A PARTICIPATORY CONSCIOUSNESS DEVELOPED IN AESTHETIC EXPERIENCES Patricia Ann ...

CONNECTINÛ TO NATURE THROUGH

A PARTICIPATORY CONSCIOUSNESS DEVELOPED IN AESTHETIC EXPERIENCES by

Patricia Ann Spencer B.G.S., Simon Fraser University, 1996

Thesis subrnitted in partial fulfillrnent of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

in the

Faculty of Education

Q Patricia Spencer 1998

SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY July 1998

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ABSTRACT This thesis advocates the developrnent of a "participatory consciousness" in fine arts education prograrns as a way of addressing the problern nf human estrangement frorn Nature. The arguments herein aie based on the premise that an unprecedented global ecological crisis exists. Human estrangement from the natural world and an alienated, Western worldview are considered to be key factors in thls crisis. It will be suggested that any viable solutions to the

crisis must involve a change in human perceptions and attitudes towards the

biotic community. Perception is approached from a phenomenological perspective, and it will be subrnitted that a participatory consciousness, ernphasidng sensory awareneas and sympathetic engagement between perceiver and perceived, is a valid perceptual model. The fine arts disciplines, in developing the aesthetic sensibility, which emphasizes sensuous perception, have the potential to foster the participatory consciousness, which would, in

.

turn help people strengthen thelr relationship to Nature. Several benefits derived from fostering the participatory consdousness will be outlined. Additionally. justification for the cultivation of the partidpatory consciousness in

an educational setting will be ptesented. Finally, the practical aspect regarding fostering the participatory consdousness as a strand in existing art education prograrns will be discussed, with reference to the subject areas of visual arts and dance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would Ike ta !hank both Stuart Richmond and Milt McClaren for their

support, advice and encouragement during the writing of this thesis. I am also very gateful for the careful editing done by my friend, Am Swann. I feel fortunate to have recently linked up with Margaret Sharun, who was of great assistance rogarding some cornputer problems. Iwould like to thank my son, Dylan, for his patience and encouragement. I am deeply appreciative towards my father, George Guntennann, who first taught me to love Nature by taking me

to wild places as a child. Finally, I wish to express my thanks to Tom Brown, Jr., whose teachings about Grandfather influence this work indirectly.

Learnfng and Knowledge Connecting to m u r e Through an 90 Aelhetic. Paftkipatory Consclousness Pnictical Application ln TWOArta Disclplines 95 Posdbk ProMems in lmplementation .......... 100

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6 CONCLUSION

WORKS CITED

.............................. 103

................................ 107

CHAPTER INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper is generated from rny passion for both the fine arts and Nature. As an artist. I gain deep satisfaction from engaging in the artistic disciplines, primarily poetfy, song and dance. As a teacher, I would hop8 that my students experience similar enjoyrnent while developing skills, techniques and knowledge in the various fine arts subject areas. Nature is also a constant source of pleasure for me. and time spent outdoors, whether for a short walk or for a longer hike or ski tour, usually brings a sense of renewal on many levels. This enjoyment and feeling of rejuvenation cornes to me through al1 the senses: through the smell of the damp forest, the cheerful chatter of a chickadee. or the touch of soft moss by a Stream. Hence. it is personal experience gleaned from artistic pursuits and Nature observation that serves as a starting point for the investigation that follows. Following the tradition of John Dewey, I believe that experience is an important component of the learning process, providing a necessary link to understanding. Effective teaching connects curriculum to students' personal experience. where knowledge is builf upon prior experience. Moreover, purely intellectual or abstract learning contains limits, and it will be argued here that

certain types of knowledge, especially regarding the natural world, are incomplet8 without an experiential cornpanent. Therefore, this thesis promotes experiential. active learning as an vital aspect of a child's educational process. and subrnits that activities involving direct contact with the natural world are of

particular importance at this historical juncture. I have always been fascinated with the profound and multifarious beauty

of the natural world. Whether it be the colwrfulness and gram of a Bohemian waxwing, th6 s?ectacular view from a mountain peak, or the intricate patterns found in mid-winter frost on a wlndow, beauty is everywhere in Nature if one takes the time, or is in the rlght "frame of mind." to perceive it. Yet al1 over the globe the natural world and its beauty are being

significantfy irnpacted by human activity. which is becoming lncreasingly destructive. Humans face an unprecedented ecological crisis, where "there is wide agreement that the Earth's ecosystems cannot sustain current levels of economic activity and material consumption, let alone increased levels" (Wackernagel and Rees 1). As a species, it is difficult to admit and corne to terms with the fact that we are the problem, that human actions are the major cause of the ecological crisis we face. Many theorists claim that human estrangement from Nature is a significant factor in this crisis. Is it possible that humans might behave in a less destructive manner towards Nature if we were able to develop a closer, less estranged relationshipto the natural world? Could the fine arts disciplines, through their unique capacity in accessing and

developing aesthetic sensibilities, provide experiences that would help people find a deeper connection to Nature? These are some of the questions that impel the investigation below. The purpose of this paper will be to explore the possibility that the fine

arts disciplines, through their role in developing the aesthetic sensibility, might assist humans in establishing a closer, less destructive relationship towards the natural world. The discussion is based on premise that an ecological crisis exists, where human alienation from Nature is prevalent in the modern world.

The concept of a 'participatory cunsciousness" will be put forward as a way to

describe a particuiar mode of perception. where a 'connectednessn between humans and Nature is facilitated. Participatory consciousness is described as

non-dualistic, since the divisions between subject and object become less distinct. It also emphasizes sensory awareness and experiences In the irnmediate present. It will be suggested that the fine arts disciplines, in their unique capadty to develop perceptual abilities through the senses. can elicit a participatory mode of consciousness. which, in turn. would create a deeper connection between human and non-hurnan species. Justjfication for fostering the participatory consciousness in arts education programs will also be provided. This paper takes the stance that today's ecological crisis requires a change in Western cultural worldview regarding Nature. It will be suggested

that the artistic disciplines, by developing aeçthetic sensibilities and the participatory consciousness, can help people establish not only a closer relationship to Nature, but also change the manner in which members of this culture tend to perceive the natural world. Thus. aesthetic experiences might play a role in changing ouf cultural perception. or worldview, with respect to

Nature. This alteration in worldview would involve a shift from the predominant Cartesian model towards one which is less dualistic and anthropocentric. Art and the aesthetic experience in this context are seen as transfomative rather

than conformist. involving a possible alteration in human consciousness. which could result in eventual changes in the Western cultural worldview towards Nature. The discussion that follows is interdisciplinary. This investigation will be grounded primarily in aesthetic and ecological theory. as defined below. Other

disciplines, such as philosophy (especially phenomenology), and the physical and biological sciences also inform the discussion. Ecofeminist perspectives will also be evident. While this paper focusses on the tradition of Western thought, indigenous and Native American worldviews are also taken into consideration, Not only is the theoretical basis interdidplinary. but also the discussion

pertaining to educational implications of the theory. This paper is applicable to

fine arts education and environmental education. Interestingly enough, both these subjects tend to be marginalized in the curriculum. Even though this thesis 'bridgesn fine arts and environmental education, its approach will be

primarily from a fine arts and aesthetic perspective. During the last few months of writing, the image of a tapestry has frequently been on my mind. This tapestry of thought, so to speak, contains the paper's main themes, such as the ecological crisis, the participatory

consciousness and aesthetk experiences, forming the 'warpn of the fabric. In addition, several sub-themes seem to ernerge as the weaving progresses. Thus, the concept of relationship is one subtext lin this discussion. It will be suggested that something is awry in the relationship between human beings

and the natural world. One underlying question will concern how humans can

enter into a 'balanced," or harmonious, relationship with Nature, where human lifestyles do not undermine the survival needs of other species and the health of ecosystems upon which our suwival is dependent. Another sub-theme woven through the tapestry concerns the reclamation of sensuous perception. It will be suggested that the sensory faculties, which have received so much disparagement in the past, may provide us with a great deal of useful information with respect to Nature. The area of ethics forms a further strand of

thought, and ethical consideratlons are interwoven throughout this thesis.

I also find it necessary at this time to briefly discuss Romanticism. a strand of thinking that influences this paper indirectly. Romanticism, as a philosophy, contains some sirnllarities as well as differences to the perspectives suggested herein. While space does not allow a thorough cornparison between

Romanticism and the views put forward below, I will briefly summarize the most salient points. Rornantidsm. in its reaction to the Age of Enlightenment's

emphasis on rationality, is generally defined as a philosophy that values the subjective over the objective and feeling over reason. Nature plays a key role in Romanticism, where unity and harmony between the hurnan self and Nature is sought, rather than any forrn of intellectual separation from natural world (Blackburn 332). The innocence of childhood is perceived as frequently corrupted by society and its institutions, and, especially in Rousseau's view, educating children in an atmosphere close to Nature is deemed superior to an urban education which may cause separation from the natural world.1 In comparing Romanticism to the arguments put forward below, it will becorne

evident that this paper attempts to transcend the dichotomies (subjective/objective, feelingheason), or find a balance between them, rather than elevating one over the other. Signifiant perallels do exist between the

other characteristics of Romanticism and this investigation's perspective, however. Like Romanticism, the idea of finding harmony between humans and Nature is paramount to this discussion, and the value of providing educational

experiences in the natural world will be emphasized. Some ideas reminiscent of Rousseau's philosophy will be evident, including the stress on learning directly from Nature, through sensory experience (Jimack 55-64). Therefore, 1 m e r- uM

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threads of Romanticism will be evident in this thesis, but the theoretical basis vil1 be provided by ecological. aesthetic, phenornenological, or scientific theory

rather than by Romantic philosophy.

Before going further, certain definitions of terms are in order. First, the word a e s t h e t i ~ needs to be defined for the purposes of this discussion. Art critic Donald Crawford States that msthetics. a word coined by Baumgarten in 1744 from the Greek aisthetikos. has traditionally been defined as the

'philosophy of the beautiful." as it pertains to both art objects and nature (18). Today, in the Mentieth-century, aesthetics 'as a philosophical discipline has become essentially the philosophy of art, " he continues (18). However, the modern definition of aesthetics has little relevance here, since this investigation concerns the aesthetic appreciation of Nature rather than art. On the other hand, employing the traditional definition is problematic, as aesthetician Anne Sheppard notes, since it is difficult to arrive at an acceptable definition of beauty which would account for the nature of aesthetic pleasure elicited &y natural phenornena (61-64). Despite the problems inherent in defining beauty, this discussion recognizes that some relationship usually exists between beauty

and the aesthetic appreciation of Nature. In addition, the meaning of aesthetics will be understood in the original Greek sense, where aisthetikos is defined as 'things perceptible by the senses.' or having to do with sensuous perception (Hoad 7). An awareness of the meaning of the verb stem aisthe , meaning "to feel, to apprehend through the senses,' is also important, according to arts education professor Peter Abbs ("Defining the Aesthetic Fieldn246). Hence.

aesthetics has to do with sensuous feeling and perception, and one should recognize that aesthetic appredation can contribute to human understanding of the world. As Abbs suggests in the introduction to The Svmbolic Order: A Contemporarv Reader in the Arts Debate, 'aesthetic refers to a particular form of

sensuous understanding, a mode of apprehending through the senses the patterned import of human experience" (xi). In addition to fostering huinan apprehension of experience. it will be understood here that aesthetics cannot be fully separated from questions of value. or why humans value certain objects

(Sheppard 2. Crawford 19). Thus, this thesis will employ a more traditional interpretation of the word ~sthetics.Aesthetics will be defined as concerning perception airough the senses, in which beauty. however difficult to characterize. plays a major role in the appreciation of Nature. It will also be recognhed that aesthetic experiences may contribute to human understanding and valuing of the natural world. The word ecological needs clarification. in order to distinguish it from the more traditional, Western views of Nature. Additionally, the term can be defined in a variety of ways. The biological science of ecology studies the "relations between organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings." while

this paper is primarily concerned with human ecology, or the 'study of the interaction of people with their environment.'2

Within the field of human

ecology are several sub-categories (9.9. political ecology. social ecology. deep ecology) involving varying perspectives regarding the relationship between human beings and Nature. The definition of ecoloaical will be largely drawn from the field of deep ecology (Appendix A). Employed in this manner, the term ~coloaicalusually involves a particular ideological perspective, which attributes

value to al1 life on earth, both human and non-human. Specifically, it attempts

to dispiace notions of anthropocentrism with biocentrism (Devall and Sessions). and it advocates reducing the tendency to objectify Nature (Berry 2, Berman 1724). For 87%purposes of this discussion, ecoloaical will refer to a particular

ideological perspective, which reconceptualizes the relationship between humanity and Nature in a manner that recognizes the interdependence and intrinsic value of al1 life. In addition, ecological will be defined as a viewpoint promoting biocentrism, cooperation, and reciprocity rather than anthropocentrisrn, dominance. and the objectification of Nature. Thirdly, the term Cartesian will refer to the current prevailing Western worldview (Weltanschauung), as distinguished from ecological perspectives. The Cartesian model will be understood as the perspective inherited from the Scientific and Industrial Revolutions, in which Nature is perceived in mechanistic terms, including the aforementioned tendency to obiectify the natural world. Of course, employing this expression is sornewhat unfair to

Descartes, since th8 latter was not the "lone architect" of our current worldview,

as history of science professor, Morris Berman, points out. Nevertheless, for

lack of a better term, I wili use the word Sactasan to refer to the particular mechanistic and dualistic paradigm that continues to dominate Western attitudes today (Berman 24). Next, the word m r e requires definition and explanation. Even though

human beings are ultimately a part of the natural world, Nature in this paper will refer to the non-human phenornena of the earHi. I follow the lead of John Livingston, the biologist and naturalist, in making this choice, and, like him. I

have also chosen to capitalize Nature (7).

Exclusions and Limitations Since this paper has the potential to be quite enormous in scope, it is necessary to delineate certain limitations, noting which areas wili be excluded from the discussion. Although Viis topic draws from the fields of both aesthetics and ecology for its major theoretical grounding. the discussion will be

approached from an aesthetic perspective. In other words, the investigation will explore the essence of the aesthetic perceplual experience with respect to the natural world. Hence, the focus will be on the percipientFsexperience of Nature rather than on Nature itself or treating Nature as an art object. Iri addition, it is important to note that this inquiry does not pertain to such topics as Environmental Art or Ecological Art, which tend to focus on the artist and hisi her artworks, employing Nature as a subject matter. Conternporary theory will form the major foundation for the arguments submitted herein, since many of the ideas suggested are relatively 'new' to post- Enlightenment intelledual traditions. Some reference to historical theory will ocair where appropriate, however. For instance, since so much of the aesthetic theory regarding Nature originated with Kant, il is almost impossible to

discuss this topic without some reference to him. but these comments will be brief rather than comprehensive. It might also be berteficial to note that this discussion, especially with regard to the concept of a participatory

consciousness, draws primarily from philosophical rather than psychological theory. To attempt to address both disciplines would have been too

cumbersome. Regardingthe treatment of cultural worldviews, although Western thought will be the primary focus. indigenous perspectives will also be integral to the arguments in this thesis. Other cultural worldviews, however, will

be excluded.

Format

The format for the paper will be as follows. The global ecological crisis

will be discussed in Chapter Two, where it will be suggested that human beings in Western society are considerably 'estrangedmfrom Nature, thereby also alienating thernselves from a major source of 'nourishment." Next, in Chapter Three, human perception will be investigated, and it will be proposed that the participatory consciousness is a valid perceptual model, especially considering the limitations of the Cartesian mode. It will be argued that, by fostering the participatory consciousness, humans might develop a closer, less estranged relationship to the natural world. The participatory consciousness and ils relationship to the aesthetic experience will be the subject of Chapter Four. In Chapter Five, practical methods for fostering a participatory consciousness

through aesthetic experiences will be explored with respect to fine arts education. Finally, conclusions will be drawn in Chapter Six.

THE ECOLOGICAL CRISIS AND HUMAN

ESTRANGEMENT FROM NATURE Rachel Carson thought that bving the worü was what science had to be about That it is essentlai to bve the natural wdd before you can understand R This was m t senümentaiity. She k m R would be dangerous b undertake understanding without that bve, as weN as love's cfassy chiid-awe-and its everyûay CM@-responsibility. She lMîn oppdüon to gross curbgity and greed. She taught us mat the Iife of a bug cannot be taken without sikncing songbirds. And finally the songbird cannot be silenced without poisonhg the h u m child-

The existence of a global ecological crisis is a major factor propelling this investigation. Although warnings regarding an impending crisis were sounded decades ago (Leopold, White, R. Carson), environmental destruction has only

worsened with the passage of tirne. All over the world human activity is incurring devastating effects on the planet's life support systerns. While çorne may not agree with this premise, a 1993 release by the Union of Concerned Scientists serves as a pretty convincing argument. This pamphlet, World âcientists' Warnina to Humanitv, cautions: Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course . . . If not checked, many of ouf current.practices put at serious risk the future that we wish for human soclety and the plant and animal kingdoms, and may sa alter the living world that it will be unable to sustain life in the manner that we know . . . A great change in our stewardship of the earth and the life on it is requiied, if vast human misery is to be avoided and our global home on this planet is not to be irretrievably mutileted.

