just ordinary mortals, that there is no dharma, that death is total annihilation, that there is no heaven and hell and that the sacrifices are of no value. Obviously, Buddha as avatar of Vishnu has no historical background. He was a kind of devil's advocate who managed to weaken the opponents of the gods. The demons became Buddhists, abandoned the Vedas and consequently were killed by the gods. This story was first presented in the Vishnu Purana (5th century AD) and is obviously an attempt to subordinate Buddhism to Hinduism. (10) Kalki. The last avatar, who is still to come, puts an end to the degenerated earth, accomplishing the final destruction of the wicked and preparing the way for the renewal of creation and the resurgence of virtue in the next mahayuga. The following table summarizes the meaning of Vishnu's past 9 avatars:
Topic
Which avatar's case fits into this scenario
A demon performed austerities and gained too much power over the gods
3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9
The avatar came to save the gods
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9
The avatar came to save humans
1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8
The avatar kills a demon
3, 4, 7, 8
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The avatar's form of embodiment
Animal (1, 2, 3), half-beast, half-human (4), human (5, 6, 7, 8, 9) according to how the demon had to be deceived.
Now let us turn to the nature of the divine incarnation in Christianity by presenting an excerpt from a previous file on the nature of salvation in Christianity.
God the Son incarnated as Jesus Christ The Christian account of divine incarnation presents God the Son willingly leaving His divine glory, taking a human body and descending into our world through the virgin birth. The Apostle Paul states: Christ Jesus, being in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something to be grasped, but made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness (Philippians 2,6-7). This “making Himself nothing” performed by God the Son is called in theology “the kenosis of Christ” (lit. = “emptying”). It does not mean a subtraction of deity, but the addition of humanity with its consequent limitations. Although taking a human nature was a real humbling for God the Son, it did not involve the giving up of any divine attributes. The doctrine of the kenosis involves the veiling of His preincarnate glory (John 17,5), taking on Himself the likeness of human sinful flesh (Romans 8,3) and the temporary nonuse of divine attributes during His earthly ministry. The kenosis of Christ was His free will initiative and not a necessity imposed by His nature, as is the case with the periodical incarnations of Vishnu. According to Christianity, Jesus Christ is the only incarnation of God, descended into our world with a unique and non-repeatable mission in history. He is not a mere avatar, a periodical incarnation of a Hindu god, but the unique incarnation of God the Son, become God the Man, perfect in both His divine and human nature. This double nature of Jesus Christ is the key for understanding His mission of reconciling man with God. In Vaishnava Hinduism none of the avatars has a perfect union of the two natures. As they have no historical basis, it is very difficult to speculate on how their divine nature combined with the physical one (animal or human). Due to considering the physical body a mere garment that is put on and off (according to Bhagavad Gita 2,22), there cannot be any real association of god with a physical body. Christ came to redeem the physical body as well, therefore His association with it was real. For the same reason there is so much accent laid on His physical resurrection, which for a Hindu avatar would be completely absurd. Therefore the avatar fits best in the Docetic understanding of Christ (the appearance of a physical body, with no intrinsic value to it), which is considered a classic heresy in Christianity. The most striking difference from Hindu avatars regards Christ's death. This was the crux of His incarnation: He had to die on the cross for our redemption from sin and reconciliation with God. The Apostle Peter states in his epistle: He himself bore our sins in his body on the tree, so that we might die to sins and live for righteousness; by his wounds you have been healed (1 Peter 2,24; see also 1,18-21; 3,18). Jesus Christ as “the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1,29) is the cornerstone of Christianity and its non-paralleled element. Mocked and spit upon by the human race, nailed on a cross and forsaken by the Father, Jesus Christ took our place in punishment. While dying on the cross, Jesus shouted, “It is finished” (John 19,30). In Greek, the expression used was Tetelestai, which means, “the debt was paid in full”. What was meant here is the debt that man deserved to pay for his sins in hell, through eternal torment. By His death, Jesus paid in full the price required for the salvation of mankind from sin. Was the suffering of Christ on the cross a mere illusion, as some esoteric interpretations suggest? Obviously not! His torment and death were so real that none of those who saw it could expect a future victory over death. This proves the full incarnation of God the Son. He did not die only in physical appearance, as the Docetist heresy suggests, but as a poor miserable man, experiencing suffering in its fullest sense. His death proves both the seriousness of our sin and the unfathomable love of God, as Jesus once proclaimed: For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life (John 3,16).
Parallels between the Hindu avatars and Jesus Christ What are demons? According to Hinduism, demons are either beings that appeared through the primordial act of manifestation, or humans that didn't follow their duty (dharma) or performed bad deeds during their lifetime. Consequently they reincarnate as evil beings which cause much suffering in the world. However, the evil they do is not arbitrary, as the law of karma makes sure that the humans afflicted by demons are justly punished for their own bad deeds performed in previous lives. Therefore, from a global point of view the demons' bad deeds must be seen as necessary in balancing karma. On the other hand, the demon stage of existence is limited, and eventually there is reincarnation back into human form and
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henceforth a new chance given to attain liberation. Keeping this in mind, it becomes absurd that Vishnu has to intervene in the world by descending as an avatar to save it. Save it from what? From the consequences of karma, a spiritual law that can never be abolished? As long as karma operates in the world, the killing of a demon has a very limited effect. It doesn't guarantee that the demon will not create problems in his next existence. According to the reincarnation doctrine, only one's physical frame can be "killed" (see Bhagavad Gita 2,19), not the "infinite, immortal soul". For this reason, demons never stop creating problems, so there are necessary periodical incarnations of the divine, at least 10 in each mahayuga. As the periodical manifestation of the world created by Vishnu never ends, so does the affliction of it by the demons. Therefore, the solution of killing the demons by the avatars is only a short-term solution to the problem of evil in the world. On the other hand, in Christianity, demons have a different nature and destiny. They are fallen angels who will never reincarnate, return to their initial status or attain salvation. As the present world has a limited time span and there is no re-manifestation of it, the demons will be eternally separated from the Kingdom of God at the judgment day. (For more information on the nature of demons in Christianity click here.)
How did the demons attain power over the gods? A very interesting fact in Hinduism is that anyone - god, human or demon - can attain the same magical power through performing austerities (tapas). Once this power is attained, nobody can break it. In fact, the 3rd, 4th, 7th, 8th and 9th avatars of Vishnu all came because a demon performed so many austerities that the god Brahma was forced to grant him the boon of immortality as a reward. The mechanism of attaining such power is beyond the control of the gods, which proves their weakness in ruling the world. As a result, the avatar has to find a way of killing the demon without breaking the promises made to him by Brahma. The solutions are sometimes very funny (see for instance the 3rd and the 4th avatar). On the other hand, in Christianity demons have no possible way of blackmailing God. They cannot attain more power than they were left with at the fall. Neither angels nor demons could ever represent a threat for God. According to Christianity, such a power as that attained by the Hindu demons cannot be attained by any creature in our world, by any possible way of asceticism. Power can only be given by God, in a limited measure, and only in order to recognize the true source of power, who is God himself.
Who did the divine incarnation came to save, gods or humans? In Hinduism not only can demons force the gods to admit their merits, but the descent of the divine into human form is more concerned with saving the world of the gods than that of humans. For instance, there are 8 avatars (no. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9) involved in saving the world of gods from the power attained by demons, while only 6 (no. 1, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8) are concerned with saving humans. This proves that the gods have a very fragile position and are more concerned about themselves than the problems of humankind. In Christianity the idea of God becoming incarnate to save Himself is absurd. God is not affected at all by anything demons could do. From this point of view, the coming of Christ could never have occurred as necessary. The only purpose of God's incarnation in Jesus Christ is the salvation of humans from the effect of sin. The problem in Christianity is not that demons are a threat to God, but that man has chosen to disobey God. Through the act of the divine incarnation man can gain a chance to return to personal communion with his Creator.