The ecologlcal crisis we face threatens not only the planet's Me support systerns but human survival as well. Historically. this environmental destruction is

unprecedented, both in its extent and complexity. As Environmental Studies professor David Orr states, 'The criçis of sustainability is without precedentnand he adds, 'It is the first triily global crisisn (19). Because of the çeve!l?y of the ecological crisis, many analysts, including the sdentists quoted above, urge that

a fundamental change in human behaviour is required, where human activities must be adjusted so that they don't overextend the limits of earth's finite life support systems (Wackernagel and Rees 3-4, Orr 20-21). Nevertheless, such requisite changes in human behaviour and lifestyles will not occur without resistance and will probably take considerable time to implement. Despite widespread knowledge regarding the ecological crisis, and almost daily media information referring to its various symptoms (e.g. global warming, species extinction, deforestation, soi1 degradation and unrestrained human population growth), Western society's institutions and governments move exceedingly slowly towards any meaningful change with respect to environmental issues. This reluctance to change is apparent in our educational institutions, where we tend to educate ouf young people as if no crisis existed,

or at best minimite its severity. Since human survival is at stake, environmental education should be given a more prominent place in the curriculum, argues Orr, and yet we continue to teach 'as if no such crisis existed" (83). Environmental education is usually marginalized in the public school systern, where, in British Columbia, it is treated as a mere %randn to be integrated into

other subject areas.3 having no significant presence even in the science curriculum4 Because of the gravity of the ecological crisis and the need to educate young peaple regarding its ramifications, it is a mystery why more

emphasis is not given to environmental education in today's curriculum. This

topic will be taken up again in Chapter Five. Human Estrangement from Nature

One possible explanation for the reluctance towards change by Western

society and its institutions. despite the severity of the ecological crisis, might be the fact that many people in modem society, whether urbanized or rural, have

little contact with the natural world. Several ecological writers, such as ecopsychologist Michael Cohen, have observed that North Americans spend over 9 5 1 of their time indoors ('lntegrating Nature's Balance" 12). Moreover, even when we do go outdoors, we tend to view Nature as separate from

ourselves, or 'outsiden of ourselves, thus resulting in an estranged relationship between human beings and Nature. Berman contrasts this modern. alienated

perspective of Nature to the organic worldview of pre-Enlightenment consciousness, which perceived the natural world as 'enchantedmand alive. According to Berman, people felt 'at homen in Nature at this time. He states, 'The cosmos, in short. was a place of belonging. A member of this cosmos was

not an alienated observer of it but a direct participant in its draman (16). Modern 3 The oniy evidence uf üb is a short document reieased in1995 by the B.C. Mlnistry of Educaüon. The Wfe is m -v i in the C m n l , and ît Is intendecl t~ afisLct teachem Inintegatingenvironmeritai concepts within al1 subject areas, Aithou$ it contains some useful inbmat&n, I couid not even find a a p y in my schod. nor were any teaches on stafF mare of its existerce. 4 See the

new science K-7 InWgmW Reswrce Package (1995). 13

society is characterized by an alienated or 'disenchantedmconsciousness, Berman contends, where 'there is no ecstatic rnerger with nature, but rather total separation from it. Subject and object are always seen in opposition to each other. I ani iiot my experiences. and thus not really a part of the world zround me" (16-1 7). lmplicit in Berman's comrnents is the notion that an attitude which objectifies Nature results in a feeling of separation from the latter. Hence,

not only do people in contemporary Western society spend very lime time outdoors, they also experience only minimal interaction with the natural world. Humans today function as estranged observers of Nature rather than as

participants who belong to and interact with the larger drama of biological life. Other writers also identify human alienation from Nature as a significant factor in the ecological crisis, and they suggest varying reasons for this estrangement. Some, like Cohen, contend that industrial society has estranged us from Nature, teaching 'us to live physically and mentally separated from nature and its balancen(Reconnectina to Nature 17). Similarly, art education professor Stuart Richmond identifies technology as the culprit. commenting that. 'Technology insulates human beings from nature" (86). Other ecological theorists link human alienation from Nature to anthropocmtric attitudes. For instance, the poet and ecopsychologist, Betty and Theodore Roszak, suggest, 'Art as well as science and technology harbors the illusion that we live outside

or above the natural world, and so may treat it as we please, turning it into an object of exploitation for the exclusive benefit of ou?species" (59). Another

reason for alienation is related to a distrust of sensory awareness. Subscribing to this notion is ecofeminist Susan Griffin, who observes the connection between human estrangement from Nature and the tendency for people to be cut off from their own affective, sensuous experiences:

We no longer feel ourselves to be a part of this earth. We regard our fellow creatures as enemies. And, very Young. we aven learn to disown a part of our own being . . . We grow used to ignoring the evidence of our own experience, what we hear or see, what we feel in Our own bodies. ("Split Culturew7) The link between sensory awareness and humanity's relationship to the natural world is an important concept explored in this thesis. Finally, some writers, like the naturalist John Livingston, argue that human beings, as a species, are both ambivalent and confused about their "place," or relationship to the rest of the natural world (7). Humans no longer know where they belong in the larger scheme of life, nor aie they aware of any sense of belonging, he maintains. Thus, according to Livingston, human estrangement frorn Nature is due to a perspective characterized by "the absence of ecologic place for the [human] species" and our perceived 'separation from Nature" (36). Ecofeminist Y nestra King echoes Livingston regarding the connection between placelessness and alienation from Nature: "There is at the root of Western society a deep ambivalence about life itself . . . and a terrible confusion about our place in nature" ('Healing the Woundsn 107). Thus, several theorists suggest that human estrangement from Nature is

a key factor in the ecological crisis. This alienation from the natural world is characterized by feelings of separation and the objectification of Nature. Some current factors contributing to human estnngement frorn the biological world are the influence of industry and technology, anthropocentrism, a tendency to devalue sensory experiences, and a confusion about humanity's role, or place, in the larger scheme of life. Hence, people in modern Western society have

become strangers to the natural world. How did Western society become so estranged from Nature? Has it

always been this way? Opinions Vary regarding the ongins of our society's alienation from the natural world. The following will be a simplified overview of possible historical causes of Our civilization's estrangement from Nature. Some writers, like novelist Daniel Quinn, propose that humanity's gradua1 separation from the rest of the blological community began approximately 10,000 years ago during the agricultural revolution. A distinct division in human lifestyles and

attitudes towards Nature occurred during this time, argues Quinn (lshmael 152153). One branch of this division, the 'Leavers, " ancestors of al1 humanity.

maintained existing lifestyles and attitudes, characterized by a non-controlling respect for non-human species and a sense of 'belongingn to the community of life. The other branch. the 'Takers." forerunners of today's civilized societies, slowly changed their attitudes, choosing a perspective w hich emphasized the domination and control of Nature, "treating the world as if it were a piece of human propertyn(248-250). The adoption of the Taker attitude approximately 10.000 years ago was the catalyst which set humanity on the path to ecological

destruction, asserts Quinn. While the agricultural revolution may be an early culprit, some theorists claim that the rise of Christianity was chiefly responsible for hurnan estrangement from Nature. The most notable of these is Lynn White,

who suggests that the Christian doctrine constructed an attitude of human dominion over Nature and 'established a dualism of man and nature," where 'he is no longer part of nature." She also notes that, in order for Christianity to

spread, it had to eradicate paganism: 'By destroying pagan animism, Christianity made it possible to exploit nature In a mood of indifference to the feelings of natural obiectçn (1205). Philosopher and ewlogist David Abram

traces Christian alienation from Nature back to its roots in both Hebraic religion and Hellenistic thought. Christianity obtained its doctrine of 'religious

ascendancy of humankind over nature" from the Hebrews. while it inherited a distrust of sensory experience from the Greeks, especially Plato, Abram indicates. Plato's philosophy 'contributed profoundly to dvilization's distrust of bodily and sensorial experience, and to our consequent estrangement from the

earthly world around usn (94-95). Abram also argues that another factor influencing human estrangement from Nature in Hebraic and Hellenistic philosophy was the development of the written phonetic alphabetic (123-124). Rather than going back as far as the agricultural revolution or the spread of Christianity, other writers and theorists attribut9 the origins of human separation from Nature to the Scientific Revolution and the rise of the market economy in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (Berman, Merchant. Orr). These authors contend that the loss of the organic worldview and its replacement by the mechanistic, rationalistic and dualistic philosophy of Enlightenment was the major historical factor leading to human estrangement from Nature. 'Scientific consdousness is alienated consciousness," persuades Berman (17). Aesthetician Roger Scruton echoes Berman with, 'Estrangement

from the world is the poisoned gift of science" ('Modern Philosophy" 30). Moreover, the combining influences of technological improvernents and the rise of market economies, which replaced the former, prirnarily agrarian societies, led to people's alienation from the natural cycles of Nature and sanctioned exploitation of natural resources, argues ecofeminist scholar, Carolyn Merchant (42-68). Although recent scientific developments. such as discoveries in

quantum mechanics. have 'thrown this [mechanistic] worldview into question . . . [they] have not made any signifiant dent in the dominant mode of thinking." States Berman (16). Thus. various theories exist regarding the possible origins of hurnan

estrangement from Nature. Some of the probable historical causes include the agricultural revolution. Hellenistic philosophy, the development of phonetic writing, the rise of Christianity and the onset of the Scientific Revulution and riiârket econorny. It seems reasonabie to conclude that there exists some validity in al1 the preceding theories. More importantly, these theories are all concerned with particular modes of perception, or worldviews, which have contributed to human estrangement from Nature. These estranged worldviews construct a separate, dualistic relationship between human beings and the biotic community. Thus, many ecological theorists ( Abram. Berman. Berry, Livingston, Orr) propose that today's ecological crisis and accornpanying human alienation from Nature are

the result of a misconstrued Western cultural worldview. For exarnple, Berman intimates: I began to feel . . . that sornething was wrong with our entire world view. Western life seerns to be drifting toward increasing entropy. economic and technological chaos, ecological disaster. and ultimately, psychic dismemberment and disintegration. . . . (1 5)

Abram identifies perception as a key element in this problernatic worldview. and

he suggests that 'modern, 'civilized' humanity sirnply [does] not perceive surrounding nature in a clear mannern(27). Speaking from an American lndian perspective, Jamake Highwater asserts. 'The Western scheme . . . under the domination of reason . . . has caused Western people to think of themselves predominantly as perpetual spectators of the world-standing somehow outside of nature yet governed by 'natural law' " (77). Hence, in Highwater's view.

Western society's emphasis on rationalisrn is largely responsible for a perceptual mode which alienates us from Nature. Other factors in the Western worldview are also cited as contributing to our society's perceptual problem.

For example, the theologian and ecologist, Father Thomas Berry, contends

anthropocentrism is a negative perceptual element, and he advises humans to become more biocentric in their thinking. 'This anthropocentrism is largely consequent on our failure to think of ourselves as species," he contends, while advising people to 'reinvent the human as species within the community of life species" (21). In a more figurative manner, Berry urges humans to leam how to "listen" to Nature, and he admonisttes that, "The time has corne . . . when we will listen or we will die" (K/v). Many writers are urging that a signifiant change in cultural worldview is necessary if humanity and Nature are to survive. Livingston. for instance. States. "I am identifying the need for sorne change or correction in Our ways of internaking or ingesting the world around usn (vii). Moreover, he asserts '. . . it would seem to behoove us to address Our ideologiesn(178). Much more could be written regarding the relationship between human alienation from the natural

world and the predominant Western worldview. It is sufficient at this time point out their possible connection. This subject will be addressed again. with respect to perception, in Chapter Three.

1s it possible that the Western, disenchanted worldview has not only contributed to human estrangement from Nature, but may also be related to a decline in the aesthetic appreciation of Nature? Some theorists believe that there is a connection between the Western worldview and a deterioration in aesthetic sensibility. The Rosaks contend that 'a serious loss of aesthetic sensitivity has paralleled our progressive estrangement from naturen(59). Art

critic Peter Fuller Marnes 'the proliferation of industrial capitalism* for a general decline in aesthetic responsiveness, claiming the former "expunged the 'aesthetic dimension' from everyday life" (133). Orr identifies 'the decline in the

capacity for aesthetic appreciation' as a major factor 'working against

ecological literacy" (87). He continues, drawing connections between a deterioration in aesthetic sensibility and the destructive lifestyle symbolizing our estrangement from Nature: We have becorne cornfortable with al[ kinds of ugliness and seem incapable of effective protest against its purveyors: urban developers, businessmen, government officiais . . . Rene Dubos once stated that our greatest disservice to oui children was to give them the belief that ugliness was somehow normal. But disordered landscapes are not just an aesthetic problem. Ugliness signifies a more fundamental disharmony between people and between people and the land. Ugliness is, I think, the surest sign of disease, or what is now being called 'unsustainability." Show me the hamburger stands, neon tickytacky strips leading toward every city in America. and the shopping rnalls, and l'II show you devastated rain forests, a decaying countryside, a politically dependent population. and toxic waste durnps. It is al1 of a fabric. (87-88) For Orr, there is a direct link between a decline in aesthetic sensitivity, with respect to both Nature and hurnan-made artifacts. and the increasing human destructiveness of surrounding environments. Taking a slightly different approach, scientist Gregory Bateson decries the loss of the aesthetic dimension in modern society. and he suggests that beauty and aesthetics are ultimately related to the underlying unity of al1 biological life: Most of us have lost that sense of unity of biosphere and humanity which would bind and reassure us al1 with an affirmation of beauty. Most of us do not today believe that whatever the ups and downs of detail within our limited experience, the larger whole is primarily beautiful. (17) Thus, this paper takes the stance that some relationship does exist between the disencbanted Western worldview, human estrangement from Nature, and a concomitant decline in public aesthetic sensitivity. If human alienation from the natural world is a prevalent condition of modern society and its worldview, what effect does this have on the hurnan

experience? Many writers suggest that human estrangement from Nature

causes our species considerable distress. While space does not allow a

thorough investigation of this idea, it is my intention here to simply note the possibility. Orr, quoted above, hints at the latter in bis reference to a "dishamony between people and between people and the land" apparent in modern Western consciousness. Bennan provides a detailed discussion on the relationship between the contemporary estranged, or disenchanted, worldview and widespread psychological malaise in Western industrial society. He

argues that increases in mental illness, depression, addictions and the 'inability

of industrial economies to provide meaningful workn are al1 symptoms of human distress produced by this alienated, Cartedan worldview (17-23). Abram asserts that both physical and psychological distress are related to an estranged, unbalanced relationship between the human community and the natural world: Sadly, our culture's relation to the earthly biosphere can in no way be considered a reciprocal or balanced one: with thousands of acres of nonregenerating forest disappearing every hour. and hundreds of our fellow species beaiming extinct each month as a result of our civilization's excesses, we can hardly be surprised by the amount of epidemic illness in our culture, from inaeasingly severe immune dysfunctions and cancers. to widespread psychological distress. . . . (22)

In addition, some writers draw parallels between human estrangement from Nature and a crisis in spirituality. For example, Orr contends, in reference to the ecological crisis, that 'above al1 else it is a crisis of spirit and spiritual resources" (4). The only sdution to this dilemrna involving both ecological destruction and

human distress, according to Berman, is a change in consciousness. which

would involve a retrieval of the enchanted worldview without reverting to the past (23). Hence, some theorists suggest that a connection does exist between

human estrangernent from Nature and a pervasive psychological and spiritual malaise in Western industrial society. White al1 would not agree with this supposition, this paper submits that a relationship exists belween our estranged worldview and various types of distress in Western society. Thus. it is quite

probable that any viable solutions to the eoological crisis must involve a reconceptualization of our worldview, or perceptions, regarding humanity's relationship to Nature.

Human estrangement from Nature is a key factor in the modern

ecological crlsis, where the Western disencbanted worldview has been identified as a significant contributor to this feeling of alienation. It has been proposed that a decline in aesthetic sensitivity has accornpanied our gradua1 estrangement îrom the natural world. The possibility of a relationship existing between human distress in modern society and our estranged worldview has also been suggested. One might wonder, then, if human estrangement from Nature has possibly resulted in widespread psychological and spiritual malaise, if the opposite might be true. where 'connectedn experiences in Nature could provide a source of nourishment to people on many levels.

Nature as a Source of Nourishment Have we forgotten to notice that the natural world can nourish us in

numerous ways? Many people would agree that they feel better after doing çomething so simple as taking a walk in a natural setting, whether it be in the country or in a city park. Personally I feel enlivened and rejuvenated from breathing the fresh air. getting some physical exercise, and experiencing the joy of watching a bird's flight or hearing the chatter of a squirrel. These

experiences nourish me on various levels. and I was not fully conscious of this actuality until I read other peopie's accounts. For instance. the innovative dancer, Anna Halpim, believes that Nature sustains both her individual self and her artistic endeavours in several ways: 'My own empathy [for Nature] is

intense. I receive physical. emotional and spiritual nwrishment from nature. as I imagine we al1 do. I also look to nature to discover what is both meaningful in

form and content for dance as art"(216). After living with indigenous people and studying with traditional shamans in Indonesia, where he experienced a heightened awareness of, and deeper interaction with. other species in Nature. Abram laments the loss of these types of experiences upon returning to North America: 'As the expressive and sentient landscape slowly faded behind my

more exclusively human concerns. . . I began to feel . . . as though I were being cut off from vital sources of nourishrnent" (25). Thus. although he felt sostained by the natural world in Indonesia, Abram found that returning to Western

lifestyles and culture seemed to deprive him of such experiences. Orr also identifies Nature as a source of nourishrnent, but emphasizes that this occurs only when one begins to deeply know and care about a particular place (130). Besides these accounts, recent scieniific discoveries provide strong evidence documenting the nurturing and therapeutic effects of the natural world (Kellert 45).

In addition to providing physical, ernotional and spiritual nourishment. some theorists propose that Nature sustains us on a mental level as well. Perhaps Cohen States this idea most explicitly with, 'You see, nature is a marvellous intelligence that sustains the integrity of our living planet, but that our current nature-separatedthinking has little use forn (Reconnectina to Nature 26). He also suggests, 'Without nature's guidance, Our minds are distorted"

(21). Cohen contends that. although Nature is capable of nourishing hurnans

on a mental level, Western society has fargely cut itself off from its influence. Similarly, Bateson. describes Nature, and especially the process of evoiution.

as a form of intelligence. or 'wider knowing,' which informs and is reflected in both human and non-human Nature (4-5). it is probable. then. that Nature can provide physical. emotional, spiritual and even mental nourishment. even though we rnay not be fully aware of such. Perhaps it is our estranged cultural worldview, as Abram and Cohen suggest, that prevents us from experiencing in more depth the nurturing aspects of the natural world. In the arena of education. both Orr (134) and Livingston deplore the fact that most young people have very little contact with the natural world and its nurturing influence. Livingston refers to the latter as "enperiential undernutrition,* arguing that, in order to fully mature. children need to be exposed tu intimate experiences in Nature: 'The pre-adolescent seeks heterogeneous experience with non-human phenornena of al! kinds as essential nutrition for its further developrnent into whole maturity" (130). Rather than exploring the complex and diversified natural world, today's youth interacts primariiy with human-made arlifacts and tedinology. According to Livingston, modern society's estrangement from Nature as a source of nourishment poses

a danger. especially with respect to education. in that it tends to promote distorted cultural perceptions (136). The latter idea will be taken up again below, but for now it is sufficient to propose that, in our society's overenthusiastic rush towards embracing technology. we rnay have overlooked certain negative impacts that could result from educating children without sufficient exposure to Nature. Just how does Nature nourish hurnan beings. then? This thesis suggests

that the senses play a major role in our ability to feel sustained or renewed by the natural world. For instance, in my personal experience. I feel nourished by

such sensations as the warmth of sunlight on rny body, the cheerful sound of nuthatches or chickadees, the subtle fragrance of wild roses in springtime. and the touch of breeze on my face. It is often difficult to describe these sensuous experiences because they are primarily non-verbal. These sensations register on my consdousness if I allow rnyself to be aware of them. As indicated earlier, Abram felt an intense and nurturing sensuous experience of the naturai world

while living in Asia, but had difficulty sustaining this sensorial awareness upon returning to North America (25-27). Cohen proposes that people in Western society tend to ignore the sensory data they receive from Nature [Reconnectinq With N_gture 37-50). Therefore. the human sensory faculties provide an important medium through which we can experience nourishment from the surrounding environment, if we are able to be conscious of these sensations. Moreover, several writers suggest that, when people have heightened sensuous experiences in the natural world. they also feel a &ronger connection to Nature. For example, Halpirn notes that people participating in her outdoor dance workshops develop greater sensory awareness and may feel a stronger

emotional connection to Nature (218). Similarly, Cohen asserts that, once humans are able to "reconnectnvia the senses to the natural world and its

particular form of intelligence, it will provide people with a feeling of "kinship' with non-human community of life (Reconnectina With Naturg41-43). This idea will be explored further in the following chapters. Several ecological thinkers believe that children in our society need to be exposed to more sensuous experiences in Nature. These experiences will

not only nourish contemporary youth. but also help to connect. or 'bond' them to

the larger community of life. Livingston suggests that it is vital for preadolescent children to have enough outdoor experiences to suffidently bond them to Nature (119-130). He draws on Paul Shepard's theory of human developmental matrices, where middle childhood is identified as a significant

and aucial time for bonding to the natural world (Shepard 111-113). No attempt will made hem to analyse Shepard's theory. rather it is noted in order to elucidate Livingston's position. Livingston argues that. childhood earthbonding experiences can later serve as 'triggers" for similar feelings of connectedness with Nature in adulthood: 'My childhood experience of the bird,

and its lifelong annual reinforcement, ensure that each spring's re-cognition of our relationship is more satisfying than the last. What I celebrate is . . . my

connection to him. My bond to him. My self in himw(129). Unfortunately. as already noted. children in modern society have little exposure to Nature. It is possible that young people are becoming bonded to technology and human artifacts rather than the natural world. a situation that prevents today's youth from reaching full maturation. according to both Shepard (122-123) and Livingston (134-135). Moreover, the estranged child who has not sufficiently bonded to Nature, may behave more destructively towards the natural world.

while. on a more hopeful note, those that have formed a connection might be less likely to act in such a rnanner (Livingston 134).

This chapter has proposed that human beings currently face a severe global ecological crisis, where human estrangement from Nature is an integral

factor. Our Western cultural worldview contributes to this feeling of alienation from Nature, because it constructs a separate, dualistic, or "disenchantedm relationship between people and the natural world. It has also b e n suggested

that a decline in aesthetic sensitlvity has occurred in wnjunction with human dienaiion from Nature. While the Western estranged worldview has been

associated wit h psychological and spiritual distress, the possibility that Nature can provide physical. emotional, mental and spiritual nourishment has been explored. The senses have been identified as playing a key role in these nurturing experiences, in which they might assist humans in feeling a deeper connection or "bond" to the natural world. Providing opportunities for youth to experience the nourishing forces of Nature might be especially important with respect to education. The notion of experiencing the nurturing aspects of Nature in a more connected, less estranged manner will be explored in the next

chapter, in its discussion of perception and the 'participatory consciousness."

CHAPTER 3 HUMAN PERCEPTION: MOVING TOWARDS A

PARTICIPATORY CONSCIOUSNESS One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. Shakespeare,m -T

If one contemplates the relationship between the Western cultural

worldview and human estrangement from Nature. it becomes apparent that perception plays a key role. It has already been suggested that ouf culture might have a 'perceptual problem." wherein we are unable to perceive Nature,

and humanity's role in relation to the larger biological comrnunity, in a clear manner. If our cultural worldview tends to make us see Nature as separate from

us, how might we be able to perceive the natural world in a different context, where the relationship between people and their surroundings is less estranged? This question forms the basis of this chapter's investigation.

Perception

Given the enormity and cornplexity of the topic, this inquiry will be limited

to how perception relates to the notion of the participatory consciousness. Perception will be defined in philosophical terms, and this definition will be refined as the discussion proceeds into the areas of phenomenology and aesthetics. The Oxford Dictionarv of Philosog&y describes perception as

28

contaifiing the following properties it gives knowledge about the surrounding world, consciousness regardlng the latter occurs through the sençory faculties, and sensory information is both processed and later interpreted by 'higher ader bain functionsn (Blackburn 280-281). Perception is a complicated

process involving not only the information received through the senses, but the interpretation of that information. Edith Cobb, in her article. "The Ecology of Imagination in Childhood," expresses this idea with. 'Perception . . . is not a response to simple sense data, 'but an active organizing process . . . ' " (543). Hence, perception will be defined here as a process involving both the input of

sensory impressions and the interpretation and organization of that information, which, in turn, leads to knowledge about the surrounding environment.

Cultural values and worldviews can influence and shape perception. however. For example. a bonsai tree may be perceived as aesthetically pleasing and beautiful by most people in Japanese society, but not in other cultures. Berman observes that 'the role of values in shaping our perceptions" needs to be recognized (95). Highwater points out how cultural worldviews can influence Society's perception about 'reality," noting that the more 'dominant societies usually presume their vision represents the sole truth about the world .

. . " (58). Thus. it becornes easy for an individual or society to get 'locked' into a particular viewpoint, negating the possible validity of other perspectives.

Because cultural values and worldviews affect perception, if a culture's predominant worldview constructs hurnans as separate, or estranged, from Nature, most individuals in that society will also perceive themselves as alienated from the natural world. On the other hand. it seems probable that perception can also influence values and societal attitudes, showing evidence for a potentially interactive relationship between perception and cultural

worldviews. If so.is it possible that, by changing our perceptions of Nature, we could free ourselves from the grip of our estranged Western worldview? I would respond in the affirmative. and this idea will receive further exploration below. One reason people in Our society tend to view themselves as separate from Nature is that. as noted earlier, they are still influenced by the legacy of the Cartesian (and still widely-accepted) perceptual model. This dualistic perceptual mode constructs a separation between mind and body, subject and object. and humans and Nature. The natural world is perceived to be passive,

inert matter. Sensory experience is either distrusted or entirely discounted in favour of detached reason. Nature is perceived as an "objectnfar removed from human perceiving "subjects." Even though recent scientific theories, such as HeisenbergnsUncertainty Principle in quantum mechanics. have thrown the Cartesian mode1 into question, it continues to influence the Western worldview (Berrnan 144-149). Part of our Society's perceptual problem may be caused by the continued dominance of the Cartesian model. where scientific attempts to gain knowledge by the latter have prevented us from being fully conscious of the world of immediate sensory experience. This realm of raw and preconceptual sensations is called the life-world 5 in the language of

phenomenology. Abram suggests that the Cartesian worldview, which attempts to maintain a perspective of detached objectivity has 'led to an almost total eclipse of the life-world in the modern era, to a nearly complete forgetting of this living dimension in which al1 of our endeavors are rootedn(41). It seems evident that the effects of the Cartesian perceptual model on our Western worldview have significantly contributed to humans feeling estranged from 5 'The life-world [Lebecisweit] refers to aie pammqtual world of immediatefy lived experime,

as we h e it, pkr to al ow thoughts about V (Abram 40). This tenn wiil be empbyed frequerttty in the fernainder of this paper.

30

Nature. Furthermore. this estranged cultural perspective rnay be one contribuiing factor in hurnanity's destrudve behaviour toward the environment. Ifthe scientif or Cartesian perceptual model has proved itself

incomplete, or limited, perhaps phenomenology may offer a better description of perception. These ned few paragraphs will attempt to fumer describe the experience of perception in phenomenological terms. building on the definition outlined above. and drawing primarily from Abram's Soell of the Sensuous. Phenomenology. a branch of philoçophy which concerns itself with the description of experience and consciousness (Blackburn 284-285), has forcofully questioned "the modern assumption of a single, wholly determinable, objective reality" (Abram 31). It is impossible for perception to be totally objective, assert phenomenologists. and the scientist that attempts to do so

"never completely succeeds in making himself into a pure spectator of the world, for he cannot cease to live in the world . . . " (Abram 33). Phenomenology characterizes perception as 'the ongoing interchange between [one's] body and the entities that surround it." a process which is called reci~rocity(52). This interchange occurs through the bodily senses.and neither the perceiver nor the perceived is wnsidered passive. An example of the former might be. for instance. when I look at a Douglas fir tree and touch its bark. not only do I touch the tree. but it also touches me; the rough texture of bark tickles my hand. Similarly, if its branches sway in the wind, I might feel or be affected by that movement in my own body. Thus. both the tree and I are active, not passive. in the reciprocal experience of perception. Along with reciprocity. the phenomenological description of perception contains some other signifiant attributes. First, the relationship between perceiver and perceived can becorne empathetic, rather than estranged. As

Abram describes. "In the a d of perception . . . I enter into a sympathetic relation v:$h the perceived . . . Perception, in this sense, is an attunement or

synchronizaüon between my own rhythms and the rhythrns of the things themselves . . . " (54). In other words, during the perceptual interchange of reciprocity, the percipient and perceived are able to be influence. or affect, each other. Another attribute of phenomenological perception is that the senses tend to function together, blending with one another, into gvnaesthetic perception. Along with these features is the condition that the perceiver must maintain a 'voluntary" and receptive attitude in order for this reciprocal mode of perception to be possible (Abram 50-62). Hence, sympathetic reciprocity cannot occur by

force or accident, but will only take place if the perceiver is willing. It is clear that the phenomenological description of perception is quite

contrary to the Cartesian model which disconnects the perceiver from a purportedly passive object. In response to the latter view, Abram argues that, "Tudefine another being as an inert or passive object is to deny its abllity to

actively engage us and to provoke our senses; we thus &/O& ouf perceptual

reciprocity with that being . . . To the senshg body, no thing presents itself as utterly passive or inert' (56). Furthemore, Abram, drawing on the work of anthropologist Levy-Bruhl and phenomenologists like Merleau-Ponty, goes so far as to say that the experience of perception can be best described by the word participation. 'If we wish to choose a single term to characterize the event

of perception, as it is disclosed by phenomenological attention, we may borrow the term 'participation' . . . perception always involves . . . the experience of an

active interplay, or coupling, between the perceiving body and that which it perceives" (57). Again, phenomenologists would suggest that, for one to experience perception as participation, a certain degree of willingness or

receptivity would be necessary. Also, if a person chooses to view the world solely through the Cartesian 'lens," it will be difficult to experience this participatory perceptual mode. The notion of perception as participation will be discussed further below. For now, this thesis accepts the validity of this phenornenological description of perception, as a process involving sympathetic reciprocity. and it will be used here to enhance the definition already established. This is not to say, however, that the Cartesian perceptual madel is totally useless, for the latter has served science and society well in many ways. Rather, I would submit that the limitations of the dualistic Cartesian mode should be recognized. and that it rnight be prudent to consider the validity of other perceptual frameworks, such as the phenomenological description discussed here. Ifwe accept phenornenology's assertion that perception can be an

activity that is characterized by reciprocity and sympathetic engagement between perceiver and perceived, it appears reasonable that such an exchange would help people develop a closer, less estranged relationship to Nature. How does one gel into such a perceptual mode, then? Could the fine

arts disciplines, by fostering aesthetic sensitivity through the senses, assist in developing a reciprocal and empathetic perception of Nature? I propose that the fine arts c m offer a unique way of encouraging such a perceptual mode. Remembering that aesthetics concerns perception through the senses. there is

no other subject in the school curriculum that affords such an opportunity. Conservationist Aldo Leopold was aware of this wnnection when he wrote, over 50 years ago.

Our ability to perceive quality in nature begins, as in art, with the pretty. expands through successive stages of the beautiful to values as yet 33

It

uncaptured by language. The quality of the cranes lies, I think. in this higher garnut, as yet beyond the reach of words. (102) Although this passage does not concern reciprocity, it does suggest that an aesthetic appreciation of Nature can eventually lead to a greater ethical valuing of Nature. Professor Yuriko Saito also recognizes the unique role of aesthetics with respect to perception of the natural world. He States that aesthetic 'sensibility

. . . can aid us in perceiving and appreciating at least some of those

complicated yet harmonious workings of naturen (45). Thus, aesthetic sensitivity

may enhanœ the perception and appreciation of surrounding environments, and this topic will be taken up again in Chapter Four. For now, it is necessary to return to the concept of perception itself, where the notion of a reciprocal mode of perception will be expanded and identified as the "participatory wns~iousness.

The Participatory Consciousness

W hile reading various sources for this thesis, a cornmon theme regarding

perception emerged. Several writers propose that our culture needs to acquire

a different perceptual mode, or type of consciousness, in oider for Western society to free itself from the ecologically devastating effects of an estranged worldview. For instance, Berman urges that 'Some type of holistic, or participating, consciousness and a corresponding sociopolitical formation have to emerge if we are to survive as a species' (23). Although the names and specific details for this perceptual framework vary,6 they al1 describe a

a consckusn86~ that is 'wnnectedDto Nahue, Merchant descrBes a 'particrpalory krm of consciausriessu('ResEoiatbn" 210).

34

consciousness, a sensuous mode of perception, that is both reciprocal and empathetic. The term participatory consciousness will be used here, and it will be defined as a sensuous perceptual mode characterized by sympathetic

reciprociiy between perceiver and perceived. Berman describes the participatory consciousness as one where. 'A memher of this cosmos [isl not an alienated observer of it but a direct participant in its drama . . . 'participating consciousness' involves [a] merger, or identification. with one's surroundings, and bespeaks a psychic wholeness that has long since passed from the scenen (16). Thus, the participatory consciousness describes the percipient as a

participant in the reciprocal act of perception, which is in signiflcant contrast to the distanced, estranged perceiver of the Cartesian model. In addition to this definition, what are the characteristics of the participatory consciousness? First, as already discussed, there is an erosion of the strict subjecü object dichotomy between perceiver and perceived. Instead, a reciprocal interchange occurs. Second, the participatory consciousness tends to focus on sensory experiences in the present moment, rather than thoughts of the past or future (Abram 32-48. Highwater 89-118). So, for example, in this present moment. as 1 sit in front of my cornputer. I cm feel the warmth from the

Sun shining through the window and can see the way the gentle breeze outside moves the Douglas fir branches. The wam sunlight is soothing and makes me feel a bit sleepy; it beckons me to corne outside. The third attribute of participatory consciousness is its preconceptual, pre-verbal nature. Abram notes that participatory consciousness occurs "prior to al1 our verbal reflections, at the level of our spontaneous, sensorial engagement with the world around

usn (57). Is can be difficult for Westerners to understand this notion, because we are so acaistomed to conceptualking or labelling expience. Berman, offers a

helpful example, describing a situation where one rnight see two lights corning up the road on a dark summer night (141). Immediately. people in this culture

wwld tend to identify the two lights as a car coming up the road, even though other possibilities exist (Le. hnro motorcydes, firefliesj. Thus. most Westerners (except children and artlsts!) are indined to bypass the basic raw sensations of participatory consciousness (two lights). or perceiving sornething as if for the first tirne, and, instead move directly into conceptualizing that experience. Of course, there is nothing wrong with Vie latter, but it c m prevent one from sustaining the pre-verbal sensorial engagement of participatory consciousness. This brings us to the last characteristic of the participatory mode of perception. That is. white involving both the senses and the intellect, it engages the sensorial faculties first and foremost, where information is acquired primariiy through the senses. lntellectual reflection usually occurs &ter the initial sensory engagement with the iife-world. The participatory consciousness has been defined as a sensuous

perceptual mode involving reciprocity. Some characteristics of participatory consciousness are the breakdown of the subjedl object dichotorny. a focus on immediate experience in the present, the tendency to be preconceptual and

pre-verbal, and the emphasis on acquiring information through the senses.

Because it pertains to one's preconceptual sensations occurring in the temporal present. the participatory consciousness is 'attuned," so to speak to the evershifting, multi-sensory life-woild. There remains one more concept from phenomenology which may elucidate this discussion regarding participatory consciousness. and that is the notion of intersub!ectivitv. Intersubjectivity. a term formulated by Husserl. refers to 'phenornena experienced by a multiplicity of sensing subjectsnand it is an

attempt to construct a 'new interpretation of the so-called 'objective world' " (Abram 38). lnstead of viewing the 'real world" as a determinate object, it might be helpful to think of it as a 'collective field of erperieoce' perceived by many

smsing subjscts. An example of intersubjective experience would be something very simple. such as the wind blowing through the trees. As a perceiving subject. I can hear its sound and see the way it moves the tree branches; I am aware that other 'subjects" are experiencing the wind: the trees themselves, the birds. the insects etc. Abram contends that intersubjectivity is what gives us the sense of reality in the ever-changing fabric of the phenornenal world: 'It is this informing of my perceptions by the evident perceptions and sensations of other bodily entities that establishes, for me. the relative salidity

and stability of the world" (39). in addition, the concept of intersubjectivity avoids the dualistic pitfalls of describing experience solely in terms of either objectivity of subjectivity (3639). Hence. with respect to the participatory

consciousness, the term intersubjectivity, rather than the subjecü object dichotomy, will be accepted here as the best means to describe perception of the phenomenal world.