How does the divine incarnation save? Usually the Hindu avatar kills the demon (no. 3, 4, 7, 8, only the demon-king Bali is spared and sent to hell by no. 5). The killing is performed with much caution, so that the promises made by the god Brahma should not be broken. However, due to reincarnation this "killing" is not of much effect, being only a limited solution to the problem of evil. On the other hand, in Christianity, Jesus Christ didn't literally kill Satan. In accordance with the sacrificial system of the Old Testament, Jesus let Himself be crucified for our sake. This was the "gift of God" (Romans 6,23) as ransom for our sins, a chance offered to us to be set free from the power of Satan and sin. According to the Bible, the final destruction of demons' power will only occur at the judgment day (Revelation 20,10).
Contradictory aspects of the Hindu avatars A weird fact to mention here is the conflicts between two contemporary avatars of the Treta Yuga (Parasurama and Ramachandra). How can this be? How could two incarnations of the same god wrestle with one another? Isn't each avatar under divine control? Why didn't the first Rama leave in time? Or why couldn't he solve the problem for which the next avatar came, if he was present anyway in the world? On the other hand, how could the gods cooperate with demons at the time of the second avatar's (Kurma) coming? How is it possible to become allies and to be both threatened by the absence of amrita? This leads us to believe that both gods and demons are of the same nature and use the same source of power. http://www.comparativereligion.com/avatars.html (4 of 5) [10/27/2000 9:48:24 AM]
The divine incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity
Could Jesus Christ be assimilated with a Hindu avatar? Christianity is a religion that breaks into history, presenting Jesus Christ as a historical God-man who was born, lived and died nearly 2.000 years ago. If his life were not a unique historical event, His whole teaching would be absurd. His claims, miracles, passion and resurrection, if taken out of history, leave nothing to Christianity. On the other hand, Hinduism is not concerned with historicism, so it can accept any tales of the repeated divine incarnation. The spiritual message of the avatars is the only element that matters, not their historical presence. Having this mindset, Hindus accept Jesus Christ as an avatar (of the Western world) with a powerful message, but being nothing more than any other avatar. On the one hand, Hinduism is very syncretistic, including even Buddha among the avatars, the one who rejected the basic tenets of Hinduism. On the other hand, Christianity is very exclusivistic when it comes to characterizing the descent of the divine into human form. Jesus Christ cannot be just another avatar, a mere variant of an eternal myth. This would deprive Him of His true identity. His passion, death on the cross and resurrection give Him a totally different portrait than the Hindu avatars. Rabindranath Maharaj summarized it in his book Death of a Guru in the following words: Jesus said he is the way, not a way; so that eliminates Krishna and everyone else. He did not come to destroy sinners - like Krishna said of himself - but to save them. And no one else could. Jesus is not just one of many gods. He is the only true God, and he came to this earth as a man, not just to show us how to live but to die for our sins. Krishna never did that. And Jesus was resurrected, which never happened to Krishna or Rama or Shiva - in fact, they never existed. (R. Maharaj Death of a Guru, Philadelphia, A.J. Holman Co., 1977, p. 148)
Jesus Christ and other Saviors and religious founders Suggested links: On Jesus and Mahomed: The Person of Christ in the Gospel and the Quran, by Abd al-Fadi Christ in Islam and Christianity, by John Gilchrist On Jesus and Gotama Buddha: Buddha and Christ, by Prof. Johannes Aagaard On Jesus as a Gnostic teacher of wisdom: Gnosticism and the Gnostic Jesus, by Douglas Groothuis Easter: Myth, Hallucination, or History?, by Edwin Yamauchi. It examines the evidences for claiming that the Resurrection of Christ is a myth patterned after the prototypes of dying and rising fertility gods. Back to Top | Back to Contents | E-Mail |
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How can those who never heard about Christ be saved?
How can those who never heard about Christ be saved? This question is a natural result when Christians state that Jesus Christ’s sacrifice on the cross is the only possibility for man’s salvation. From the very beginning, we have to emphasize an important aspect when dealing with this issue: Such a question can be raised only by those who have heard about Jesus Christ, but in most cases do not accept Him as Savior. Consequently, they use it as an excuse for ignoring their responsibility toward Christ and for adhering either to atheism or to other religions. It is obvious that none of the readers of this site belongs to the category of those who never heard about Christ, as the entire Western history and culture has a Christian background. However, finding a proper answer to this question is important for many people today. It may help them understand better the fact that Christ’s sacrifice is indeed the solution for any human in this world, including those who lived prior to his incarnation, or after this event, in geographical areas not reached by Christian missionaries. Two extremes should be avoided when addressing the salvation of those who have never heard about Christ. First, if humans could be saved only by hearing about Him, the multitudes which never had this chance during their lifetime would necessarily be damned to eternal suffering in hell. It is obvious that this cruel kind of God cannot be the God who died for them on the cross as absolute proof of His love. If He is all-loving, all-knowing and all-powerful, He must have a solution for those who have never heard about His final revelation in Jesus Christ. Second, if all other religions were valid ways to God, the Christian claim of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross being the only possibility for man’s salvation should be rejected. If any human could have worked out his salvation by performing righteous deeds, rituals, meditations, etc., as his native religion requires, God shouldn’t have adopted such a dramatic and absurd solution for our sins as the crucifixion. The rise of Christianity as a new world religion would have been useless, and Jesus only one savior among many. However, Jesus Himself claimed to be the only possibility for any human’s salvation and reconciliation with God. He said: “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me” (John 14,6). He commanded his disciples to go and proclaim this truth in the entire world (Matthew 28,18-20; Mark 16,15-16) and they did it (Acts 4,12). If other religions were as good as Christianity in attaining salvation, the effort of Christian missionaries would be absurd. Why would so many have sacrificed their lives, only to proclaim one of the many alternatives man has to reach God? Therefore we cannot sacrifice the importance of Jesus’ atonement on the altar of modern syncretism. According to Christianity, salvation is provided only as a result of the specific historical acts performed by Jesus Christ in His life, death on the cross, resurrection and ascension. What He did is absolutely http://www.comparativereligion.com/neverheard.html (1 of 6) [10/27/2000 9:48:35 AM]
How can those who never heard about Christ be saved?
essential for the salvation of any human being who has ever lived, whether thousands of years BC or nowadays. Without Christ, no human could ever share eternal life with God. As a result of the above considerations, we have to face a dilemma: Jesus Christ is the only way to God, but it cannot be possible that only those who have heard about Him can be saved. Salvation must be available also for those who haven't heard about Christ. The element which solves this dilemma is the criteria according to which God will judge those who never heard about Christ and grant them salvation. The Bible states that God is holy and will judge humans with justice (Acts 17,31), according to the available measure of revelation they had and their response to it, expressed through their deeds (Romans 2,6), words (Matthew 12,36-37) and thoughts (Hebrews 4,12). The amount of revelation one has determines a consequent measure of responsibility on his part (Luke 12,47-48). In the Western world, anyone has elementary knowledge about Christianity, and therefore the terms of one's salvation are clear. As to those who never had the chance to hear the Christian message, it is obvious that their judgment will require other criteria than responding to the historical Jesus Christ. God’s desire for all humans to be saved cannot be questioned. The Apostle Paul states: “God wants all men to be saved and to come to a knowledge of the truth” (1 Timothy 2,4). The same is stated by the Apostle Peter (2 Peter 3,9). The important thing to clarify, then, is how does God show His grace to those who die without ever having heard about Jesus Christ?
General revelation There is no doubt that any human has been presented God’s general revelation, which is through nature, conscience and culture. According to how they respond to it, the Apostle Paul proves (in the first three chapters of his Epistle to the Romans) that all humans are sinful and deserve condemnation, even in the absence of any coherent Christian message. This is the result of consciously rejecting general revelation; both the external one, that of creation, and the internal one, that of conscience. Creation is by itself a testimony about the Creator available to any human, as a kind of symbolic preaching that anyone can understand: For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities - his eternal power and divine nature have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that men are without excuse (Romans 1,20). Out of all things that have been made by Him, man is the highest of all. Man was created in God's image and likeness, as a personal agent that is now in search of meaning and fulfillment. If the external revelation of nature is not enough, then the internal one, that of conscience, is even more significant. Man’s conscience knows intuitively God’s moral standards and warns when they are trespassed: Indeed, when Gentiles, who do not have the law, do by nature things required by the law, they are a law for themselves, even though they do not have the law, since they show that the requirements of the law are written on their hearts, their consciences also bearing witness, and their thoughts now accusing, now even defending them (Romans 2,14-15). Anyone who performs evil is consciously acting contrary to the demands of his conscience. (However, conscience can become perverted itself, but only after a process of constantly rejecting its natural right demands.) The true problem of man is not the lack of revelation, but a wrong way of responding to it
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How can those who never heard about Christ be saved?