It may already be evident from the discussion so far, that similarities exist between the phenomenological notion of participatory consciousness and many indigenous worldviews. Abram, for one, delineates this relationship quite overtly (69). while others only hint at the connection. While it is not my intention

to make a full comparative analysis, a few similarities will be noted at this time. First, sympathetic reciprocity appears to be a major factor in the perspectives of

aboriginal societies, espedally those few remaining oral cultures. For example, anthropologist Richard Nelson notes that the Koyukon lndians of Alaska "live in

a world that watches. in a forest of eyos." and that they view their surroundings

as "aware,sensate, personifiedn(qtd. in Abram 69). Sirnilarly, Highwater notes that primal peoples view Nature in a way that is both practical and sympathetic (68-69). Abram believes that sympathetic reciprocity has significantly

influenced behaviour in some aboriginal tribes. and if adopted by Western society. ilmight also function as a type of 'environmental ethicn(69). Secondly,

as in the participatory consciousness, the subjectl object dichotomy does not exist for indigenous peoples: 'The lndian does not make the separation into personal [subjective] as contrasted with impersonal [objective] in the Western sense at all,"maintains Highwater (56). In addition. indigenous people also tend to focus on irnrnediate expeiience in the present. the phenomenological life-world. Highwater ewplains that the primal mind ernphasizes the ' 'perennial reality of the now.' " He continues, ' . . . it is this immediacy which proclaims the preciousness of the instant. the ever-changing, ever-modulating lndian moment that is a perpetual Now " (118). Having scratched the surface of this cornparison, it should be evident that several similarities do exist between the phenomenological notion of participatory consciousness and indigenous worldviews. If such is the case. it is worth noting that the participatory

consciousness rnay not necessarily be a new perceptual mode for humanity, but rather one that has been obscured in recent years by the predominant

Cartesian worldview. Furthermore, the possibility that sympathetic reciprocity, as an atlribute of the participatory consciousness, might positively influence one's behaviour towards Nature is also noteworthy.

Role of the Body and Senses

Remembering that al1 perception involves a process where information

is first acquired through the senses, this discussion regarding the participatory

consciousneçs would not be cornplete without an investigation into the role of the human body and its sense organs. It is through the body's senses, after all. that we first experience the natural world. For clarity's sake. it is recognized that

the word sense refers to 'any of the special bodily faculties by which sensation

is roused" and that ~ensationis defined as 'the consdousness of perceivingor seeming to perceive sorne state or condition of one's body or its parts or

senses."7 It is now accepteci that humans possess many more senses than the conventional five, induding those that detect temperature, pain, balance and pressure (Wilson). Cohen suggests that we have as many as fifty-three senses (Reconnectina With Naturg 45-50). While deterrnining the number of sensory faculties is not of concern here, it is important to note that people are capable of receiving information through numerous senses. Despite scientific empiricism, Western society tends to distrust the validity of information derived from the body's senses. For instance, a scientist may collect sensory data while conducting an experirnent, but in the effort to

maintain detached objectivity, this sensory information is abstracted from its

sensory base, and interpreted by rational processes. Griffin contends that the scientific tendency to represent natural phenornena in mathemaücal terms has been a significant factor in the Western tendency to discredit the senses CJVomenand Naturg 6). Highwater suggests that our cultural wortdview, being dorninated by the scientific and religious elevation of reason has led to a situation where, 'Until very recently, most people of the West were cornpletely cut off from their own bodies . . .

." causing a situation where the senses tend to

be ignored (77). Cohen gives a simple example of how one might

disconnected from hi& her sensory awareness. In discussing Our sense of thirst, he states that. "Tbirst is nature's way of telling us to drink . . . [but] we don't drink when we are thirsty, we Qink by meal tirne or break time schedules . . . we lose consciousness of what we naturally sensen (Reconnectina With Nature 39). Thus. whatever the cause may be, it seems likeiy that Westerners tend to distrust or pay little attention to information received through the sensory faculties. In addition to discrediting sensory information, some theorists assert that

many people, especially youth, in modern society are sensorily deprived. For example. Orr contends that young people growing up in urban environments

have less opportunity to be e~posedto Nature's diverse sensory stimulation. He notes, 'For al1 of their streetwise sophistication, the vast majority of young

people have grown up in a kind of sensory deprivation chamber of the modern suburb or city" (183). Similarly, Livingston maintains that. 'Virtually everything

we see, hear, smeli, touch. and taste is of our own making . . . a human artifact . .

. a kind of urban 'sensory deprivation' " (135-136). Moreover. he proposes that this deficiency in sensory input from Nature contributes to 'perceptual and conceptual aberrations . . . shared across a Society" (136). Could sensory depravation be related to the estranged Western worldview, then? I submit that

a lack of sensory stimulus from the natural world is one contributing factor in Our Society's alienation from Nature. and this idea will be explored in more depth below. In addition to the possibility of sensory deprivation, I would suggest that the atmosphere of the city can also lead to an overstirnulation of the senses, where, for example, the magnitude of traffic noise renders it necessary to 'shut down" one's senses so as not to be overwhelmed. Therefore, not only does our society tend to distrust sensory information. but the urban environments,

inhabited by the majority of the population. can contribute to either sensory deprivation or overstimulation, resulting in further disconnection from the biological community and the Me-world. If Western society is inclined to discredit or be unaware of sensory perceptions. then it rnight be difficult for a person in this society to experience the participatory consciousness. After ail, the senses play a key role in the participatory consciousness, where the latter has b e n defined as a 'sensuous perceptual mode." How can this problem be addressed, then? It would seem reasonable to conclude that. in order to d ~ 8 l 0 pthe participatory consciousness, one must first cultivate the various çsnscry faculties. In addition to the sensory organs themselves. some writers stress the importance of the body in relation to sensory awareness and the participatory consciousness. Quite clearly, the organs of perception are located in the body. Abram indicates that the participatory consciousness, involving the reciprocal exchange between perceiver and perceived. entails the "intertwining of rny body with the things it perceivesnso that "my body is a sort of open circuit that

completes itself only in things, in others, in the encompassing earthn (62). Highwater suggests that it is necessafy to develop an expressive, or articulate body. in order to experience the participatory consciousness. He contrasts the body's role in Western vis-a-vis indigenous views of the relationship between humans and Nature, where, as already noted. Westerners tend to perceive themselves as estranged from their bodies: Unül very recently, most people of the West were completely cut off from their own bodies. . . They lacked a body that could function in harmony with their ideas and feelings and experiences: they lacked, in effect. what the Wintu lndians cal1 the whole person . .. [Westerners] cannot participate in other beings and obiects but can only observe them. Without an articulate body, without a sense of the body's wholeness, we cannot participate in the world. . . . (77)

Thus, it is important to recognize the body's role in the experience of participatory consciousness. Not only is it through the body's sense organs that one receives sensMy impressions, but the body is also the vehicie of reciprocity. the medium through which the influential interchange between perceiver and perceived takes place. In other words, it is through the physical body and its senses that one becomes aware of the natural world.

It has been noted that. in order for most Western people to experience participatory consciousness, it would be necessary to develop the sensory faculties and overall body awareness. Although there are probably many ways to accomplish the latter, this thesis proposes that aesthetic experiences can provide a unique and effective means of developing the sensuous participatory consciousness, which would hopefully lead to a deeper connection benNeen human beings and Nature. The relationship between aesthetics and the

participatory consciousness will be explored in the neKt chapter. Before investigating that topic, it would be wise to pause and reflect on the merits of a participatory consciousness. It is prudent to ask, for example, whether or not the participatory consciousness is worth fostering in an educational setting.

Value of the Participatory Consciousness Value, with respect to the participatory consciousness, would concern the relative "worth, desirability, or utility" 8 of this perceptual mode. In this case, it is

important to recognize the signticant role of the percipient. 'Without a valuing subject for which a state of awareness is valued simply for itself-cal1 this subject

an 'appreciator'-there can be nothing valuable at all. A value without a valuer

is as empty a notion as a hope without a hoper. a thought without a thinker . . . " suggests Frederick Ferre. professor of philosophy (422). W hile this latter staternent might be challenged by =me. it is not my intention here to delve into the philosophical wmplexities regarding value. Rather. I sirnply wish to point 01.1t

that the value of the participatory consdousnsss rests with the perceiver, the

person experiencing this mode of perception. Is the participatory consciousness worthwhile for the perceiver. then? There are several compelling reasons for encouraging this perceptual mode. First, given the severity of the modern ecological crisis. not only is the planet's biological diversity rapidly diminishing, but also human survival is at stake. It

has been established that human estrangement frorn Nature is a key factor in this crisis, and that the predominant Western worldview contributes to this feeling of disconnection. Hence, any activities that can assist people in experiencing more connection to the natural world would be beneficial at this time. Developing the participatory consciousness, a perceptual mode emphasizing empathetic reciprocity between perceiver and perceived, is one

way to forge a deeper. less estranged relationship between human beings and Nature. Moreover. the participatory consciousness offers one solution to the urgent need for a different perceptual mode in Western society. This participatory method of perception might help humans reconceptualize their relationship to Nature. which, in turn, has the potential to affect human behaviour. For example, if one experiences sympathetic engagement with naturai phenornena, one might (but not necessarily) be less likely to destroy it. Not only does the participatory consciousness have the potential to

decrease human estrangement frorn Nature, but it might also assist in forming a deeper connection. or relationship, to the biological community. It becomes

apparent now that the participatory consciousness. in its emphasis on sensuous perception. can facilitate such experiences. Abram articulates this idea with: So the recuperation of the incarnate. sensorial dimension of experience brings with it a recuperation of the living landscape in which we are corporeally embedded. As we return to our senses, we gradually discover ouf sensory perceptions to be simply our part of a vast, interpenetrating webwork of perceptions and sensations borne by countless other bodies . . . [the] icy streams. . .owl wings and lichens . . . the unseen. imperturbable wind. (65) It is evident from this passage that other characteristics of the participating perceptual mode contribute to the feeling of a doser relationship to Nature. For example, once the percipient comprehends or experiences reciprocity and intersubjectivity, hel she becornes more aware of the existence of other species. of other biological 'subjectsn in the life-world. This might help people begin to

observe how the hurnan species 'fits" into the larger wh018 of life. or the community of life. Pemaps then, the participatory consciousness could assist humanity in developing a closer relationship with Nature, where ouf species might perceive itself, once again. as one part of, rather than separate from, the biological community. Moreover, several writers urge that the ecological crisis

demands such a perceptual change. 'The survival of the species necessitates

a renewed understanding of our relationship to nature. of our own bodily nature.

."

and of nonhuman nature around us . . . states King, for example ('Ecdogy of Feminismn20). Along with latter. the participatory consciousness also offers a unique

way to experience Nature's nourishing forces. It has been noted that the natural world can provide physical, emotional, spiritual. and intellectual nourishment,

where the senses play a major role es 'nutritional receptors." Unfortunately, our sodety's alienated worldview often prevents us from receiving, or being aware,

of these nurturing influences. In contrast, the participatory consciousness. by emphasizing sensuous perception and reciprocity, can foster experiences in which one is more receptive to Nature's sustenance. In order to illustrate this point. the next paragraph will focus on how Nature can nourish the intellectual sphere, since this is the aiea of primary concern to education. In Chapter Two it was suggested that Nature might function as a 'marvellous intelligence,' a source of 'knowingnessn that informs and is accessible to our own minds, if we are receptive to it. For example, after many years of scientific research, Bateson condudes, '1 surrender to the belief that my knowing is a small part of a wider integrated knowing that b i t s the entire bioshpere or creation" (88). Thus, since our intellect is 'rooted" in Nature, the latter c m provide us with intellectual nourishment. Unfortunately most of us are unaware of such a possibility. We might ask, 'Just how can Nature provide humans with intellectual knowledge?" One way Nature can mentally nourish us

is through the senses. "Only as we corne close to our senses, and begin to trust, once again, the nuanced intelligence of ouf sensing bodies, do we begin to notice and respond to the subtle logos of the land," states Abram (268). Similarly. Cohen asserts that when we connect to Nature through the senses.

"we psychologically plug into nature's intelligent ways" (ReconnectinnWith Nature 30). Hence. the participatory consciousness, in its ernphasis on a sensuous perceptual mode, might facilitate experiences which access Nature's intellectual nourishment. Other characteristics of the participatory consciousness also promote receptiveness to Nature's intelligence. For instance, because it emphasizes the sensory, often non-verbal immediate experience. participatory consciousness

can help access this type of preconceptual knowledge from Nature, as in

Cohen's example of the 'wisdom of thirstn (39-40). ln addition, the attribut0 of

sympathetic reciprocity, where the subjectl object barriers between perceiver

and perceived becorne less distinct, contributes to the possibility of 'knowingn something in Nature by identifying with it. As Berman describes, "Participation is self and not-self identified at the moment of experience . . . the present day African tribesman [can] know a thing precisely in the act of identification, and this identification is as much sensual as it is intellectual. It is a totalify of experience: the 'sensuous intellect' " (76). Our culture. in its Cartesian worldview, has largely lost the ability to make this "identification," and tends to be prejudiced against the latter type of knowledge (Berman 76-77).

Thus, several characteristics of the participatory consciousness, including its emphasis on sensuous perception, its preconceptual nature, and sympathetic reciprodty, make this perceptual mode conducive to helping people "receive" or becorne aware of Nature's intellectual nourishment. Perhaps, as Cohen proposes, connecting to Nature intellectually via the participatory consciousness might help human beings think in a less estranged, less distorted manner (Reconnectina With Nature21).

In this section. the value of the participatory consciousness has been explored in terms of its relative worth to the percipient. Two main areas of validity were identified, although this does not exclude other possibilities. It was suggested that the participatory consciousness can help people become less estranged from Nature, thus helplng humanity develop a closer relationship to the larger community of life. This perceptual mode has the second potential of accessing Nature's nuRuring forces, where it was noted that intellectual nourishment would be of particular interest to education.

This chapter began with a discussion of perception. where the dualistic Cartesian model was contrasted with the phenomenological description. It was suggested that phenornenology might offer an equally valid, or perhaps better. description of perceptual experience, w hich can be characterized by sympathetic reciprocity between perceiver and perceived. This reciprocal mode of perception was then expanded into the notion of participatory consciousness,

defined as a sensuous perceptual mode containing sympathetic reciprocity. Several characteristics of participatory consciousness were explored, and the similaritles between indigenous worldviews and the participatory consciousness were noted. Given that the body and its sensory faculties play a key role in this perceptual mode, it was recognized that it might be difficult for

Westerners to experience participatory consciousness, since wr society tends to distrust or discredit sensory perceptions. Regarding the latter problern, it was suggested that aesthetic experiences offered by the fine arts disciplines might provide a unique and effective means of fostering the participating

consciousness, a topic which will be explored in the next chapter. Finally, the value of the participatory consciousness was discussed, focussing on its

relative worth to the percipient. It was noted that the participatory

consciousness can help humans become less estranged frorn Nature. developing a doser relationship between humanity and the larger biological comrnunity, and il provides access to Nature's nourishing forces. Until one has experienced this distinct perceptual mode, the participatory

consciousness may be hard to fully comprehend. As Berman observes, 'Nonparticipating consciousness canrot 'see'participating consciousness any more than Cartesian analyîis c m 'see' artistic beauty" (95). This manner of perceiving the world should become more familiar to the reader as the

investigation proceeds. It is also important to recognize that the participatory

consciousness is not a panacea. of course. but simply one of many possible ways for human beings to develop a doser relationship to Nature.

CHAPTER 4

THE PARTICIPATORY CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE If a çociety cannot provide a faeilitating envlronment witnin which the aesthetic poteMiai of ail b rnembets can find apfmpdate expresskn, aien that soclety has failed. Peter Fuller (qtd. in Abbs xi)

In the preceding chapter, it was suggested that the participatory consciousness might offer one solution to Western Society's perceptual problern, a worldview that constructs humans as estranged from Nature. However, it was recognized that Westerners might have difficulty experiencing the participatory consciousness, since our society tends to discount information received through the senses. Hence, it was submitted that aesthetic

experiences, in their particularly sensuous perceptual mode, might provide one way to foster the participatory consciousness. and this topic will form the basis

of the chapter's discussion. To begin with. it will be necessary to review, and then expand, the definition of aesthetics and the aesthetic experience established in the Introduction. It is important to rernember that the focus here will be on the perdpientasexperience of Nature. rather than the artist's perceptions of it, or the treatment of the natural world as an art object. Next, the aesthetic perceptual

mode will be described in more detail, followed by a brief discussion of one particular problem in aesthetics, relating the concept of beauty in Nature.

Finally, the notion that aesthetic experiences can foster a participatory consciousness will be explored.

Definitton and Description of the Aesthetic Experience In the Introduction, aesthetics was defined as concerning perception through the senses, and it was noted that aesthetic experiences can contribute to human understanding and valuing of the natural world. In addition, it has been established that some relationship exists between our concept of beauty, however difficult to define, and the aesthetlc appreciation of Nature. Expanding on this basic definition, words derived etymologically from a e s t h e t i ~ give further dues about the aesthetic experience. Abbs observes, 'Here in this small duster of words-perception, sensing. apprehending. feeling-we begin to discern the nature of the aesthetic mode . . . The unity of these diverse meanings lies in the essential perceptual nature of the activity" ('Defining the Aesthetic Field" 246). Aesthetic experiences are perceptual experiences, then, in which the senses play a primary role. Recalling the definition of perception

from Chapter Three helps to clariv how aesthetic experiences have the potential to facilitate human understanding of Nature. That is, perception is

a process involving both the input of sensory impressions and the interpretation and organization of that information. which can lead to knowledge about the surrounding environment. lnterestingly enough, both aesthetics and the participatory consciousness pertain to a perceptual mode which emphasizes the senses. This is not to suggest that the two are synonymous. however. Rather, it will be argued that the comrnonality of sensuous perception provides an important link

between the aesthetic experience and participatory cansciousness. In light of this paper's arguments, several potential obstacles arise when one surveys the literature regarding the aesthetic experience, or aesthetic appreciation, of Nature. While in most cases it will be suffident to merely make note of these difficulties, certain items will require some discussion. First, is the limited availability of contemporary Ilterature concerning the aesthetic appreciation of Nature, since the focus of most writers is on artworks as objects of aesthetic contemplation. Second, many aestheticians tend to de-ernphasize the role of the senses in the aesthetic experience, instead accentuating other

aspects, such as cognition.9 However, these writers do not deny that aesthetic experiences involve sensuous perception. It will be argued here that the senses do play a significant and unique role in the aesthetic experience, and the latter shculd not be ignored, especially in regard to education. Next, the majority O! theorists in aesthetics tend to treat Nature as an 'object, " as something separate from the perceiver.10 For instance, the

language employed in a m e n t article by Malcolm Budd is a typical example of this attitude that objectifies Nature, treating the latter like an art object: What is it to appreciate nature aesthetically? 1s there such a thing as the aesthetic appreciation of nature? f hese questions refer on the one hand to an object and on the other to a type of appreciation: the object is nature. . . . (207) Perhaps this proclivity to objectify Nature began with Kant. who treated the natural world as an object of aesthetic appreciation (Cooper 251, Janaway 323). While it is true that, in the aesthetic experience, the percipient's attention

is directed towards something, to treat that thing as totally separate from oneself is an indication of the dualistic Cartesian perceptual mode discussed in the 9 For exampie, Nekon Goodman.

10 For instance, Budd, Carison, Janaway, S m , and Sheppard.

51

previous chapter. The problems inherent in this modei have already been noted. Regarding aesthetics, if one tends to view the animated fabric of the natural world as a detached. separate object of aesthetic contemplation, it reinforces the feeling of human estrangement from Nature. The perceiver is merely a spectator rather than a participant in the act of perception. thus precluding the possibility of reciprocity. Hence, acwunts which describe the aesthetic experience or appreciation of Nature in purely objective terms are contrary to this paper's prernises. This thesis proposes that aesthetic experiences in the natural world can transcend the dualistic separation between perceiver and perceived, and this idea will be expanded below. Another difficulty ptesented to this investigation is that most aestheticians tend to compare the aesthetic appreciation of Nature to the aesthetic

appreciation of human-made arfworks.11 Sheppard, for instance, contends that 'the critical appreciation of works of art bears a strong resemblance to the

aesthetic appreciation of nature" (76). Although the latter is not entirely unavoidable and may also be sometimes useful, there is a danger in this

analogy. rince artifacts created by people are vastly different from the living, changing natural world. Such a cornparison is also risky because Cartesian dualism often accompanies it. Consider, for instance, an excerpt from Saito:

Some thinkers daim that nature as an aesthetic object is not as determinate as a work of art. . . Kendall Walton suggests that a natural object. unlike a work of art. can be appreciated by reference to various aesthetic categories. (36-37) This passage is a char example of how the dualistic perceptual mode can

appear in conjunction with a cornparison between the aesthetic appreciation of Nature and the aesthetic experience of artworks. Hence, the cornparison will be It

e m p b , Carlson. S

m ,Sheppard, Smith and Smith, Ttiompson. 52

avoided in the discussion that follows. Finally. one needs to recognize that the sheer complexity and ineffability of aesthetics present obstacles to any investigation. While some contend that a distinctive aesthetic experience does not exist (Fuller 139). most aestheticians maintain that the aesthetic perceptual mode is unique, despite the difficulty inherent in defining or describing such experienœs. Beardsley. for example, intirnates: It is not surprising that it has proved very difficult to distinguish and articulate an aesthetic character of experience . . . It is also . . . not surprising that there has b e n a good deal of honest difference of opinion about what the aesthetic character is, even among those who agree that there issuch a thing. (72-73) Having said this. Beardsley nevertheless attempts to identify certain "criteria of the aesthetic character of experience." and he demonstrates how these characteristics might work together to formulate an experience that is distinct from "everydaynperception (74-83). Thus. even though aesthetics seerns to ultimately defy explanation, the attempt to describe such experiences is a worthy effort. Aesthetic experiences are highly variable, difficult to describe.

and a divergence of opinion on the subject is inevitable. Nevertheless, it will be argued here that a unique perceptual mode, the aesthetic experience, does exist, however difficult to articulate. Hence, accompanylng this exploration into the complexities of the aesthetic experience of Nature. will be a degree of incompletmess, for certain aspects of aesthetics seem to be beyond verbal description. Now that some potential difficulties related to an investigation of the aestheüc appreciation of Nature have been identified. let us move on to an exploration of some particular characteristics of the aesthetic experience that

are pertinent to this discussion. Most writers agree that the aesthetic sensibility. the capacity to perceive

in an aesthetic manner, is innate in human beings. Some, like scientist Stephen Kellert, referring specifically to the aesthetic appreciation of Nature, believe it is a biologically based tendency: 'There is a consistency in the human aesthetic response to nature that unites us al1 despite our enonous variations in upbringing and experience. This unanimity of aesthetic response suggests a biologically based tendency" (33). Others suggest that people have a basic need for aesthetic experiences. Scruton, for instance, states, 'Hence. I have a need, as a rational creature, for aesthetic experience . . ." (32). Somewhat paradoxically, Abbs suggests that the aesthetic experience is both innate and influenced by culture. Of al1 the modes of intelligence that can be tabulated, the aesthetic seems the most primordial. Yet. while the arts have this source in the biological, they also have another origin, namely, in the historic world of of culture. . . . (*AestheticEducation" 7) Although most theorists agree that humans are born with some aesthetic capacity, they also contend that the aesthetic sensibility must be developed or fostered by culture in order to mach its full potential. Keller?contends that ' . . . the aesthetic impulse is a weak biological tendency, mediated and shaped by experience, learning, and culture" (46), while Alan Simpson asserts, 'without deliberate teaching, the capacity for aesthetic experience will rernain donnant . .

. " (174). Even though humans may possess an innate capacity to appreciate Nature aesthetically, this çensibility must be further developed or fostered through some form of education. Secondly. the aesthetic experience is a voluntary one, wherein a person

chooses to engage with the perceived subject. Beardsley notes this feature,

suggesting that it c m be described as a "willing surrender' in which the perceiver is 'actively engagedN with the perceived. He also observes that the perceiver can choose whether or not to continue the experience, but if sustained, the occasion should lend itself to "a process of discovery" and a "gradua1 revelation" of the perceived (75-76). Citing an example of this characteristic from my personal experience, I might hear the cal1 of a flicker as it arrives on the Douglas fir outside my window. I am enthralled by its beautiful colours, so I decide to stop what I'm doing for a moment and just watch. I notice the striking contrast in colours: the bright red patch behind the beak, the black crest on the upper chest. the spots on fis chest. I am aesthetically "drawn innby its beauty. While continuing to observe, I marvel at the way the flicker is abie to

move so dexterously up and down the tree, never losing its balance. I hear it again and wonder if it is calling to its mate. From this example it is evident that the experience was not only voluntary in nature, but that more and more became revealed as the activity progressed. Thus, the aesthetic perceptual mode is a voluntary one. which tends to gradually yield more sensory information if sustained over a period of tirne. Another characteristic of the aestheüc experience iç that it engages both the intellect and emotions, or the cognitive and affective domains. 'Aesthetic appreciation is a complex matter, involving both emotional and intellectual factors," indicates Sheppard (64). An example of this amibute might be when I intellectually marvel at the intricacy and symmetry of a spider's web, while simultaneousiy feeling either delighted or repelled watching the spider. Sheppard also asserts that Kant, who contributed significantly to the fundamental thinking regarding aesthetics, tended to emphasize the intellectual

aspect of the aesthetic experience, but that he did 'rnake some room for the

emotional elements in aesthetic response" (65). Today many aestheticians. perhaps as a result of Kant's influence. also tend to stress the intellectual. or cognitive. aspect of the aesthetic experience. Another reason for stressing the intellectual aspect of the experience might be that many aestheticians, if writing in the field of education. find ileas~erto justify the validity of aesthetic experiences in terms of their cognitive elements. Whatever the case may be, most theorists agree that the aesthetic experience engages both intellect and emotions. where the former is usually given the most ernphasis. With respect to the emotional aspect of the aesthetic experience, it is necessary to enter into a momentary cornparison between the aesthetics of Nature and art. even though this paper attempts to avoid such cornparisons. There is one significant way, crucial to this discussion. that the aesthetic experience of Nature differs from the appreciation of art. That is. the emotional, or affective, aspect of the aesthetic experience c m be quite genuine and real with respect to Nature. where, by contra&, an element of emotional detachment is usually evident in the appreciation of artworks. Smith and Smith recognize the significance of the 'affective relationship between percipient and the perceived" in the aesthetic experience of Nature. They state:

This relationship identifies what is perhaps the signal [sic] distinguishing feature of aesthetic experiences of nature; it makes for more absorption and less detachment. less indifference . . . But what might be lost in aesthetic distance and serenity would be compensated for by identification . . . and empathy. (137) Hence, when the percipient appreciates Nature aesthetically, there is usually some degree of genuine and imrnediate emotimal involvement with what is perceived.

Since the aesthetic mode is by definition a form of sensuous perception,

it can often act as a "bridge" between the sensuous perceiving body and the intellect. Thus. when I listen carefully to the calls and songs of a particular bird species. not only is this a pleasurable experience in itself. but also. over time, it becornes easier to distinguish subtle distinctions in these sounds. leading to a

greater understanding of their meaning. Scruton. in reference to Kant and Hegel contends, '60th philosophers were convinced . . . that aesthetic judgrnent is no arbitrary addendum to human capacities, but. . . a bridge betwsen the

sensuous and the intellectuai . . ." ("Recent Aesthetics" 39). Hence, this 'bridgingn capacity of aesthetic experiences is a large part of their uniqueness,

giving humans a way to derive meaning from the raw information received through the sensory faculties. Although diflcult to understand, it seems apparent that the aesthetic sensibility can facilitate the act of perception. making it easier for the percipient to organize and process 'simple sense data," to mail Cobb's words. This unique characteristic of the aesthetic experience is especially important, and probably to a large degree unrecognized, in terrns of its educational potential.12 and this idea will be exploted further in the next chapter.

Besides facilitating perception by functioning as a bridge between the

sensory faculties and the organizing intellect. aesthetic experiences are often. but not always. pleasurable. As Sheppard observes. 'Why then do people seek out aesthetic experiences? One obvious answer would be that people do these things because they enjoy them. It gives us pleasure . . .^ (1). In the aesthetic appreciation of Nature, this pleasure is derived from the sensuous experience itself, whether it be the smell of a wildllower, the soft touch of rnoss, or the splendid view from a mountain top. 12 EspedaHy outside the fbid of arts edwatbn-

57

Another generally recognized characteristic of the aesthetic experience. is its element of 'disinterestedness," or the notion that in "contemplating

something aesthetically we are removed from ali practical concerns with the objectn(Sheppard 69). Richmond describes the term in this manner: "An

aesthetic response is dlsinterested. i.e. non-expoitative and unselfish, and is motivated by values intrinsic to an experience" (84). Although the word carries various shades of meaning and is somewhat contentious (Cooper 24-25), depending on the theorist. the point to be made here is that. when one experiences Nature aesthetically, he/ she is not concerned with utilitarian values at the time of experience. Rather, the percipient is involved with the inherent values of that particular activity. When I observe and enjoy an old Douglas Rr, for instance. I am enthralled by its size. the roughness and grooves in its thick bark, the lichen growing on the branches, the smell of the needles. the black scar indicating a forest fire years ago. On the other hand, while I may be aware of the possibility, the volume of dimensional wood contained in this particular tree is of no concern. Beardsley uses the term, 'detached affect." in reference to this element of the aesthetic experience, observing that it helps to distinguish the latter from normal perceptual experiences. He adds, 'It is Vue that in detached affect there is a lack of concern about the instrumental values, but there need not be a lack of awareness of such values" (78). Similarly. Scruton suggests that during the aesthetic experience 'for a moment we set aside the relentless curiosity of science. and the habit of instrumental thinking' ('Modern Philosophy" 31). Aesthetic experiences, then, tend to be disinterested and free of utilitarian considerations, where the intrinsic value of the activity is considered primary. In addition, there is an aspect of the aesthetic experience of Nature that is

largely non-verbal and preconceptual. The percipient tends to be focussed on th6 immediate sensations and feelings of the moment. This feature is difficult to

articulate. but nevertheless one that most people have experienced. For example, when I am attracted to a wild tiger lily. I aesthetically enjoy its distinct fragrance. the beauty of its colours and shape; I may mach out to touch a petal or leaf. On the other hand, at the time of experience. I am not concerned with cfassifying this flower or remernbering its scientific name, although this rnay corne later. Nor am I particularly concerned with thoughts about the past or future. focussing rather on sensory experience of the present moment. Smith and Smith, drawing from Osborne's theories. describe this aspect of the aesthetic experience: ' . . . the percipient does not, during the aesthetic experience. conceptualize or think discursively about the object" (128). Beardsley refers to the lack of temporal concern as "felt freedomlnwhich he describes as "A sense of release from the dominance of some antecedent concerns about past and future, a relaxation and sense of harmony with what is presented . . . " (75). Thus. a preconceptual characteristic, which includes a temporary disregard for the past or future. is evident in the aesthetic response. The aesthetic experience can also enhance human understanding of

Nature by helping us to "make sense" of the wotld. These perceptual activities

can assist humans in apprehending their role in the larger biological community. For example. Scruton suggests. 'It is aesthetic experience which reveals the sense of the world.' He continues. describing the aesthetic

response as 'saturated by meaning" whereby 'we perceive the fittingness of the world. and of Our place within it" ('Modern Philosophyw26-31). Kellert expresses a similar notion. but from a biologist's perspective: 'The aesthetic experience of nature fosters the perception of order and organization in place of

what might othemise appear to be confusing and meaninglessn(37). Frequently. in order for human understanding of the world to be enhanced, the bridging mechanism between the sensuous and the intellectual aspects of the aesthetic experience cornes into play. Hence, recalling the example given earlier, when a person listens repeatedly to bird songs and calls over a duration of tirne, not only does shel he gain aesthetic pleasure from the experience, but a greater cognitive understanding may be gained regarding the meanings of the various sounds of that particular species. lnsights related to this species' role in the larger biological cornmunity rnay also occur. It is important to note, however, that this capacity of the aesthetic perceptual mode to enhance awareness and apprehension of Nature takes considerable tirne. Lately, the issue of whether or not scientific knowledge can enhance the aesthetic appreciation of Nature has received quite a bit of attention from several theorists. The general consensus is that scientific knowledge, or knowledge gained from naturalist studies, can enrich aesthetic experiences in the natural world, although each writer differs in how much emphasis should be

given to the former. Professor Allen Carlson is a strong proponent of scientific knowledge, arguing that 'the appropriate aesthetic appreciation of nature requires knowledge of the natural world" (393). On the other hand, Smith and Smith contend that aesthetic concepts are primary and. regarding arts education. that "aesthetic education cannot assume full responsibility for environmental education" (137). Saito takes a moderate approach. stating, "1 support the view that aesthetic education concerning nature should incorporate the contributions made by scientists and naturalists so that our attitude toward nature will develop with ecological sensitivity" (35). This thesis recognizes that scientific

knowledge can enhance the aesthetic appreciation of Nature. but, as

aiready outlined. aesthetic values will tend to receive greater emphasis here. Finally, the capacity of aesthetic experiences to facilitate a greater understanding of the natural world can also, as evident in the definition above,

lead to a greater valuing of Nature. As Saito remarks, "Developing Our aesthetic sensibility toward nature . . . can contribute to Our comprehension of nature's workings and ouf appreciation of their value" (45). Perhaps one reason why aesthetic experiences contribute to the valuing of Nature is that they tend to foster empathy, as Bateson suggests (8). Thus, as I rnarvel at the beauty of wildflowers and delight in their varied fragrances. I develop feelings of empathy for them. In fact, these aesthetic experiences rnay lead to feelings of "kinship" with the natural world, to use a t e n employed by both Kellert and

Cohen. Another way the aesthetic perceptual mode may enhance the validity

we ascribe to Nature concerns the appreciation of the formal aspects of the natural world, or "the pattern which connects," in Bateson's words. Bateson proposes that, 'By aesthetic 1 mean responsive to the pattern which mnects ' (8). An example of this pattern woutd be the similarity evident in the anatomy of

crabs and lobsters, for example, or the many types of symmetry evident in

Nature. Through the aesthetic appreciation of Nature, according to Bateson, people can recognize this evolutionary pattern. which connects each entity of the natural world to the larger whole (8-21). Thus, for varying reasons, depending upon the individual percipient. evidence suggests that aesthetic experiences can contribute to human valuing of Nature.