(Romans 1,21-23). Therefore, God could find enough reasons to judge and condemn those who never heard about Christ. Due to the fact that He could condemn them on the basis of their response to general revelation, the next point is to see how they could still be saved.
Grace attributed retroactively If those who never heard about Christ could be saved only as a result of their response to general revelation, we should also accept that salvation can be attained as a reward for one’s good deeds. But the Bible states clearly that nobody can earn his salvation through morality or good deeds (Ephesians 2,8-9). However, the Bible also speaks about people who never heard about Christ but still are saved (Hebrews 11). Before analyzing these cases, it should be emphasized that if salvation depended exclusively on how much information one had about Christ, we would fall into the trap of Gnosticism (salvation through attaining right knowledge). Knowledge doesn't save us, but only God, as we respond in faith to His revelation, no matter how limited it might be. God does not limit His grace to those who have enough information of Him. As the examples mentioned in The Letter to the Hebrews (chapter 11) prove, the salvation of those who never heard about Christ depends on two basic requirements: 1) their response to the amount of revelation they had, which is their responsibility; 2) the retroactive conferring of Christ’s sacrifice, on the basis of the faith they manifested through properly responding to general revelation, which is God’s responsibility. Let us analyze how this works. The 11th chapter of the Letter to the Hebrews gives many examples of people who lived in the Old Testament time and were saved without hearing about Jesus Christ. Abel, Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Rahab, David and others, are all considered heroes of faith, despite the fact that none of them heard about Christ. Jacob (Genesis 49,10), Moses (Deuteronomy 18,15) and David (Psalm 22) prophesied about His coming, but didn’t understand too much about its soteriological value. Others like Rahab (Joshua 2,1-21; Hebrews 11,31), Naaman the Syrian (2 Kings 5,1-19; Luke 4,27), Melchizedek (Genesis 14,17-20; 7,2,15-17) and Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses (Exodus 18), were saved although they didn’t even belong to the people of Israel. They accepted the small amount of revelation they got, responded in faith and as a result God conferred on them the atoning sacrifice of Christ. Faith is the key element here. It means trusting in the promises of God and responding through effective action to His initiative (Hebrews 11,1-3). Faith is not limited to understanding the doctrine of atonement, but rather engaging in a trusting relationship with God. While analyzing these famous examples of the Old Testament, we can observe the various kinds of revelation they had from God: Noah was warned about the imminent coming of the flood; his response proved his faith in God’s promise to save him together with his family (Genesis 6-9). Abraham trusted God’s promise that he would be blessed with a son and become the ancestor of a big nation (Genesis 12-22; Hebrews 11,8-19). God proclaimed him righteous because of his faith: “Abram believed the Lord, and He credited it to him as righteousness” (Genesis 15,6). Isaac, Jacob and Joseph, the descendants of Abraham, trusted in God and were blessed. Moses trusted that God would free the Jewish nation from Egyptian bondage and lead them into the Promised Land (Hebrews 11,20-22). Not only people belonging to the chosen people of Israel were saved in the Old Testament time, but also Gentiles. Melchizedek was called “priest of the God Most High” (Genesis 14,18) without having any blood relation to Abraham. He worshipped the same God, and Abraham even paid tithes to him. Jethro, http://www.comparativereligion.com/neverheard.html (3 of 6) [10/27/2000 9:48:35 AM]
How can those who never heard about Christ be saved?
the father-in-law of Moses, finding out what God has done through the Jewish nation, accepted by faith that the God of Moses is the true god. Rahab, the prostitute (!), hearing about the approaching of Israel, risked her life in order to hide the Jewish scouts (Joshua 2,1-21; Hebrews 11,31). This was the effective way she expressed her faith in the true God and therefore was counted among the heroes of faith. Naaman the Syrian (2 Kings 5,1-19; Luke 4,27) banished his pride when he understood who the true God is, showing his faith by his decision to abandon idolatry. All these people of the Old Testament, heroes of faith, have not been saved through their merits, but through the grace of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross, retroactively attributed to them. Their faith was the instrument through which God granted them salvation, the same instrument He uses today for all people who accept the sacrifice of Christ as the atoning solution for their sins (Hebrews 11,39-40). Although the type of revelation differs (today we have available the final revelation of God, through Christ), the object of faith remains the same - God, and the basis of His forgiveness cannot be other than Christ’s sacrifice. For both those who lived before and after Jesus’ crucifixion, God’s forgiveness was always granted through grace and not by one’s own merits, and the proper way of accepting grace was and will always be faith. The sacrifice of Christ is the element that validates the faith of humans who lived both before and after His incarnation.
Neither those who lived prior to the incarnation of Christ, nor those living after His death but without knowing anything about it, can be saved exclusively through their religion. A clear example is that of Naaman the Syrian, who had leprosy. The prophet Elisha didn’t suggest that he should bring more sacrifices to the Syrian god Rimmon, didn’t encourage him to be more honest and devoted to his native religion, but sent him to the Jordan River. By his initial refusal, Naaman is a symbol of man’s opposition toward God’s special revelation. The desire to earn salvation (in Naaman’s case through bathing in the holy Syrian rivers, making offerings, etc.) is a natural product of a false religion. Very often the adherents of Eastern religions fit into this category. They refuse God’s grace, claiming to be able to attain salvation (liberation) by their own efforts. However, God cannot validate this effort, as it is a product of pride, of man’s attitude of independence toward God. Following the ancient promise “you will be like God” (Genesis 3,5), by using a great variety of teachings and techniques, more or less sophisticated, while refusing grace, cannot be a valid way to God.
Salvation for those who never heard about Christ but accept the importance of grace The above considerations do not imply that all those who don’t know anything else than their native religion are automatically condemned. There have been enough spiritual masters who recognized the necessity of grace and the impossibility of reaching salvation by one’s own efforts. Ramanuja and http://www.comparativereligion.com/neverheard.html (4 of 6) [10/27/2000 9:48:35 AM]
How can those who never heard about Christ be saved?
Madhva are brilliant examples in the Hindu tradition, as is Shantideva in Mahayana Buddhism. More than that, the entire spiritual trend called prapatti in Hinduism, or the Pure Land school of Buddhism, focuses on grace as the only solution for attaining liberation. According to them, the whole merit for getting saved belongs to the god (in Hinduism) or bodhisattva (in Buddhism) they worship. There are also many cases of tribal religions in which grace plays a key role in salvation. The God who reveals Himself in the Bible knows man’s inner attitude and his motivation for performing certain religious duties. All efforts which point toward self-justification are of no value, no matter how impressive they could be. However, if man’s attitude is one of humility, recognizance of his own weakness, and acceptance of grace, which God offers unconditionally, the situation in completely different. We have observed this attitude in the prapatti devotional trend of Hinduism, which demands giving up the control of one's personal life to the god Vishnu and leaving to him all responsibility for attaining salvation. The adherent of this trend has to acknowledge that he is not good enough to deserve liberation by performing rituals and moral obligations. As mentioned in a previous file, the whole prapatti philosophy can be summarized in the following verse, written by Vedanta Deshika, a 14th century follower of Ramanuja: Lord, I, who am nothing, conform to your will and desist being contrary to it, and with faith and prayer, submit to you the burden of saving my soul (Nyasadashaka 2). The same is the case with the Pure Land School of Mahayana Buddhism, which flourished in Japan. According to its doctrine, the bodhisattva Amida (the Buddha of Infinite Light) is able to save even the most despised sinner by his grace (tariki). To reach his paradise by human efforts (performing meditation or good deeds) is impossible. This can be attained only through Amida’s grace. Such spiritual trends in other religions prove that the Holy Spirit is at work in the world, convincing people of their sin and turning their hearts toward God. According to the character displayed by the God of Christianity, He will save such people, by the grace available for all in Jesus Christ. They will be saved not through their native religion, but despite of it, as a reward for their humility and recognition of the need for grace. If there are many or few people in this category we cannot know. A classic example of how people belonging to cultures completely foreign to the Judeo-Christian world can still have a revelation of God and meet him is the Magi from the east mentioned in Matthew 2,1-12. Despite the fact that they were astrologers and probably believed that human destiny is shaped by the stars, which is contrary to biblical teaching, they still were granted a special revelation from God regarding His major intervention on earth to save humankind from sin. They worshipped Jesus as King of the Jews and brought Him gifts worthy of a king. Some theological speculations see the gifts as pointing to His divine nature (gold), His divine priesthood (incense) and sacrifice (myrrh was used for embalming). Their coming to Judea was obviously not customary. It was not a rule for the Magi to worship the kings there at their birth. This episode was rather a surprise for all, and a serious reason for Herod to feel his throne threatened. This example shows that God can use unorthodox methods to reveal Himself to those who are completely foreign to His revelation in the Bible. He has sufficient means to do it all over the earth. The most important factor, again, is human response to His revelation, as the Magi could have ignored the Bethlehem star. However, their journey proves their faith and brings them to worship the true God. Man’s problem has never been the lack of revelation, but only pride and refusal to change his attitude towards grace. People do not respond to the amount of revelation they already have; they know what to
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How can those who never heard about Christ be saved?
do, but refuse to do it. Most of Jesus’ contemporaries rejected Him because they refused to believe, despite all fulfilled prophecies, miracles, healings and even His resurrection. The Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus (Luke 16,19-31) is extremely relevant here. People are given everything they need in order to be saved, but if they refuse the available revelation, they are fully responsible for it and cannot be justified at God’s judgment. The crucifixion of Jesus Christ tells us that man lacks any chance to please God by his own efforts, that God’s grace in Jesus was an absolute necessity and His love for us was big enough to save us from the spiritual disaster to which our illusory independence would have brought us. One more aspect should be addressed here: If people can be saved without ever hearing about Christ, does it mean that Christian missions are futile? There are two important reasons to reject this hypothesis. Before mentioning them, it should be acknowledged that if the salvation of tribes living in remote areas depended entirely on missionaries’ preaching, a lot of people will suffer eternal damnation in hell only because Christian missionaries didn’t manage to reach their part of the world in time. More than that, in many cases the disobedience of Christians to go into remote parts of the world would be responsible for that. However, condemning people to hell because of the sin of some Christians isn’t at all consistent with God’s perfect justice and love for the lost. There are two important reasons for Christian mission in the world. First, Jesus himself commanded it (Matthew 28,18-20). He is the final revelation of God and His message of salvation has to be proclaimed “to the ends of the earth” (Acts 1,8). That people can be saved without hearing about Christ is only a temporary solution, which operates only until His message will reach all humans. Second, all people should share the fullness and blessings of the Christian life, not only in eternity, but also during this present earthly life. The love of God in a personal relation with Him and also in the Christian community can be experienced starting from now, as Jesus came to redeem our earthly life as well. In conclusion, God didn’t leave the world without a proper testimony about Him (Acts 14,17) and doesn’t condemn anybody without first revealing His grace. Although this article on the question “How can those who never heard about Christ be saved?" may not satisfy some of you, remember that nobody’s salvation depends on how convincing such an answer could be. The sacrifice of Christ on the cross is and remains the only ground for human salvation. Rejecting it (by those who heard about Him) cannot be justified by the lack of intellectual satisfaction one gets from polemical debates foreign to our spiritual context. Back to Top | Back to Contents | E-Mail |
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The Parable of the Prodigal Son in Christianity and Buddhism
The Parable of the Prodigal Son in Christianity and Buddhism Most of you know the Parable of the Prodigal Son as it appears in Luke's gospel, but probably few are aware that it has a Buddhist parallel in one of the major writings of Mahayana Buddhism. Although both parables seem to convey a similar message regarding God's compassion for humans, a closer look will reveal fundamental differences in their teaching and consequently between Christianity and Buddhism. Let us quote both parables and then analyze them. First, here is the text in the Gospel According to Luke: There was a man who had two sons. The younger one said to his father, "Father, give me my share of the estate." So he divided his property between them. Not long after that, the younger son got together all he had, set off for a distant country and there squandered his wealth in wild living. After he had spent everything, there was a severe famine in that whole country, and he began to be in need. So he went and hired himself out to a citizen of that country, who sent him to his fields to feed pigs. He longed to fill his stomach with the pods that the pigs were eating, but no one gave him anything. When he came to his senses, he said, "How many of my father's hired men have food to spare, and here I am starving to death! I will set out and go back to my father and say to him: Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you. I am no longer worthy to be called your son; make me like one of your hired men." So he got up and went to his father. But while he was still a long way off, his father saw him and was filled with compassion for him; he ran to his son, threw his arms around him and kissed him. The son said to him, "Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you. I am no longer worthy to be called your son." But the father said to his servants, "Quick! Bring the best robe and put it on him. Put a ring on his finger and sandals on his feet. Bring the fattened calf and kill it. Let's have a feast and celebrate. For this son of mine was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found." So they began to celebrate. Meanwhile, the older son was in the field. When he came near the house, he heard music and dancing. So he called one of the servants and asked him what was going on. "Your brother has come," he replied, "and your father has killed the fattened calf because he has him back safe and sound." The older brother became angry and refused to go in. So his father went out and pleaded with him. But he answered his father, "Look! All these years I've been slaving for you and never disobeyed your orders. Yet you never gave me even a
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The Parable of the Prodigal Son in Christianity and Buddhism
young goat so I could celebrate with my friends. But when this son of yours who has squandered your property with prostitutes comes home, you kill the fattened calf for him!" "My son," the father said, "you are always with me, and everything I have is yours. But we had to celebrate and be glad, because this brother of yours was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found." (Luke 15:11-32)
The Buddhist parable is longer: A young man left his father and ran away. For long he dwelt in other countries, for ten, or twenty, or fifty years. The older he grew, the more needy he became. Wandering in all directions to seek clothing and food, he unexpectedly approached his native country. The father had searched for his son all those years in vain and meanwhile had settled in a certain city. His home became very rich; his goods and treasures were fabulous. At this time, the poor son, wandering through village after village and passing through countries and cities, at last reached the city where his father had settled. The father had always been thinking of his son, yet, although he had been parted from him over fifty years, he had never spoken of the matter to anyone. He only pondered over it within himself and cherished regret in his heart, saying, "Old and worn out I am. Although I own much wealth gold, silver, and jewels, granaries and treasuries overflowing - I have no son. Some day my end will come and my wealth will be scattered and lost, for I have no heir. If I could only get back my son and commit my wealth to him, how contented and happy would I be, with no further anxiety!" Meanwhile the poor son, hired for wages here and there, unexpectedly arrived at his father's house. Standing by the gate, he saw from a distance his father seated on a lion-couch, his feet on a jeweled footstool, and with expensive strings of pearls adorning his body, revered and surrounded by priests, warriors, and citizens, attendants and young slaves waiting upon him right and left. The poor son, seeing his father having such great power, was seized with fear, regretting that he had come to this place. He reflected, "This must be a king, or someone of royal rank, it is impossible for me to be hired here. I had better go to some poor village in search of a job, where food and clothing are easier to get. If I stay here long, I may suffer oppression." Reflecting thus, he rushed away. Meanwhile the rich elder on his lion-seat had recognized his son at first glance, and with great joy in his heart reflected, "Now I have someone to whom I may pass on my wealth. I have always been thinking of my son, with no means of seeing him, but suddenly he himself has come and my longing is satisfied. Though worn with years, I yearn for him." Instantly he sent off his attendants to pursue the son quickly and fetch him back. Immediately the messengers hasten forth to seize him. The poor son, surprised and scared, loudly cried his complaint, "I have committed no offense against you, why should I be arrested?" The messengers all the more hastened to lay hold of him and brought him back. Following that, the poor son, thought that although he was innocent he would be imprisoned, and that now he would surely die. He became all the more terrified, fainted away and fell on the ground. The father, seeing this from a distance, sent word to the messengers, "I have no need for this man. Do not bring him by force. Sprinkle cold water on his face to restore him to consciousness and do not speak to him any further." Why? The http://www.comparativereligion.com/prodigal.html (2 of 9) [10/27/2000 9:48:40 AM]