To sum up this section, several characteristics of the aesthetic experience of Nature have been outlined. It has b e n shown that the aesthetic sensibility is innate but requires further development. It is a voluntary activity. engaging both the intellect and emotions, where the perceiver can potentially

experience genuine. immediate emotional involvement with the perceived. The aesthetic sensibility can function as a bridge between the sensuous perceiving body and the intellect. Aesthetic experiences can ûe pleasurable. they tend to be free of utilitarian considerations, they often wntain a non-verbal.

preconceptual aspect, they can enhance human understanding, or the 'making

sense,"of Nature, and consequently can lead to a greater valuing of the natural world. While this list is not exhaustive, it does identify important characteristics

for the purposes of this discussion. Despite the benefits that aesthetic experiences cm offer, I would submit that they continue to be undervalued in this society, especially those concerning Nature. Perhaps one reason for the latter is that the aesthetic sensibility is not developed sufficiently through education, but this possibility would be difficult to verify. lnterestingly enough, an increasing number of scientists are calling attention to the value of the aesthetic appreciation of Nature (Bateson. Kellert). Kellert. for example. asserts that , 'Although the aesthetic response to nature

seems deeply rooted in the human psyche, people frequently undervalue its significancen (34). One the other hand, sorne believe that the aesthetic value of Nature is important to the public, and a recent anthropologiwî study seems. a! first, to provide support for the latter. On close perusal, however. it is apparent that the results were based on a single statement. 'Nature is inherently beautiful. When we see ugliness in the environment. it's caused by humans' (Kempton. Boster. and Hartley 1û4-105). A positive response to such a statement is not enough evidence to indicate significant aesthetic valuing of Nature, I wouid suggest. Thus, despite differences of opinion, this paper proposes that aesthetic experiences, especially regarding Nature, tend to be undervalued in OUT society. While many reasons for the latter could be

explored, the intention here is to simply recognize that the undervaluing of aestnatic experiences can present potential problems with respect to education.

a topic that will be considered In Chapter Five. How do the characteristics of the aesthetic experience of Nature relate to the participatory consciousness, then? A few connections will be briefly mentioned at this tirne. First, as already noted, the aesthetic sensibility and participatory consciousness share, by definition, the cornmon ground of sensuous perception. In regard to the latter, both these perceptual modes also appear to function by gaining information primarily through the senses, where the intellect behaves in a secondary manner (temporally), organizing and "making sense" of the raw sensations after the primary sensory experience has occurred. Similarly, both the aesthetic experience and participatory consciousness have the ability to access the preconceptual experiences of the immediate present, the phenomenological life-world. Both perceptual modes also require a voluntary attitude, a willingness to enter into the experience. Although the aesthetic experience of Nature and the participatory consciousness share many sirnilarities, çome differences are evident as well.

for example, the participatory consciousness has been defined as involving sympathetic reciprocity. while aesthetic experiences do not necessarily lend themselves to this type of engagement between perceiver and perceived. Although it has been demonstrated that, during the aesthetic experience, the percipient can becorne emotionally involved, or sympathetic, with respect ta the perceived, it does not necessarily follow that reciprocity would occur. Nevertheless, I will propose that aesthetic experiences have the potential for reciprocity, and this idea will be discussed later on. Given the similarities between the aesthetic appreciation of Nature and

the participatory consciousness. it seems reasonable to conclude that aesthetic

axperiences c m indeed foster a participatory consciousness. The latter mlght be a worthy goal, as already suggested. Developing this perceptual mode rnight alleviate the problem of human estrangernent from Nature, thereby reconnecting humanity both to the larger biological cornmunity and Nature's nourishing forces. The relationship between the aesthetic experience and the participatory consdousness will be receive further attention at the end of this chapter. Before doing so. it is necessary ta discuss one enigrnatic area of aesthetics, the notion of beauty.

Beauty in Nature It is almost impossible to discuss the aesthetic appreciation of Nature

without talking about beauty. W hen in a natural setting, people frequently exclaim. "lt's so beautiful!" whether it be in reference to a rnountain vista, the abundance of life in a marsh, or the attractiveness of a wildflower. Most people sense. or respond, to beauty in Nature. In fact, we seem almost to take this for granted. Keliert observes. for example, 'Few experiences in life exert as much

effect on people as the physical attraction of nature" (33).

In the discipline of aesthetics. the tetm b e a u is problematic. however, largely due to the predicament invdved in arriving at a suitable definition. In addition, the concept of beauty, as noted in the Introduction, tends to be considered somewhat unfashionable now, as it played a more integral role in early aesthetic theory. Given the confines of this paper, this discussion regarding beauty will be very brief and necessarily simplified, noting certain pertinent concepts, rather than attempting to cover the entire topic.

Several dilemmas becorne evident when one tries to define or arrive at a general concept of beauty, a conception that might explain it as a source of aesthetic pleasure. Sheppard notes that defming beauty either in terms of other aesthetic qualities (grace, elegance etc.) or nonaesthetic qualities (Le. symmetry etc.) is problematic and unsatisfactory (62-64). Janaway mncurs, stating " . . . there cannot be a single generic concept [regarding beauty] which is the highest term of aesthetic praise and which is applied univocally throughout al1 judgements of art and nature" (331). Hence, without delving into the mplexity of the various arguments, it is evident that determining an appropriate definition or general conception of beauty is not possible. In addition. conceptions of beauty will Vary from individual to individual, and cultural variances exist as well (Kellert 48-49). Nevertheless, even though beauty seems to defy definition, one cannot merely forget il or conclude that it doesn't exist. Perhaps al! one can say is that it exists, but it can't be defined: that beauty must remain one of those ineffable aspects of aesthetics. lnterestingly enough, discussions regarding beauty in Nature frequently bring forth related concepts, which often have ethical implications. These concepts are worthy of a brief discussion. To begin with, when the concept of beauty is explored with respect to Nature, it is often associated with a group of related formalist ideas: pattern. unity, the inner structure of reality, and order. Often it is the pattern, design. or structure evident in the natural world that elidts our recognition of beauty. With respect to order, it is not just the latter which evokes an aesthetic response, but the apparent dynamic balance between order and disorder in Nature. For example, the physicist Gert Eilenberger, speaking in regard to chaos theory, suggests, " . . . our feelings for beauty are inspired by the harrnonious arrangement of order and disordei as it occurs in

natural objects--in clouds, trees, mountain ranges, or snow crystalsw(qtd. in Kellert 40). Haipirn also observes the relationship between beauty and order. by emphasizing humanity's connection to the larger ordering structure of

Nature: 'We respond to nature as being beautiful and right because we ourselves are part of its making and we empathize with its ordern (216). While some may emphasize the role of order and disorder in evoking an aesthetic response to beauty in Nature, others, especially Bateson. associate natural beauty with an underlying unity or structure, the pattern which connects. Bateson states:

Observe. however, that there have been. and still are, in the world many different and even contrasting epistemologies w hich have been alike in stiessing an ultimate unity and . . .which have also stresed the notion that ultimate unity is aesthek The uniformity of these views gives h o p that perhaps the great authority of quantitative science may be insufficient to deny an ultimate unifying beauty. I hold to the presupposition that our loss of the sense of aesthetic unity was, quite simply, an epistemological mistake. (18) Thus. beauty is often associated with the idea that an overall unifying structure exists in the natural world. This sense of unity can provide meaning to human beings: 'In the sentiment of beauty we feel the purposiveness and intelligibility

of everything that surrounds us . . . " (Scruton, 'Modern Philosophyn26). Similady, Kell8rt asserts that the relationship between beauty and structure in Nature affects us in positive ways: "These expressions of nature's beauty help us create pattern. order, and design in Our lives. Removing, spoiling, or destroying these elements produces a feeling of dis-ease and deterioration . . . " (39). Perhaps beauty, and its relationship to order, structure. and unity play a

larger role in the aesthetic appreciation of Nature than we realize. The apprehension of beauty as evidence of an ordered structure or underlying unity

in Nature might lead to a greater valuing of the latter. in its association with purpose and meaning in life. Another concept associateci with beauty in Nature. although frequently disparaged by the prevailing utilitarianism of the Western worldview. is that natural beauty is evidence of some mysterious and sacred aspect of Nature. Several ecological writers have recently attempted to articulate this idea. For instance, Bateson suggests quite sucdnctly, "The s a m û (whatever that means) is surely related (somehow) to the beautiful (whatever that means)" (213). His humorous reference to the difficulty in defining both terms is appreciated. Of course, the notion of a connection between natural beauty and sacredness is not new. as it has been a cornmon theme in many indigenous worldviews (Highwater 68-70). Even in the Western tradition, this idea has been expresçed in earlier times. Saint Augustine. for example. indicated that beauty in Nature was a manifestation of Divinity (Bateson 2). A revival of the latter concept can be found in the writings of Berry, who proposes that the current widespread destruction of natural habitats results in a diminishment of 'divine presence" on earth: "If we were truly moved by the beauty of the world about us, we would honor the earth in a proiound way . . . We shouid be clear about what happens when we destroy the living forms of this planet. The first consequence is that we destroy modes of divine presencen(10-1 1). Berry suggests that if humanity were able to perceive. or appreciate, natural beauty and its relationship to divinity, or sacredness. this apprehension would function as a restraint, where people would be less apt to behave in a destructive rnanner towards Nature. Bateson echoes this idea with. "The reply to crude rnaterialism is not miracles but beauty-or, of course. ugliness" (210). Hence. some theorists associate natural beauty with a sacred, mysterious aspect of

Nature, where it is possible that the aesthetic appreciation of beauty might positively influence human actions regarding the natural world. Finally, some suggest that the appreciation of beauty in Nature contributes to our own aesthetic sensibility. Berry asserts that. 'If we have refinement of emotion and sensitivity, it is because of the delicacy, the fragrance, and indescribable beauty of song and music and rhythmic rnovernent in the world about us." He continues, 'If we lived on the moon, Our mind and emotions, our speech, our imagination, Our sense of the divine would al1 reflect the desdation of the lunar landscapen(11). According to Berry, the human ability to have rich aesthetic experiences is directly related to Nature's depth and diversified beauty. Halpim observes, from an artist's perspective, that beauty and order in Nature influence her own aesthetics. where "the processes of nature are, for me, guidelines to my aesthetics . . . " (214). The possibility that natural beauty can be a factor contributing to the potential richness of hurnan aesthetic sensibility is perhaps not sufliciently recognized.

To sum up this section, it has been noted that beauty, although impossible to define or satisfactorily conceptualize. is a significant factor in the aesthetic appreciation of Nature. In addition to the simple pleasure gained from experiencing natural beauty, it has been suggested that several concepts are frequently associated with beauty In Nature. First, beauty rnight demonstrate an overall order or underlying unity in Nature, from which purpose and meaning

can be derived. Second, beauty is often perceived as a manifestation of sacredness in the natural world. The third conception relates to the possibility that natural beauty can influence human aesthetics. It has also been proposed that the appreciation of Nature's beauty may have ethical implications. For example, if people were able to truly apprehend the rofe of beauty in Nature,

they might be more inclined to value Nature to a greater degree. While it has already been shown in the previous section that aesthetic experiences can enhance human understanding of Nature and lead to a greater valuing of the natural world, the appreciation of beauty may have the potential to especially facilitate the latter. Notwithstanding. I would a h have to point out that the appreciation of natural beauty does not necessarily result in a greater valuing of Nature, for it is quite easy to cite incidents wherl3 a person might admire the beauty of a wildflower on one hand. while being involved in destructive logging practices, for example, on the other. How does the appreciation of natural beauty relate to the participatory consciousness, then? Although I have not been able to find specific references to this relationship. in rny personal experience it is often beauty that seerns to attract, or *draw me innto the participatory consciousness. For instance, I may becorne attracted to the subtle fragrance and soft pink colour of a patch of wild roses. I stop to smell and enjoy them, noücing more and more detail with every moment. I becorne enthralled with them

. . . they begin to move me, and

sympathetic reciprocity occurs. Thus, although no definitive statement can be

made, I would submit that the appreciation of beauty in Nature can play a special role in the aesthetic experience, and it can sometimes be a factor leading to the participatory consciousness. Now let us return to the discussion of the relationship between the aesthetic experience of Nature and the participatory consciousness.

The Aesthetic Experience and the Particlpatory Consciousness

In view of the similarities, outlined in the first section, between the

aesthetic experience and the partidpatory consciousness. it seerns apparent that aesthetic experiences might foster a unique perceptual mode. the partidpatory consciousness, one with the potential to alleviate the problem d human estrangement from Nature facing Western society today. How would aesthetic experiences facilitate a participatory consciousness, then? First. the cornmon ground of sensuous perception provides an important vehicle by which the aesthetic sensibility can foster the participatory consciousness. It is worth recalling that. as observed in Chapter Three. Westerners have a tendency to distrust cr discredit the sensory impressions. Therefore, people in this society might have trouble entering into the participatory consciousness. which is dependent upon sensuous perception. Moreover. I would submit that most people in modern Western society have very lirnited sensory acuity and awareness, especially with respect to Nature. "Too

often Our unnurtured sensations and feelings escape our awareness." notes Cohen (Reconnecting W ith Nature 38). Livingston also deplores the 'dramatically reduced sensory acuity" evident in this society (22). This lack of

sensory awareness is in significant contrast to the perceptual mode of past indigenous peoples (and the few rernaining in the preçent), who demonstrated

a remarkably b e n sensory ability (Highwater 77,Abram 3-29. Brown 33-44). Hence. any activity that develops the sensory faculties would be beneficial, and aesthetic experiences. with their emphasis on sensuous perception, provide an

effective avenue for achieving the former. Thus. through developing the often neglected area of sensuous perception, aesthetic experiences have the ability

to foster the participatory consciousness. Another commonality between these two perceptual modes has already been identified, and it also contributes to the facilitation of the participatory

consciousness. That is, both the aesthetic experience and participatory consciousness have the unique ability to access pre-verbz! and preconceptual sensations arising from the irnmediacy of the life-world. The capacity to access the life-world is significant because people in this society seem to have little awareness of it. Perhaps, as some say. the latter is due to this culture's overemphasis on language and the verbal1 rational mind (Abram. Berman, Cohen). Whatever the case may be, it is apparent that aesthetic experiences provide one of the few ways of accessing the preconceptual, multi-sensory life-world. For example, when I walk by the ponds and marshes in the nearby Walker Valley, I might aesthetically appreciate the tremendous variety of sounds from the ducks, geese, and other waterfowl. I smell the dankness of the marsh. I feel the breeze come past, noticing the riffles it creates on the water. I also marvel at the striking contrast between the blue water and still-brown rushes and grass. These nourishing sensory impressions often occur simultaneously and are 'received" by my bodily senses, prior to my thoughts about them, although conceptualization rnay come later. One might ask, then, how does the aesthetic sensibility, in accessing these pre-verbal. preconceptual sensations. facilitate the participatory consciousness? These impressions appear to form the foundation, the groundwork, the very fabric of the participatory consciousness. In other words. it

is through these preconceptual sensory experiences of the intersubjective lifeworld that the participatory consciousness derives information, so to speak (Abram 40-44). Since much of this information is non-verbal and tacit, it is very difficult to discuss in a paper like this. Thus, the second way that aesthetic experiences are able to foster the participatory mnsciousness is by accessing the shared, intersubjective territory of the preconceptual life-world. This ever

changing fabric of the life-world seerns to provide the nurturing wellspring. or repository, for the participatory consciousness. The third way that the aesthetic sensibility can foster a participatory

consciousness concerns the potential of the former to assist in reducing the subjecV ooject barriers between perceiver and perceived, thus resulting in aie possibility of sympathetic reciprocity. As noted earlier. during aesthetic experiences in Nature, the perceiver can becorne quite emotionally involved with the perceived, to the extent of empathetic identification. Berman suggests,

in reference to aesthetic experiences generated through artistic disciplines,

"The use of art, dance . . . and the like ultimately boils down to a merger of subject and object, a return to poetic imagination or sensuous identification with the environment" (131 ). Aesthetic experiences are highly variable, however,

and, as already noted, do not necessarily lend themselves to sympathetic reciprocity, a situation where an ongoing interchange would take place between percipient and perceived. Still, one cannot deny the possibility of the latter, and if reciprodty did occur, a closer. less estranged relationship between the percipient and Nature might be established.

Hence, there are three primary ways that aesthetic experiences might help people enter into a participatory consciousness: by developing sensuous

perception, by accessing the preconceptual sensations of the life-world, and by potentially reducing the subjectfobject barriers between perceiver and

perceived, leading to sympathetic reciprocity. At this time, it is prudent to again

ask whether or not the latter is a worthwhile endeavour- What are the benefits of employing the aesthetic sensibility to facilitate the participatory consciousness? In the last chapter, two major areas of value for the participatory consciousness were noted: the participatory consciousness can

help hurnans become less estranged from Nature, thus possibly developing a doser relationship between humanity and the larger biological cornrnunity, and it provides access to Nature's nourishing forces. Employing aesthetic experiences to access the participatory consciousness may have added benefits. The first benefit concerns the notion that aesthetic experiences. by dealing with the preconceptual life-world, might be of great importance and value, because they put humans in touch with a different kind of knowledge. one which Berman terms analogue knowledge.13 According to Berman, 'Analogue knowledge is pervasive, vast; it is the ground of perception and cognition" (252). Aesthetic experiences, by ernphasizing perception that often focusses on the preconceptual sensations and feelings of the irnmediate present, are unique in their capacity to access analogue knowledge (Berman 252). In other words, the aesthetic sensibility, developed in the artistic

disciplines. frequently operates in the language of image and metaphor, rather than in verbal/ rational forms of communication. This artistic realrn of imagery contains the analogue knowledge to which Berman refers. During the aesthetic experience. the human mind grapples with this rnetaphoric, analogue knowledge precipitated by sensations from the life-world. Berman stresses the

importance of the body and its sensory faculties in this process, asserting that 'Knowledge is learned, and generated, first and foremost by the body . . . (182). This is not to dismiss the significance of the verbal/ rational. or digital

knowledge. but to suggest. instead, that perhaps the value of acquiring 13 Analogue knowledge: 'Also calîed iconic animinicatlon. The ange of non-verbal (excepbing poetry), affective communication and perception by wtiich we corne to know the wwld, including f m y , d r m , art, bady language, gesture, and inmation. CmtmsW with krnkdge, be empbyed which is verW-raüonal and &tmS Berman (343). Hen=eliorth, mis demi frequently In reference to non-verbai, preconceptuai knowledge-

73

information through the çensory faculties is underestirnated. Therefore, Berman (and others) advocate a revival of the means of accessing analogue knowledge. because of our culture's over-emphasis on digital knowledge. Moreover. 'In a healthy epistemology. the two modes of knowing [analogue and digital] would be used to nourish and cornplement one another," Berman indicates (252). It is possible that aesthetic experiences might not only foster the participatory consciousness, but also make analogue knowledge more available to the percipient. It would appear that the bridging mechanism between the sensos and intellect contributes to this accessing of analogue knowledge. The educational implications of this idea will be discussed in Chapter Five. A second benefit derived from ernploying the aesthetic sensibility to

foster the participatory consciousness concerns the aesthetic characteristic of disinterestedness. That is, if aesthetic experiences are used as a rnethod of getting people out in Nature. then those activities would tend to be free of utilitarian considerations, and would instead focus on the aesthetic pleasure and intrinsic value of the experience itsslf. Given the current ecological crisis. where the planet's resources are rapidly diminishing, the value of aesthetic experiences. which do not attempt to exploit or manipulate Nature. might becorne more apparent. As Smith suggests, 'The ecological dilemma . . . creates (hopehrlly) a readiness to consider the value of this distinctive mode of experience" (8). Thus, it is apparent that aesthetic experiences are conducive to facilitating the participatory consciousness in many ways, and that several benefits can be derived from the latter. One cannot conclude, however, that aesthetic experiences will necessarily lead to a participatory consciousness.