The Parable of the Prodigal Son in Christianity and Buddhism
father, knowing that his son's disposition was inferior, knowing that his own lordly position had caused distress to his son, yet convinced that he was his son, tactfully did not say to others, "This is my son." A messenger said to the son, "I set you free, go wherever you will." The poor son was delighted, thus obtaining the unexpected release. He arose from the ground and went to a poor village in search of food and clothing. Then the elder, desiring to attract his son, set up a device. Secretly he sent two men, sorrowful and poor in appearance, saying, "Go and visit that place and gently say to the poor man, 'There is a place for you to work here. We will hire you for scavenging, and we both also will work along with you.'" Then the two messengers went in search of the poor son and, having found him, presented him the above proposal. The poor son, having received his wages in advance, joined them in removing a refuse heap. His father, beholding the son, was struck with compassion for him. One day he saw at a distance, through the window, his son's figure, haggard and drawn, lean and sorrowful, filthy with dirt and dust. He took off his strings of jewels, his soft attire, and put on a coarse, torn and dirty garment, smeared his body with dust, took a basket in his right hand, and with an appearance fear-inspiring said to the laborers, "Get on with your work, don't be lazy." By such means he got near to his son, to whom he afterwards said, "Ay, my man, you stay and work here, do not leave again. I will increase your wages, give whatever you need, bowls, rice, wheat-flour, salt, vinegar, and so on. Have no hesitation; besides there is an old servant whom you can get if you need him. Be at ease in your mind; I am, as it were, your father; do not be worried again. Why? I am old and advanced in years, but you are young and vigorous; all the time you have been working, you have never been deceitful, lazy, angry or grumbling. I have never seen you, like the other laborers, with such vices as these. From this time forth you will be as my own begotten son." The elder gave him a new name and called him a son. But the poor son, although he rejoiced at this happening, still thought of himself as a humble hireling. For this reason, for twenty years he continued to be employed in scavenging. After this period, there grew mutual confidence between the father and the son. He went in and out and at his ease, though his abode was still in a small hut. Then the father became ill and, knowing that he would die soon, said to the poor son, "Now I possess an abundance of gold, silver, and precious things, and my granaries and treasuries are full to overflowing. I want you to understand in detail the quantities of these things, and the amounts that should be received and given. This is my wish, and you must agree to it. Why? Because now we are of the same mind. Be increasingly careful so that there be no waste." The poor son accepted his instruction and commands, and became acquainted with all the goods. However, he still had no idea of expecting to inherit anything, his abode was still the original place and he was still unable to abandon his sense of inferiority. After a short time had again passed, the father noticed that his son's ideas had gradually been enlarged, his aspirations developed, and that he despised his previous state of mind. Seeing that his own end was approaching, he commanded his son to come, and gathered all his relatives, the kings, priests, warriors, and citizens. When they were all assembled, he addressed them saying, "Now, gentlemen, this is my son, begotten by me. It is over fifty years since, from a certain city, he left me and ran away to endure loneliness and misery. His former name was so-and-so and my name was so-and-so. At that time in that city I http://www.comparativereligion.com/prodigal.html (3 of 9) [10/27/2000 9:48:40 AM]
The Parable of the Prodigal Son in Christianity and Buddhism
sought him sorrowfully. Suddenly I met him in this place and regained him. This is really my son and I am really his father. Now all the wealth which I possess belongs entirely to my son, and all my previous disbursements and receipts are known by this son." When the poor son heard these words of his father, great was his joy at such unexpected news, and thus he thought, "Without any mind for, or effort on my part, these treasures now come to me." World-honored One! The very rich elder is the Tathagata, and we are all as the Buddha's sons. The Buddha has always declared that we are his sons. But because of the three sufferings, in the midst of births-and-deaths we have borne all kinds of torments, being deluded and ignorant and enjoying our attachment to things of no value. Today the World-honored One has caused us to ponder over and remove the dirt of all diverting discussions of inferior things. In these we have hitherto been diligent to make progress and have got, as it were, a day's pay for our effort to reach nirvana. Obtaining this, we greatly rejoiced and were contented, saying to ourselves, "For our diligence and progress in the Buddha-law what we have received is ample". The Buddha, knowing that our minds delighted in inferior things, by his tactfulness taught according to our capacity, but still we did not perceive that we are really Buddha's sons. Therefore we say that though we had no mind to hope or expect it, yet now the Great Treasure of the King of the Law has of itself come to us, and such things that Buddha-sons should obtain, we have all obtained. (Saddharmapundarika Sutra 4)
The parable in its context In Luke, the parable reveals the nature of God in Christianity, His expectation that all sinners may return to a father-son relationship with Him. Jesus told this parable to a large public consisting of both "religious experts" of the day, the Pharisees, and the people most despised by them, the tax collectors, prostitutes and other outcasts (Luke 15,1-2). The Pharisees considered these "sinners" to be outside the acceptable boundary of God's kingdom and accused Jesus for enjoying their company. In contrast to their attitude, He told the previous two parables in the same chapter (The Lost Sheep and The Lost Coin), in order to emphasize His initiative in seeking and saving such sinners. In response, they acknowledged their sinful life and came to Jesus for healing and forgiveness, while the Pharisees considered themselves good enough according to God's standards (see the Parable of the Pharisee and the Tax Collector - Luke 18:9-14). Thus the Parable of the Prodigal Son reveals both God's love for those who were ready to accept it (the prodigal son who returns to his father), and His rejection of the Pharisees' hypocrisy and self-centered righteousness (the older son in the parable). Although the contrast between the two sons is an important point in the parable, as the Buddhist parable speaks only of a prodigal son, the teaching about the older son in Luke will be ignored in this comparison. * The Buddhist parable is part of the famous Saddharmapundarika Sutra (also called the Lotus Sutra, composed at the end of the second century AD), which revealed the new teaching of Mahayana Buddhism regarding the bodhisattva beings. The discourse of the Buddha is said to have taken place in front of a very large public, consisting of arhats, nuns, bodhisattvas, gods and other beings. His teaching http://www.comparativereligion.com/prodigal.html (4 of 9) [10/27/2000 9:48:40 AM]
The Parable of the Prodigal Son in Christianity and Buddhism
was addressed to those who have reached the arhat stage of becoming and are supposed to advance further by becoming a bodhisattva. As the son in the parable shouldn't be satisfied by his lower status, the Buddhist disciples should also aspire to a higher position, that of becoming a bodhisattva. It will eventually be attained step by step after a long instructing and testing process.
The characters In the gospel the father represents God, the Ultimate Reality in Christianity, while the prodigal son is the one living in sin who finally repents and returns to a fellowship relation with God. In the Sutra the father is Buddha (or more specifically, the Buddha nature - Dharmakaya), while the son is the one struggling to become an enlightened bodhisattva being.