There are at least two things which hinder such a possibility. First, both the aesthetic experience and participatory consdousness are voluntary in nature. One can choose not to have the experience. or one may choose to perceive the natural world through dualistic Cartesian lenses, or some other perspective. Second. it is important to remember, with respect to aesthetics, that the innate aesthetic sensibillty requires further development to reach its full potential. It is unlikely that a person would be able to access the participatory consciousness

via aesthetic experiences, unless that sensibility has been cultivated. either inforrnally or through forrnal education. This second point brings us to the topic of education, which will be the basis of the next chapter's inquiry.

This chapter has explored the possibility that aesthetic experiences can foster the participatory consciousness, thereby helping human beings develop

a doser relationship to the natural world. First, the definition of aesthetics was reviewed and expanded, and a few potential hindrances to the investigation

were noted. Next, several characteristics of the aesthetic experience, pertinent to the discussion. were identified. They were: the aesthetic sensibility is innate but requires further developrnent, it engages both the affective and cognitive

domains, it can function as a bridge between the sensuous perceiving body and the intellect; aesthetic experiences tend to be free of utilitarian concerns, they often access the preconceptual sensations of the life-world, and they can tead

to human understanding and valuing of Nature. Next. the specfal topic of natural beauty was discussed in relation to the aesthetic appreciation of Nature. It was observed that, while impossible to define or satisfactorily ainceptualize. beauty remains a significant factor in aesthetic experiences of Nature. Several concepts ofien associatecl with natural beauty. such as unity. sacredness. and a

source of aesthetic sensitivity were identified. It was also suggested that the recognition of beauty in Nature can be conducive to a greater ethical valuing of the natural world. In addition. due to its ability to engage the perceiver, beauty might be a factor leading to the participatory consciousness. Finally, the manner in which aesthetic experiences migM faciiitate the participatory consciousness was explored, where it was suggested that the cornmon ground of sensuous perception and the ability to access the pre-verbal, preconceptual experiences of the life-world, along with the potential to reduce the dualistic barriers between perceiver and perceived. would be key factors. In addition to the benefits derived from the participatory consciousness itself, it was subrnitted that employing aesthetic experiences to facilitate this perceptual mode would include the additional advantages of accessing analogue knowledge and being free from strictly utilitarian considerations. Nevertheless, it was noted that aesthetic experiences do not necessarily lend themselves to a participatory consciousness. It is important to rernember that the aesthetic perceptual mode must be cultivated through some form of education. Developing the aesthetic sensibility takes tirne, and it should be recognized that employing the latter to facilitate the participatory consciousness would be especially time-consuming,

but well worth the effort.

CHAPTER 5

THE PARTICIPATORY CONSCIOUSNESS, AESTHETICS, AND EDUCATION Childieri can leam almost anything i f aiey are dancing, tasting, touching, hearing, seeing and feeling information.

Jean Houston 'Educating the Possible Human'

If aesthetic experiences provide one possible way to foster the participatory consciousness. a perceptual mode w hich might help people develop a closer, less estranged relationship with Nature. then how might this

occur in an educational setting? In other words, what is the practical application of such a concept? More importantly. can this idea be iustified as a worthy educational goal? These are some of the questions addressed in this chapter. The discussion will begin by providing justification for the development of the participatory consciousness, first in relation to th8 ecological crisis and

secondly with respect to learning and knowledge. Next, the manner in which aesthetic experiences can be employed to foster the participatory consciousness will be explored, referring to some practical examples in the artistic disciplines. Finaly, potential problems with respect to application and

implementation will be considered. The ideas presented regarding education will be quite general. and are

applicable to any age or grade level, including adults, uniess otherwise stated. Even though the discussion will be directed primarily towards fine arts

education, the idea of using aesthetic expeiiences to develop a participatory conscbusness could be ernployed in environmental education or science programs as well.

Juslifying the Participatory Consciousness- The Ecological Crisis

Several compelling reasons, related to the current ecdogical crisis, provide support for the idea that using aesthetic experiences to facilitate a participatory consciousness is a worthy educational goal. As noted in Chapter Two, since human estrangement from Nature is a key factor in the ecological

crisis, activities which help change human perceptions of the natural world, fostering a doser relationship between humanity and Nature, would be beneficial at this particular time in history. Moreover, as previously suggested, the extensive time spent by today's youth in contact with human-made artifacts and technological devices may result in distorted cultural perceptions. Perhaps

a perceptual balance might be achieved if students were provided with more opportunities to engage in outdoor activities. Hopefully, the latter would offset the trend towards students bonding to technology and human-made artifacts.

In

fostering a participatory consciousness in an outdoor setting, attachment to the natural world would m u r , thereby potentially resulting in more perceptual clarity. In strengthening the ties to Nature, it has also been suggested that the participatory consciousness can assist people in accessing Nature's sustaining forces, where the sensory faculties play a major role in functioning as nutritional receptors. Although the natural world can nurture us on many levels,

intelledual nourishment would be of particular interest to educators. It was also observed in Chapter Two. however, that we seem to teach as if no ecological crisis ewisted; public education appears to maintain a 'business as usual" attitude. In my personal teaching experience, I continue to be dismaysd at the lack of environmental awareness in many schools, demonstrated by such actions as excessive paper waste (despite recycling programs). lack of energy conservation, and disregard for natural values in school yards.14 In all fairness. generating significant change in public institutions is a slow and cumbersome process. but one cannot help but wonder why environmental education does not receive more support from government agencies, such as the Ministry of Education in this province. British Columbia. Fortunately, a few dedicated teachers keep environmental education alive, but, due to its marginalized role in the curriculum, many students are never exposed to ecological programs. Because of the evident threats to the planet's life support systems, several ecological writers advocate change in the public educational system. Often highly critical of present instructional practices, these writers recarnrnend

various modifications. For instance, Orr urges that 'Conservation education . . .

be woven throughout the entire curriculum . . . and not confined to a few scattered courses' (152). Leopold suggests that 'the average citizen . . . needs some understanding of the living world." and that people should have knowledge regarding how human beings fit into the larger ecological whole. where an 'ethical underpinningnto the latter would be crucial (202-210). Quinn recommends a total restructuring of the education system, where instruction would be modelled after the transmission of knowledge in primitive, aboriginal --

14 For exampie, cutting &wn

trws, Ming in s b m .

79

societies (Providence 120-125). In a more philosophical manner. Berry contends !bat 'human education is part of the iatger evolutionary process" (92), and he asserts. 'teaching children about the natural world should be treated as on3 of the most important events in their lives" (131). While ernphasizing different aspects of environmental education, these writers al1 agree that educating children and adults about the complex relationships in Nature is essential in order for humanity to move beyond the current ecological crisis into a truly sustainable future. I believe that teaching children about the natural world is a vital component of education, and it should be receiving more emphasis today.

In addition to the urge for more emphasls on environmental education in general, a few related concepts. relevant to this paper's arguments regarding the participatory consciousness, frequently arise in the literature. First. many theorists strongly advise that, in order for programs to be truly effective, students need to be taken out of the classroorn and put in direct contact with Nature. The idea of learning from the natural world is reminiscent of Rousseau, of course.

who recommended in Emile that the physical world of Nature be employed as the student's principie 't0~tb00k"(Jimack 64-65). Orr strongly advocates getting students outside as a rtecessary ingredient of 'ecological literacy," and he suggests that 'Ecological literacy is becoming more difficult . . . not because there are fewer books about nature, but because there is less opportunity for the direct experience of it' (88-89). As well, he alludes to the idea, already proposed in this thesis, that the natural world c m influence. or nourish, our mental capacities:

Ecological literacy also requires the more demandjng capacity to observe nature with insight, a merger of landsape and mindscape . . . The quality of thought is related to the ability to relate to [Nature] . . .The fact that this kind of intimate knowledge of our landscapes is rapidiy 80

disappearing can only impoverish our mental landscapes as well. (86) Barry also encourages educators to take students outdoors, suggesting that saïth itself, in an evolutionary context. has much to teach us:

So, too, by earth education I do not mean education about the earth. but the earth as the immediate self-educating community of those living and nonliving beings that constitute the earth. I might also go further and designate earth as the prirnary educational establishment . . . with a record of extraordinary success over some billions of years. (89-90) Similarly, Cohen suggests that "the most practical skill I've learned is how to let nature teach us directiy about itself," while adding, 'to learn nature's ways, we must trust our [sensory] experience in naturen("lntegrating Nature's Balancen 10-11). Recalling that people in this sodety spend 95% of their time indoors,

the simple act of taking students outside, to experience Nature directly. can provide a major step in addressing the estrangement problem. Along with the need to get students outside in direct contact with Nature is the related notion of reviving naturalist, or natural history, studies. Many eculogical writers argue that the current ernphasis on gaining knowledge prirnarily from textbooks and laboratory studies has resulted in a "povertynof information derived from close observation of Nature. Leopdd, for instance. recognized this dilemma years ago, noting the "lopsidedness and sterility of biological education" (208). Orr also proposes that naturalist studies must be revived in education. asserting that,

. . . experience in the natural world is both an essential part of understanding the environment, and conducive to good thinking. Experience, properly conceived. trains the intellect to observe the land carefully and to distinguish behnreen health and its opposite. Direct experience is an antidote to indoor, abstract learning. (91-92) Environmentat educator Mike Wielbacher advocates the "renaissancenof nature studies, obsewing that, since the 19709s,'nature study fell rapidly into disfavor"

(4). He suggests:

Although students are more environmentally aware, more interested . . . they have never been more ecologically illiterate . . . . We cannot name the cornmon irihabitants of Our natura! wmmunities. and we know nothing about their habits, histories. and life cycles. The !ass is unforgivable. (5) Hence, ! would submit that, in light of the ecological crisis and human estrangement from Nature, there is a great need to revive naturalist studies in education, where students would be given opponunities to develop the skills necessary to carefully observe and describe the natural world in al1 its complexity. Knowledge gained frorn textbodts, cornputers and the laboratory have their place, of course, but without sufficient exposure to the primary outdoor experience of Nature, a student's education is significantly impoverished. In addition to proposais for getting students outside in immediate contact with Nature and the revival of naturalist studies. another concept frequenting the environmental education literature concerns bonding to a particular place. This notion is about becoming acquainted with the particular location of residence. While b e m i n g familiar with their biological neighbourhood, children would begin to recognize their identity and role in the larger community of life. The notion of bonding has been already mentioned in Chapter Two, and it was noted that earth-bonding experiences, facilitated by numerous sensory experiences in Nature, might be significant to a child's maturation process and feeling of connection to the natural world. Orr expands the idea of Naturebonding to include a particular place, which he asserts is a crucial but frequently overlooked aspect of ecdogical education. Orr identifies several benefits of integrating the study of place into education. including the way it

'requires the combination of intellect with experience." its interdisciplinary nature. its ability to "reeducate people in the art of living well where they are,' and the connection benNeen knowledge of a particular place and increased self-knowledge. Regarding the latter, and drawing from Shepard's theories, Orr States, Aardingly, the child must have an opportunity to 'soak in a place. and the adolescent and adult must be able to return to that place to ponder the visible substrat0 of his own personality.' Hence, knowledge of a place--where you are and where you come from-is intertwined with knowledge of who you are. Landscape, in other words, shapes mindscape. (128-130) Unfortunately, the transient nature of North American society and the estranged Western worldview have created a largely displaced people. Highwater speaks to the latter. distinguishing between Western conceptions of place, which emphasize abstraction. and the prirnal. or indigenous, conceptions, which emphasize 'the actual experience of space [place] as natural and sensual phenornena" (131). While both views have value, many writers are calling for a renewed emphasis on experiential programs that re-educate people about the local places they inhabit. Ph.D. student Matt Sanger, for example, explains,

'Sense of place refers to an experientially based intimacy with the natural processes, community, and history of one's place. lndividuals acquire a sense

of place through direct conversations with the elernents of their place" (4). Direct experience in observing and interacting with the diverse elements and life-forms is crucial to a student's understanding and bonding with a particular place (Sanger 5, Orr 130). Hence. the study of speciRc localities can help students develop a deeper connedon to their natural surroundings, bringing them into closer. less estranged relationship with Nature. Hopefully, bonding to particular places would decrease the likelihood of destructive behaviour

towards the land and its biological cornmunity (Orr 130, Livingston 134). Effactive education regarding place must include the aforementioned eiements of direct expsrience in Nature and naturalist studies, along with a basic understanding of relationships between species (including humans) and life support systems. This section has presented justification for the development of the participatory consciousness in an educational setting, specifically in relation to the ecological crisis. First, it was noted that previous chapters have already established that the participatory consciousness can help people perceive Nature in a less estranged manner and provide access to the nourishing forces of the natural world. Next, the continued tendency towards the marginalization of environmental education was briefly discussed. and a variety of opinions on the subject were considered. It was suggested that. in light of the ecological crisis, environmental education should be receiving more emphasis in the public education system today. Three key elements were identified as being significant cornponents of ecological programs seeking to foster a participatory consciousness. They are: direct outdoor sençory experiences in Nature, the revivai of naturalist studies, and experiential instruction regarding the specific places where students live. It will be suggested later on that aesthetic experiences, including the potenaal for developing the participatory consciousness in art education programs, offer one of many possible methods to foster these elements. For now. let us turn to a discussion of the participatory consciousness and it relationship to learning and knowledge.

Justifylng the Participatory Consciousness- Leamhg and Knowledge This =don seeks to demonstrate that the participatory consciousness

can serve as a valid and effective means of acquiring knowledge. It must be noted thât, due to the wealth and complexity of information regarding both epistemology and learning theory. no attempt will be made to cover these areas in full, but rather th13discussion will focus on a few signifiant points relevant to this context. In previous chapters, it has been suggested that the Cartesian epistemological model, which describes knowledge acquisition in terrns of distancing oneself from the 'object" of perception, has contributed to hiiman estrangment from Nature. It was also noted that recent scientific discoveries have thrown this model into question. Science is now demonstrating that the

boundaries between perceiver and perceiver, knower and known, human and Nature are less distinct. more permeable, than the Cartesian model led us to believe (Berman 148-149). Due to the limitations of the latter, several theorists are now advocating that Western society eccept the participatory consciousness

as an equally valid epistemological method (Abram, Berman. Merchant). These writers do not entirely reject the Cartesian mode. Rather, they assert the Cartesian perspective should not be used to th8 exclusion of other modes of acquiring knowledge. especially since it appears to exacerbate the problem of human alienation from the natural world. Merchant, for example. rewrnmends that Western society remembrace the participatory modes of obtaining knowledge prevalent in oral cultures. She calls this process 'restoration," describing it as involving 'a participatory form of consciousness rooted in ecdogyn ('Restoration and Reunion with Naturew).Similarly. Berman envisions

a 'post-Cartesian mode of thinking," and he contends that:

a systemic or ecological approach to nature would have as its premiss the indusion of the knower in the known. It would entail an official rejection of the present nonparticipating ideology, and an acceptance of the notion that we investigate not a collection of

discrete entities confronting our minds . . . but the relationship between what has up to now been called 'subject' and 'abject.' (149)15

Gaining knowledge by means of the participatory consciousness would involve sympathetic reciprocity and and exploration of the relationship between perceiver and perceived. It might also include learning about something in Nature by identifying with it, as suggested in Chapter Three. An example of this would be when a person might imagine what it is like to be a tree, unable to move. rooted in the earth. feeling a bird descend on one of its branches. Learning via the participatory consciousness would also contain an emphasis on understanding the many relationships existent in the intersubjective lifeworld and a focus on sensory experiential activities as a primary source of information, rather than conventional. Cartesian methods which emphasize knowledge abstracted tom the physical world. Again, it must be stated that this thesis does not advocate a rejection of Cartesian methods, but rather submits that the participatory consciousness is also a valid means of acquiring knowledge. Accepting the notion mat the participatory consciousness can contain epistemological validity eqlial to the Cartesian mode1 would hopefully be one step towards solving the estrangernent problem. by helping us to acquire more

depth of understanding about our relationship to the natural uvorld. However, it might be difficult for many people to give credence to such an idea. due to the 15 Althwgh this passage seems to indicate a total reiectbn of #e Cartesian rmdel. fuiMer reading will reveal that such $ not the case.

86

entrenchment of the Cartesian model. Again, I would propose that aesthetic experiences offered by arts education programs c m provide a unique and nonthreatening way to foster the perhaps unfamiliar participatory consciousness, thus accessing a type of knowledge not easily obtainable by other educational disciplines. In Chapter Four it was established that employing aesthetic experiences to facilitate a participatory consciousness might accrue the additional benefit of acce&ng analogue knowledge, or the non-verbal information frequently derived from the immediate sensory experience of the life-world. It was noted that the ability of the aesthetic response to function as a bridge between sensory experiences and the organizing intellect may play a major role in

accessing analogue knowledge. Furthermore, it was suggested that our culture, w hich tends to overemphasize digital knowledge, couId benefit from a revival of the analogue. and. ideally, the two modes of knowing would be used in a complementary manner.

Digital knowledge has limits, especially with respect to Nature. that are not always immediately recognized, and severai writers attempt to elucidate this point. For example, Bateson discusses the limits of digital knowledge when he refers to Korzybski's principle. 'The map is not the territory and the name is not the thing named" (30). In other words, there is a discrepancy between the linguistic name (digital) for something and the thing itself (Dina an sich). Similarly, Griffin asçerts, 'Behind naming, beneath words. is something else. An existence named unnamed and unnameablen(Women and Nature 190).