The son's departure and miserable condition The prodigal son in Luke declares he has had enough of staying home in obedience to his father and wants to be on his own. Not only does he want to leave home, but he even dares to claim his inheritance, the fortune he is supposed to get at his father's death. Such a demand is extremely outrageous, especially in the Middle Eastern context. However, instead of rebuking or even denouncing his son, the father grants his request. Soon after this, the son left for a distant country and there he squandered his entire fortune in wild living. This probably was a quite new and interesting experience for him, but it brought him to bankruptcy. Now he had to find a job to make a living in that country, and the best offer he had was to feed someone's pigs. In a Jewish context, the pigs are considered unclean animals; therefore being hired to feed them and even being hungry enough to long for their food illustrates the worst possible situation one can reach. The spiritual meaning of the prodigal son's leaving his home is assimilated in Christianity with man's rebellion against God, his heavenly father. God does not oppose one's freedom of will in choosing how to live. As the son in the parable claimed his inheritance and then squandered it, humans use all that God has granted them (wealth, health, time and relationships) not for serving Him in obedience, but against His will. This attitude is called sin, and brings humans to the lowest possible stage of decadence. Although living in sin is first very attractive and pleasant, in the end it leads to destruction, both from an existential and a spiritual point of view. Another important observation here is that although the father in the parable gave a large fortune to his son, he was still rich after the son's departure. However, the father's only concern proved to be his son's personal safety and return to the family. His wealth plays no role for him. As the rich man in the parable didn't become poor by his son's departure, God does not lose anything by our decision to live in rebellion to Him. The only one who is losing everything is man. * The prodigal son of the Buddhist Sutra leaves home without any fortune from his father. His departure
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The Parable of the Prodigal Son in Christianity and Buddhism
looks more like running away in secrecy. He also becomes more and more needy but is still able to make a living. The father doesn't seem to have been rich at the moment of his son's departure. He rather became rich after this episode, in another city than the one in which he previously lived with his son. Therefore the son had no wealthy position to remember from home and to eventually return to. Even if he would have, the father had left it, so there was no place for him to return. Regarding the father's concern in this story, he seems more worried about having an heir than about making his son happy again. The meaning of the son's wandering in the Buddhist tale is that there is no initial position to lose in one's spiritual becoming. As the son leaves his home poor and remains poor, humans have no other inheritance than karma, which makes them wander from one bad incarnation to another. The only truth that governs human existence is suffering and karma, which leads to an endless wandering in the world, with no original position to return to. The only spiritual fulfillment is a permanent growth toward an impersonal liberation. This is the Buddhist treasure to be discovered by any cost.
The way back home The prodigal son of the gospel finally "came to his senses" and acknowledged his dramatic condition. Ashamed, he planned to return to his father, confess his sin and ask to be hired as a servant. This position, no matter how humiliating it could be in front of his brother and the other servants, was a much better choice than staying with the pigs. The process of one's "coming to his senses" is called repentance in Christian theology. It involves acknowledging the bad condition of living in sin and making the decision to leave it. * The Buddhist prodigal son made no decision to return to his father. He continuously wandered from town to town until he unexpectedly arrived at his father's palace. The son didn't even recognize his father, whose situation had changed a lot since his departure. More than this, the father's wealth inspired fear in the son and made him try to run away again in order to not enter into more trouble. Eventually, at the father's command, the attendants seized him and brought him to the palace against his will. The son's wandering in the world can be interpreted as the effect of karma and reincarnation in one's life. They constantly push man on the one-way of becoming. However long the process of being reincarnated in different bodies may be, one has to finally reach liberation (that's why the attendants seize the son against his will). One constantly experiences suffering until he has to accept that the best solution for his life is nirvana. Although reaching the status of a bodhisattva (a being that helps other humans attain liberation) seems to confer a personal afterlife destiny, the ultimate stage of becoming is shunya, the void, where nothing personal can remain.
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The Parable of the Prodigal Son in Christianity and Buddhism
What happens back home? According to Luke's parable, the father was waiting for his prodigal son. He probably knew that the son couldn't find true satisfaction in what the world had to offer him. Instead of punishing him for his foolish behavior, "while he was still a long way off, his father saw him and was filled with compassion for him; he ran to his son, threw his arms around him and kissed him" (v. 20). Instead of humiliating the son as a repayment for the shame he cast on his father at departure, the father humiliates himself by running to meet him. Such a behavior was totally indignified according to Jewish standards of the time. After the son recited half of his prepared speech, acknowledging he was wrong, the father interrupted him and commanded the servants to bring him the best robe, put a ring on his finger and sandals on his feet. The fattened calf was slaughtered and a feast ordered to celebrate his return. All these symbols prove a 100% forgiveness and rehabilitation of the son to his prior status. The robe was a sign of great distinction, the ring the sign of authority, the sandals a luxury (only slaves were bare-footed) and the slaughter of the fattened calf the sign of a very important celebration in the family. Instead of becoming a hired servant as he hoped, the son was fully restored to the position he had abandoned long before. * The Sutra presents in a whole different way the prodigal son's return home. The father unexpectedly recognized him standing at his gate and sent his attendants to seize him and compel him to come to the palace. The son didn't understand the situation and became terrified. The father initially treated him like a stranger because of his "inferior disposition". A sudden restoration was out of the question. Understanding his son's mindset, the father set him free and managed that he be hired as a scavenger. Although filled with compassion, the father could not reveal his identity until the son deserved his proper place in the family. He met his son in disguise and encouraged him to be honest in his work in order to be promoted. He promised to increase his salary and provide for his basic needs. The son had first to prove high qualities before being accepted back into the family. So he lived for 20 years in a small hut while still being employed in scavenging. The testing process would have probably continued if the father hadn't become ill, feeling his death to be imminent. Even at this time the son was not fully accepted into the family but only promoted to a higher position, that of accountant over all his father's riches. Without abandoning his sense of inferiority, the son became acquainted with all the goods. Noticing that his son's ideas had gradually changed for the good and that he despised his former status, only then did the father gather all his relatives and friends and declare the former servant to be his son and heir.
The teaching of the parable in Christianity and Buddhism The Christian meaning of the parable is clear. All humans need to return to God in repentance and faith. He does not compel humans to do it, so it must be a personal decision. God's forgiveness is not conditioned by attaining high spiritual performances but only by repentance. The price for our reconciliation with God was paid by Jesus Christ, through His death on the cross and His resurrection. There is nothing more to add and one life is enough to accept it. The parable depicts the amazing availability of God to forgive and restore us, His unlimited grace to http://www.comparativereligion.com/prodigal.html (7 of 9) [10/27/2000 9:48:40 AM]
The Parable of the Prodigal Son in Christianity and Buddhism
bestow upon us, His great love to accept us independently of our status and past. This should give us courage to come to Him in repentance and faith, without fear, and inherit His Kingdom, where personal communion with Him will be everlasting. * The Buddhist parable has a different message. Both the process of being liberated (acknowledged as son) and the meaning of liberation (inheriting the father's estate) have a different meaning. One cannot simply attain liberation at once. The process is very long and demands a progressive accumulation of wisdom until one deserves his place in the hierarchy. Escaping from ignorance and suffering, attaining nirvana and the becoming of a bodhisattva is a hard-to-win prize that has to be attained gradually by a day-by-day effort in training the mind and overcoming karma. Grace, in Buddhism, cannot be shown directly, but only as the disciple deserves it, which in fact is no grace at all. There is also a major difference from Christianity in defining the status of the liberated person. Personhood has no room in the system. Although the bodhisattva is a personal being, he acts as a temporary catalyst for the sake of other humans that they may also find nirvana. The true ultimate stage of spiritual progress is shunya, the void, where no personal communion can ever exist. It is the final blowing out of the candle. This means that an eternal communion with a Father in His Kingdom makes no sense in traditional Buddhism. Ultimately, there is no Father to have communion with.
The following table summarizes the teaching of the two parables and also reveals some basic contradictions between the two religions:
Topic in the parable
Meaning in Christianity
Meaning in Buddhism
The context
Jesus is teaching sinners, emphasizing their need and opportunity to be reconciled with God.
Buddha is teaching spiritually advanced disciples (arhats) the need for attaining a higher position, that of a bodhisattva.
The characters
God and the sinners
Buddha (the ultimate impersonal Buddha nature) and the ones struggling to attain it
The meaning of the son's departure from home
The human attitude of rebellion against God, called sin
Ignorance starts the wheel of karma.
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The son's miserable condition
The human condition under the power of sin, away from personal communion with God
Karma and reincarnation force one to wander from one physical existence to the next
The decision to return home
A personal decision to leave sin, called repentance
Karma and reincarnation lead one to the proper level where wisdom and spiritual progress can be attained.
The father's attitude at the son's arrival
Complete forgiveness of sin and restoration to personal fellowship with God
Buddha's "grace" makes one progress little by little toward liberation. One has to deserve his position by a process of spiritual development.
Who pays the damage for the lost fortune
Jesus Christ paid the price for our forgiveness through His death and resurrection.
The disciple has to "pay himself" the price for erasing his ignorance, by constantly accumulating wisdom.
The son's inheritance
Eternal communion with God in His kingdom
Attaining an impersonal Ultimate Reality (shunya), where there is no room for personal communion
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Reincarnation, its meaning and consequences. Reincarnation and Christianity
REINCARNATION Its meaning and consequences A) Reincarnation in world religions; B) Past-life recall as proof for reincarnation; C) Reincarnation and cosmic justice; D) Reincarnation and Christianity.
D) Reincarnation and Christianity Today’s religious syncretism not only accepts reincarnation as one of its basic doctrines but also tries to prove that it can be found in the Bible and in the history of the Church. We will therefore analyze the basic texts in the Bible which are claimed to imply reincarnation, examine the position of some important Church fathers who were suspected of having accepted it, emphasize the basic antagonism of this doctrine with Christian teaching, and then find a proper explanation for the past life recall experiences mentioned earlier, an explanation that should be compatible with Christian thought.
Reincarnation and the Bible Biblical texts that seem to imply reincarnation The most "convincing" texts of this kind are the following: 1) Matthew 11,14 and 17,12-13, concerning the identity of John the Baptist; 2) John 9,2, "Who sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?"; 3) John 3,3, "No one can see the kingdom of God unless he is born again"; 4) James 3,6, "the wheel of nature"; 5) Galatians 6,7, "A man reaps what he sows". 6) Matthew 26,52, ”all who draw the sword will die by the sword”. 7) Revelation 13,10, ”If anyone is to go into captivity, into captivity he will go. If anyone is to be killed with the sword, with the sword he will be killed.” 1. The first text concerns the identity of John the Baptist, supposed to be the reincarnation of the prophet Elijah. In Matthew 11,14 Jesus says: "And if you are willing to accept it, he (John the Baptist) is the Elijah who was to come." In the same Gospel, while answering the apostles about the coming of Elijah, Jesus told them: "But I tell you, Elijah has already come, and they did not recognize him, but have done http://www.comparativereligion.com/reincarnation3.html (1 of 11) [10/27/2000 9:48:53 AM]
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to him everything they wished. In the same way the Son of Man is going to suffer at their hands." The commentary adds: "Then the disciples understood that he was talking to them about John the Baptist." (Matthew 17,12-13; see also Mark 9,12-13) At first sight, it may seem that these verses imply the reincarnation of the prophet Elijah as John the Baptist. The prophecy of the return of Elijah was stated in the last verses of the Old Testament, in the book of the prophet Malachi (3,1; 4,5-6): "See, I will send you the prophet Elijah before that great and dreadful day of the Lord comes." Right before this prophecy was fulfilled, through the birth of John the Baptist, an angel announced to his father Zechariah: "And he will go on before the Lord, in the spirit and power of Elijah, to turn the hearts of the fathers to their children and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous-- to make ready a people prepared for the Lord" (Luke 1,17). What could be the meaning of the words "in the spirit and power of Elijah"? According to other Biblical passages that refer to Elijah and John the Baptist, they do not teach reincarnation. At the time when John the Baptist began his public preaching, the priests in Jerusalem asked him about his identity. They asked: "Are you Elijah?" (John 1,21) In such circumstances a true "guru" wouldn’t have hesitated to state his position in the succession of spiritual masters (the guru parampara) of the tradition he is representing. However, John the Baptist answered simply: "I am not." His negation suggests another meaning to the words quoted from Matthew 11,14 and 17,12-13. John the Baptist was rather a kind of Elijah, a prophet who had to repeat the mission of Elijah in a similar context. The same as Elijah did, John the Baptist had to suffer persecution from the royal house of Israel and acted in the context of the spiritual degeneration of the Jewish nation, with the mission of bringing the people back to the right worship of God. John the Baptist had the same spiritual mission as the prophet Elijah, but not the same soul or self. For this reason the expression "in the spirit and power of Elijah" should not be interpreted as reincarnation of a person, but as a necessary repetition of a well-known episode in the history of Israel. Another Biblical text that contradicts the reincarnation theory in this case is the story of Elijah’s departure from this world. Elijah didn’t die in the proper sense of the word, but "went up to heaven in a whirlwind" (2 Kings 2,11). According to the classic theory of reincarnation, a person has to die physically first in order that his self may be reincarnated in another body. In the case of Elijah this didn’t happen. So it must be considered an exception to both the natural process of death, and to the rule of reincarnation. Finally, the experience of the three apostles at the Mount of Transfiguration has to be remembered (Matthew 17,1-8, Mark 9,2-8; Luke 9,28-36), when Elijah was identified by the apostles without being confused with John the Baptist. 2. The next disputed text is the introduction to the healing of the man born blind in John 9,2. Considering the apostles' question: "Rabbi, who sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?", it is obvious that the first option (the man was born blind because of his sin) implies that he could sin only in a previous life. According to the classic theory of reincarnation, he might have been a cruel dictator who got the just reward for his bad deeds. However, the apostles' question about the possibility of having sinned before birth should not necessarily be judged as indicating an existing belief in reincarnation at that time in Israel. It rather confirms that some religious factions believed that the fetus can sin in his mother womb. If Jesus had considered reincarnation to be true, surely He would have used this opportunity - as was His custom - to explain to them the law of karma and reincarnation, as an immediate application to that man’s situation. Jesus never missed such occasions to instruct his disciples on spiritual matters, and reincarnation would have been a http://www.comparativereligion.com/reincarnation3.html (2 of 11) [10/27/2000 9:48:53 AM]
Reincarnation, its meaning and consequences. Reincarnation and Christianity
crucial doctrine for them to understand. Nevertheless, by the answer Jesus gave to them, He rejected both options suggested by the apostles. Both the idea of sinning before birth and the punishment for the parents' sins were wrong. Jesus said: "Neither this man nor his parents sinned, but this happened so that the work of God might be displayed in his life" (John 9,3). "The work of God" is described in the next verses, when Jesus healed the blind man as a proof of His divinity (v. 39). 3. In the Gospel According to John Jesus said to Nicodemus: "I tell you the truth, no one can see the kingdom of God unless he is born again" (John 3,3). Out of its context, this verse seems to suggest that reincarnation is the only possibility for attaining spiritual perfection and admission into the "kingdom of God". Nicodemus’ following question indicates that he understood by these words a kind of physical rebirth in this life, and not classic reincarnation: "How can a man be born when he is old? Surely he cannot enter a second time into his mother's womb to be born!" (v. 4). Jesus rejected the idea of physical rebirth and explained man’s need for spiritual rebirth, during this life, in order to be admitted into God’s kingdom in the afterlife. Jesus further explained the meaning of His words by referring to a well-known episode in Israel’s history: "Just as Moses lifted up the snake in the desert, so the Son of Man must be lifted up" (John 3,14). That episode occurred while the Israelites were traveling in the wilderness toward the Promised Land under the command of Moses (see Numbers 21,4-9). They spoke against God and against Moses, and then God punished them by sending poisonous snakes against them. Grasping the gravity of the situation, they recognized their sin and asked for a saving solution. God’s solution was that Moses had to make a bronze copy of such a snake and put it up on a pole. Those who had been bitten by a snake had to look at this bronze snake, believing that this symbol represented their salvation, and were healed. Coming back to the link Jesus made between that episode and His teaching, He said: "Just as Moses lifted up the snake in the desert, so the Son of Man must be lifted up, that everyone who believes in him may have eternal life" (John 3,14-15). In other words, as Moses lifted up the bronze snake 1400 years earlier, in the same way was He to be lifted up on the cross, in order to be the only solution, the only antidote to the deadly bite of sin. As the Jews had to believe that the bronze snake was their salvation from death, the same way had Nicodemus, his generation and the entire world to believe that Jesus’ sacrifice on the cross is the perfect solution provided by God for the sins of the world. Therefore the kind of rebirth Jesus was teaching (as well as Paul – see Titus 3,5) is not the Eastern concept of reincarnation but a spiritual rebirth that any human can experience in this life. 4. A fourth text interpreted as indicative for reincarnation is found in the Epistle of James 3,6, where some translations (such as the American Standard Version) mention "the wheel of nature" which seems to resemble the cycle of endless reincarnation stated by the Eastern religions. However, in this context the reference is made to the control of speech in order not to sin. The ASV translation states: "And the tongue is a fire: the world of iniquity among our members is the tongue, which defileth the whole body, and setteth on fire the wheel of nature, and is set on fire by hell." The tongue out of control is compared with a fire that affects all aspects of existence, thought and deed, in a vicious cycle. This means that sinful speech is at the origin of many other sins, which are consequently generated, and conduct man to hell. The NIV translation is clearer at this point: "The tongue also is a fire, a world of evil among the parts of the body. It corrupts the whole person, sets the whole course of his life on fire, and is itself set on http://www.comparativereligion.com/reincarnation3.html (3 of 11) [10/27/2000 9:48:53 AM]
Reincarnation, its meaning and consequences. Reincarnation and Christianity
fire by hell." 5. A classic example of suggesting karma and samsara in the Bible is often claimed to be represented by the words of the Apostle Paul in Galatians: "Do not be deceived: God cannot be mocked. A man reaps what he sows" (Galatians 6,7). This "sowing and reaping" process would allegedly represent someone’s acts and their consequences as dictated by karma in further lives. However, the very next verse here indicates that the point here is judging the effects of our deeds from the perspective of eternal life, as stated in the Bible, without a further earthly existence being involved: "The one who sows to please his sinful nature, from that nature will reap destruction; the one who sows to please the Spirit, from the Spirit will reap eternal life" (6,8; see also the entire chapter). "Reaping destruction" means eternal separation from God in hell, while "eternal life" represents eternal communion with God in heaven. In their given context, these verses cannot suggest the reincarnation of the soul after death. According to Christianity, the supreme judge of our deeds is God, and not impersonal karma. 6. After Peter had cut off the ear of the high priest’s servant in his attempt to prevent Jesus’ arrest in Gethsemane, Jesus rebuked him by saying: "All who draw the sword will die by the sword" (Matthew 26,52). Could this be the justice of karma in action? All four gospels give account of Jesus’ rebuke to Peter’s initiative. Although heroic, it went against God’s plan ("How then would the Scriptures be fulfilled that say it must happen in this way?" – verse 54). Peter was in this case sinning and, according to the well-known Old Testament law of sin retribution, the sinner must be punished consistently ("Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed; for in the image of God has God made man" - Genesis 9,6; see also Exodus 21,23-25; Leviticus 24,19-20; Deuteronomy 19,21). However, throughout the Old Testament this law was referring solely to one’s present physical life, by no means to future lives. Otherwise Jesus’ words would lead to an absurd implication. If He meant that killing someone in this life with a sword will require that the doer will be killed at his turn with a sword in a future life, then His crucifixion (which followed soon after) must have been a punishment for His sins done in previous lives and not a solution for other people’s sins as He claimed. 7. "If anyone is to go into captivity, into captivity he will go. If anyone is to be killed with the sword, with the sword he will be killed" (Revelation 13,10). This verse belongs to a prophecy that speaks about the end times, when Satan and his subjects will have temporary power on earth. Adherents of reincarnation must be aware that it is a quotation from the Old Testament: "And if they ask you, 'Where shall we go?' tell them, 'This is what the LORD says: "'Those destined for death, to death; those for the sword, to the sword; those for starvation, to starvation; those for captivity, to captivity'" (Jeremiah 15,2). This sentence was written by Jeremiah just before the fall of Jerusalem and the Babylonian exile (586 BC) and expresses God’s punishment of the sinful Jewish nation at that time, which had rejected Him. It is not the impersonal law of karma here but the will of the personal creator God. He chooses how to punish those who have rejected Him. (See also Jeremiah 43,11, which uses the same words for announcing the punishment of Egypt for its sins.) The author of Revelation used this quotation for assuring those involved in the events to come that God will do justice again, as He did in the ancient times. Therefore they should act in "patient endurance and faithfulness" as Revelation 13,10 adds.
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Reincarnation, its meaning and consequences. Reincarnation and Christianity
* As it can be observed, in all situations where "Biblical proofs" for reincarnation are mentioned, the context is always ignored. Other passages used as indications of reincarnation mean, in fact, the existence of Christ prior to His human birth (John 8,58), the continuity of the souls' existence after death (John 5,28-29; Luke 16,22-23; 2 Corinthians 5,1), or the spiritual rebirth of believers in their present life (Titus 3,5; 1 Peter 1,23), without giving any plausible indication for reincarnation.
Did the clergy rewrite the Bible, so that the passages teaching reincarnation were removed? Some people hold that the Bible contained many passages teaching reincarnation in an alleged initial form, but they were erased and forbidden by the clergy at the fifth ecumenical council, held in Constantinople in the year 533 AD. The reason for this would have been the spiritual immaturity of the Christians, who could not grasp the doctrine at that time, or the desire of the clergy to manipulate the masses. However, there is no proof that such "purification" of the Biblical text has ever occurred. The existing manuscripts, many of them older than AD 533, do not show differences from the text we use today. There are enough reasons to accept that the New Testament was not written later than the first century AD. In order to get more information on the accuracy of the present text of the Bible use the following sites: Dating the Oldest New Testament Manuscripts, by Peter van Minnen Textual Criticism and Manuscript Interpretation The Gospels As Historical Sources For Jesus, The Founder Of Christianity, by Prof. R. T. France At the same time, if the clergy had, as alleged, decided to erase from the Bible the "compromising" passages about reincarnation, why did they keep the ones mentioned above (concerning the identity of John the Baptist, etc.)? On the other hand, it is obvious that there are many texts in the Bible that clearly contradict the idea of reincarnation, explicitly or implicitly. (See for instance 2 Samuel 12,23; 14,14, Job 7,9-10, Psalm 78,39, Matthew 25,31-46, Luke 23,39-43, Acts 17,31, 2 Corinthians 5,1;4;8, Revelation 20,11-15.) Here is one verse in the New Testament which contradicts reincarnation as clearly as possible: Just as man is destined to die once, and after that to face judgment, so Christ was sacrificed once to take away the sins of many people; and he will appear a second time, not to bear sin, but to bring salvation to those who are waiting for him (Hebrews 9,27-28). The Christian teaching that we live only once is a fact beyond doubt, being as true as the fact that Jesus had to die only once for our sins. In other words, the unique historical act of Jesus’ crucifixion and the fact that we live only once are equally true and cannot be separated. This text cannot possibly be interpreted otherwise. The judgment that follows death is obviously not the judgment of the impersonal karma, but that of the personal almighty God, after which man either enters an eternal personal relation with Him in heaven, or an eternal separation from Him in hell.
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Reincarnation, its meaning and consequences. Reincarnation and Christianity
Did the early Church fathers believe in reincarnation? Early Christianity spread in a world dominated by Greek philosophy. Many important figures of the early church had this spiritual background when they were converted. When addressing their world with the Christian message, they had to do it without any syncretistic compromise to Greek philosophy. To what extent could they have been influenced by the doctrine of reincarnation? In order to answer this, we first have to understand what was actually taught about reincarnation at that time. Reincarnation according to Platonism The dominant form of reincarnation known by ancient Greek philosophy during the first three Christian centuries belongs to Platonism. Unlike the Eastern spiritual masters, Plato taught that human souls existed since eternity in a perfect celestial world as intelligent and personal beings. They were not manifested out of a primordial impersonal essence (such as Brahman) or created by a personal god. Although the souls lived there in a pure state, somehow the divine love grew cold in them and, as a result, they fell in physical bodies to this earthly, imperfect world. Plato writes in Phaedrus about this: But when she 1600x1200) Custom Photography Outdoor & Nature Photography Landscapes & Scenics S Quilt pattern designers at the QuiltersWarehouse showcase online catal Original watercolor fine art of nature, seascapes and gardens Free Web and clip art for you to download, plus Poster Shop and sugges New fantasy novel. Aleena of the Lantern by The Talewagger. The Show-case for Original Photographic Art by Peter Sandilands. Photo Gallery of fine woodcut prints by Maria Arango & printmaking resources Photographer Fashion, Glamour, Models Portfolios, Seniors, and Art Arts - work from posters to fantasy, erotic, tatoo body art, humanitie Astoria's local theater for the arts. Community theater for every one.
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