Digital knowledge is limited in that it can only point to the thing named; it cannot give a person the direct experience of the numerous sençory impressions derived from perceiving the thing itself, whether it be the sounds and smells

associated with a rushing river, or the sensation of a pileated woodpecker as il

Aies just overhead, for example. Hence, digital knowledge. although certainly posçessingvalue in its own right, is not a way to fully know something in the natural world; it is inwmplete without its complementary partner, the analogue. In addition. some argue that our culture's over-emphasis on the digital can cause the non-verbal. analogue information to becorne obscured (Cohen. Reconnectina With Nature 32). Unfonunately, so many of our educational methods and programs emphasize digital knowledge, often to the near exclusion of the analogue. Hence. recognizing the limits of digital knowledge offers one reason to encourage educators ta access analogue information via the participatory consciousness facilitated by aesthetic experiences. Another possible benefit arising frorn re-embracing analogue knowledge is that it might help alleviate the problem of human estrangement from Nature. where, by contrast, digital knowledge, in its emphasis on the verbal/ rational realm, tends to foster separation from the natural world. Cohen asserts that our culture's emphasis on language and reason 'disconnects us from nature," thus

cutting us off from a wealth of information that could be acquired by "nonlanguage, sensory ways of knowing" (Reconnecting With Naturg 32-42). He gives an example of one activity designed to acquaint people with these analogue methods of learning, which involves "knowing" each member of a group of similar rocks or sticks through the sense of touch (51). However. due

to the experiential nature of the advity. its benefits are difficult to fully camprehend unless one has completed the exercise. In a similar manner, Abram describes certain unique and intense perceptual experiences he had w hile observing other species in lndonesia that revealed 'the intelligence that

lurks in nonhuman naturenand connected him to a nonverbal type of

knob~!edge,'a wisdom older than rny thinking mindnand a 'logos, deeper than words" (1û-21). It has been suggested that connecting to Nature through the participatory consciousness might help people access Nature's intelligence, hopefully resulting in mental processes which are less estranged and less distorted. Accessing analogue knowledge by employing the aesthetic sensibility to develop the participatory consciousness might not only connect the percipient to Nature's intellectual sustenance. but also further help to reduce human estrangement from Nature. By virtue of its association with nondiscursive, affective ways of knowing. the analogue is offen the perfect medium by which to study the natural world. Nature does not speak in human language,

after all, and one cannot underestimate the value of accessing this type of information, especially through the artistic disciplines. Much c m be learned from very simple activities. such as drawing an insect or plant, for example. Therefore, a greater emphasis on non-verbal, iconic knowledge might offer anothei missing piece to the puzzle of the estrangement problem. Berman, for one, believes that the integration of analogue knowledge into Western epistemology will be an important step towards addressing the problems generated by our culture's estrangsd woiidview (297).

This section has outlined several reaçons, specifically with respect to knowledge acquisition, substanüating the validity of developing the participatory consdousness in an educational setting. In general. it cwld function as a counterbalance to the predominant Cartesian model by emphasizing sensory experiential activities and sympathetic reciprocity. More specifically, if aesthetic experiences were used to foster the participatory consciousness. the additional benefit of accessing analogue knowledge might be obtained. Two advantages for developing analogue knowledge were suggested. First, it might serve as a

complimentary partner to digital knowledge, providing information otherwise inaccessible to the digital. Second, analogue ways of knowing can potentially connect a person to Nature's inteiiigence, which should result in the development of a closer relationship to the natural world. Justification for fostering the participatory consciousness has been now been provided, both with respect to the ecological crisis and knowledge acquisition. It is worth noting that. in reference to both topics, outdoor sensory experience has been identified as an important factor in the process. This paper has cc~ntinuallysuggested that aesthetic experiences offered by arts education programs have the potential to offer a unique way to facilitate the participatory consciousness. and thus help people develop a closer relationship to Nature. One might ask, then, how exactly would this idea be implemented in the educational system?

Connecting to Nature Through an Aesthetic, Participatory

Consciousness

&fore discussing irnplernentation, il probably wise to briefly review. and in some cases expand, certain previously established ideas regarding the ernployment of aesthetic experiences to foster the participatory consciousness. To begin with. three factors have been identifled as being significant to how the

aesthetic sensibility might lend itself to the participatory consciousness. The first of these is the common ground of sensuous perception, and the value of this characteristic should not be underestimated. Remembering that sensory awareness tends to be a neglected area for many people in Western society, activities that develop Mis capacity would be crucial to the successful fostering

of the participatory consciousness. Moreover, where else in the curriculum, save the possible exception of physical education, are the sensory faculties developed. other than in fine arts education programs? The ability to access

the non-verbal. preconceptual experiences of the life-world (analogue knowledge) and the potei*.ial to reduce the subjectl object barriers between perceiver and perceived are the second and third ways that aesthetic experiences can promote the participatory cunsciousness. It has also been noted that the latter of these might help to address the problem of human estrangernent from Nature. In addition to the three primary ways that aesthetic experiences can foster the participatory consclousness, two benefits for such an endeavour have been identified. The first beneflt concerns the capacity to access analogue knowledge, and since it has just been discussed in the previous section, it needs no further treatment hem, except perhaps to reiterate the idea that arts education programs may be the only place (except possibly creative writing) in the today's curriculum offering the opportunity to explore analogue knowledge. The value of analogue knowledge, as previously suggested, gives all the more reason for arts education programs to receive çtrong support from teachers,

administrators and government.

The second previously established benefit derived t o m fostering the participatory consciousness through aesthetic experiences concerns disinterestedness. the non-utilitarian characteristic of the aesaietic response, and this topic deserves some discussion in regard to education. Some theorists urge educators to recognize the value of disinterestedness, especially with respect to the ecological crisis. Richmond, for example, states The aesthetic nature of art subverts instrurnentalism and competitiveness. To view things aesthetically is to appreciate their 91

inherent qua1ities and this involves a necessary diminishment of pragmatic motives and desires . . . Aesthetic appreciation leaves everyihing as it is. (87) The aesthetic sensibility fostered by the artistic disciplines can help students

recognize the intiinsic w!ue of Nature, something that may be difficult for science programs to accomplish, since the latter often focus on utilking the natural world for human purposes. Smith also emphasizes the value of disinterestedness, in reference to resource depletion: 'The reason for underscoring the noneconornic nature of aesthetic experience is to suggest its irnport foc life aboard spaceship earth . . . that nonconsumptive, nonpollutive human activities will be highly desirable and worthy of cultivationn(8). Thus, I would submit that the attribute of disinterestedness has the potential to enhance the bonds to Nature fostered by the participatory consciousness, and that this would occur by helping students appreciate the intrinsic, non-instrumental values of the natural world. Now, let us turn to a brief discussion on the topic of implementation. To begin with. it might be helpful to note that the intention here would be to develop the participatory consciousness as a strand within existing art education programs, rather than create new instructional frameworks. In addition, at least

two of the ecological elements identifid in the first section of the chapter would be crucial to fostering the participatory consciousness in the artistic disciplines. That is, the aesthetic experiences would obviously need to involve sensory experiences in Nature and, less obviously, they would include studying the specific places students inhabit. Regarding the latter, some art educators. such as Douglas Blandy and Elizabeth Hoffman emphasize the significance of place with respect to the ecological crisis. Although they do not discuss any notion of

a participztory consciousness. Blandy and Hoffrnan do advocate that teachers adopt an 'art education of place," where. through aesthetic experiences, students would attain a deeper understanding about the natural communities in which they live (23-28). it is rny belief that learning about the places we inhabit would occur simultaneously with the development of the participatory consciousness. I would now like to discuss irnplementation by highlighüng four items deserving consideration. First, one must be aware of a potential obstade already mentioned in this paper, that aesthetic experiences and the aesthetic sensibility are often undervalued by the general public. Teachers atternpting to develop the participatory consciousness through the aesthetic sensibility should be able to justify their programs. with respect to both the aesthetic experience itself and the participatory consciwsness. Hopefully. this thesis has provided some valid arguments for the latter. Second. it is important to remember that the aesthetic response. although partly innate, requires further development through education in order to reach its full potential. This takes time, something which always seems to be in short supply in public sdiools. Perhaps educators would be willing to devote more

time to the artistic disciplines if they realized the contribution aesthetic experiences c m make to human understanding of the world in general,l6 and the potential for accessing analogue knowledge more specifically. Art

experiences offer pupils another way of gaining knowledge. or as Richmond suggests. 'artniaking becornes a unique aesthetic way of knowingn (85). Employing aesthetic experiences to foster the participatory consciousness will take time. but it is my belief that the value such an endeavour is immeasurable. ~6MostEspeaalist'teachers IncremndaryatpshouIdbeawareoftMs,butnotnecessarpy wtio teach ail abject areas and rnay not have rnuch training in fine arts.

elemmtary te-,

93

because it can deepen students' understanding of the cornplex biological world

and strengthen their connections to Nature. Another point to consider is how to design aesthetic experiences in Nature without sacrificing artistic integrity. Of concern to many art educators would be the question of whether or not this idea can be put into ptactice without the erosion of the skills. knowledge and techniques unique to the artistic disciplines. I submit it is possible to design aesthetic experiences facilitating the participatory consciousness. that would also teach a specific artistic concept. Careful teacher preparation would be the key to succes, however. For example. a lesson in visual arts might focus on the concept of textures and be explored through activities involving bark and leaf rubbings from a variety of trees and shrubs. At the same time, the teacher could encourage students to focus on their sensory experience and feelings while outside. Reflections on the activity could later be recorded in a journal or shared orally. Hence, with sufficient planning, the participatory consdousness can be developed without undermining aesthetic integrity.

This brings us to the fouNi and last item. concerning the ability of the artistic disciplines to foçter crftical reflection and function as meaning-making

activities. Properly dedgned arts education lesson c m develop the capacity for thoughtful contemplation. This is probably due to the unique capability of the aesthetic sensibility to function as a bridge between the raw sensations of the perceiving body and the rational intellect. By virtue of this capacity, students could be guided to reffect back on the sensuous experience of the participatory

consciousness. and thus further their understandingsabout Nature and the human role within the larger Mdogical community. It has already b e n suggested that the participatory consciousness can help people develop a

closer relationship to Nature. If students were encouraged to critically reflect on their aesthetic experienœs in the naturd world. their apprehension of the latter could only be enhanœd. This section has focussed on certain key concepts integral to implementing the ldea of employing aesthetic experiences to facilitate the participatory consciousness. First, the manner in which the aesthetic sensibility might foster the participatory consciousness was reviewed, where it was noted that its characteristic of developing sensory perception is especially signifiant to education. Next. the benefits of accessing analogue knowledge and nonutilitaiianisrn were reconsidered. lmplernentation was then discussed, and it

was recommended that instruction focusîing on the particular places inhabited by students might take place in ccnjunction with the development of the

participatory consciousness. Four other items were considered: the possible undervaluing of aesthetic experiences, the need to develop the aesthetic sensibility through education, designing aesthetic experiences in Nature without sacrificing artistic integrity, and the role of critical reflection in contributing to students' understanding of their experiences.

Practlcal Applicstion in Two Arts Disciplines This section will briefly explore how aesthetic experiences in the fine arts subjects cm be designed to foster the participatory consciousness. Although the latter could be developed in several arts disciplines. this discussion will be limited to the areas of visual arts and dance. Even though the visual arts emphasize primarily the sense of sight,

properly designed ait lessons, during which pupils are taken outside into a

natural setting. can lend themselves well to facilitating the multi-sensory participatory consciousness. Drawing and painting are highly effective strategies for developing students' observational skills, and a simple activity.

such as drawing a leaf. tree. or insect, requires a person to really see and corne to know that thing. Often, it is only when we are asked to draw something that we begin to truly see it for the first %me. Through the experience of heightened visual senses, the student rnay develop empathy for what he/ she is perceiving, and thus the potential for reciprocity in the participatory consciousness can occur. Susie Criswell. an instructor at the Yosemite Institute, cornments on the ability of art experiences to not only sharpen students' visual senses, but also to help them develop a doser relationship to Nature. In reference to an activity where chiidren were asked to draw a tree, she states, "The trees becarne special to each child, largely because they twk the time to really seem them." She continues, 'Young people who barn to appredate the pattern of a snowflake. the texture of a tree'sbark or the colors of dawn may cany into

adulthood a sense of discovery and a bond with naturen(29). It is evident frorn this passage that visual art experiences in Nature. by developing the sensory

faculües and encouraging sympathetic engagement, have the potenZia1 to facilitate the participatory consciousness. thus strengthening students' relationships to the natural world as well. While it is Vue that the visual arts mainly develop the sense of sight, it should be recognized that other senses would aiso be stimulated during outdoor art experiences. Children could be encouraged to aware of other

sensory impressions, sudi as the breeze Mowing and the various smells. during visual art adivities. One effective way to dev8lop awareness with

respect to these other senses would be by using journals, where students could

be encouraged to reffect on the activity. Teachets could ask stridents to write

about such things as non-visual sensory impressions and feelings that rnay have b e n elicited during the art e~perience. Many ideas and strategies in the area of outdoor visual arts already exist,

which [end thernselves well to the development of the participatory

The fine arts activltles in Project Learning Tree and Proiect c~ns~ousness. Wild, for example. are two good sources. As mentioned previously. with careful

teacher preparation. lessons can be designed to also maintain artistic integrity.

Dance studies can be espeually condudve to the development of the participatory consciousness. since they engage the whole body and several çensory faculties at once. The point was made in Chapter Four that an expressive and articulate body is needed in order for one to experience the participatory consciousness, since the body is the vehicle through which

sensuous perception and reciprocity occurs. Hence, in a society that tends to distrust or discredit sençory perception. rnovernent experiences that increase overall body awareness might prove very useful in fostering this perceptual

mode. Although relatively uncornmon. some arîists and feachers have taught dance in an outdoor natural setting, usuaily to adults or university students. For example. professor Diane Carriere is a strong advocate of employing dance experiences in Nature as part of her university program. Carriere observes that studenls' sensory perception is greatly enhanced: ' . . . students must refine their tactekinesthetic senses and develop keen spatial awareness to project movement with ease, clarity, nuance and conviction. Nature provides ample opportunities to sharpen al1 perceptions' (30). Dance enperiences can also help students develop a doser relationship to the natural world, by 'using

nature as a living partner," according to Carriere (29). One example of the latter would be an improvisational exer6se involving a tree as a dance partner. Carriere explains, 'The point is not to imitate the tree but to ernpathize with its life impulse" (30). From these descriptions it is evident that properly designed

dance experiences have the potential to facilitate the participatory consciousness, both in their capadty to enhance sensuous perception and their ability to foster sympathetic redprodty, such as in the tree partnering ewercise.

Taking this idea one step further, Carriere suggests that movement experiences

in Nature can give one a sense of belonging to the larger community of life. She States, "Working with direct sunlight, tree fittered air. earth fragrances and various textures awakes a sense of belonging to a cornplex and fragile eco-

system" (31). Although designed for university students. some of Carriere's strategies could be modified for use with younger age groups. Halpirn works extensively with movement in Nature, and her activities developing sensory awareness can provide another rnethod for fostering the participatory consciousness. For example, one of Halpirn's workshop participants. after completing various movement activities in an outdoor setting.

comrnents, 'When I explored in the natuial environment through touch, sight, smell, taste, sound and movement, a connedon occurred between me and the world . . . Iwas opened up emotionally by the sheer beauty of nature . . . " (218). This passage suggests that dance experiences in Nature can enhance the

sensory awareness and foster the sympathetic redprocity characteristic of the participatory consdousness. This artist also believes that 'the human body is a

microcosm of the earth"and that aie human body a n 'mirror" the earth's body. 'Our bodies are cornposed of the same elements as the earth. For exampie: we are 70% salt water; the earth is 70% salt weter .. . " explains Halpirn (214).

Therefore, Halpirn believes that outdoor dance explorations, which emphasize sensory perception and an awareness of the human body as a whole. can lead

to a greater, more holistic understanding of the earai. Hence, the human body is often treated as a metaphor for the earth in Halpirn's work. She asserts there

are many ways that 'the human body reflects the body of naturewand that in her work she seeks 'to understand the natural world as a reflection of my human experience" (215-216). Another feasible way to facilitate the partidpatory consdousness with movement ewperiences might be through the use of imitation, or identification. As already indicated, it is possible to acquire knowledge about something through imitation or identification. Young children enjoy this type of activity. They could imitate the mwements of animals. birds, or trees, for instance, and students can barn a great deal from these experiences. While this activity is familiar to elementary teachers, it would have to indude the elements of heightened sensory perception and sympathetic reciprodty, if used speciflcally to foster the participatory consciousness. These experiential activities can also help diildren bond to the natural world, as Berry suggests (2-4). Many other ideas could be discussed regarding the use of visual arts or

dance to facilitate the participatory consciousness. The foregoing observations

have dernonstrated a few of the many possible ways that teachers can prepare aesthetic experiences in arts education progrms in order to foster this perceptual mode. one which can help students develop a doser relationship to

Nature. With careful planning. the integrity of the particular arts dimgplinec m be preserved by insuring that a specific artistic skill, concept or technique is

taught in each lesson. In addition, I would recommend the use of reflective journals when doing this type of activity with students. Reflecting on the

experience by writing in a journal cen help students build that important aesthetic bridge between the experience itself, deaiing primarily with nonverbal sensations. and the verbal/ rational intellect. which strives to conceptualize and "make sense" of the former. Thus. using journals would help solidify the various meanings and understandings gleaned from the aesthetic experience.

Possible Problems in Implementation

Several potential difficulties may confront a teacher attempting to develop the participatory consdousness through aesthetic experiences. and these deserve brief mention h m . The first two have been previously dlscussed. To begin with. it is probably wise to repeat that fostering the

participatory consciousness may take considerable instructional time. Secondly. the current situation where both fine arts and environmental

education tend to be rnarginalized in the curriculum rnay present an additional obstacle. Large dass sizes is another consideration, since it is difficult to

manage a class of thirty kids, for instance. during an outdoor experience. ideaiiy. Uie teacher would be able to work with srnaIl numbers of students, such

as ten to twelve. Alternately, the dass could be divided into smaller groups and parent helpers employed during such activities. Fourth, students may express initial reluctance when confronted with such a new or unfamiliar experience. and the teacher needs to be prepared to 'work through" this stage. Obtaining

adequate support from parents and administrators is another challenge, which can be alleviated by outlining clear objectives and goals for these activities.

Finally, it should be recognized that evaluation cwld be difficult when employing aesthetic experiences to foster the participatory consciousness.

Certainly, students can be evaluated regarding the specific fine arts skill or concept taught, but results regarding the experiential partidpatory consciousness will be less tangible. Concerning the latter. journals will provide one possible tool for evaluation.

Despite the potential problems regarding implementation, it is my belief that facilitating the participatory consdousness is well worth the trouble.

Ernploying aesthetic experiences to foster e perceptual mode that c m help children and adults develop a greater understanding of. and doser relationship to, Nature is a worthwhile endeavour. especially in view of the current ecological crisis. In addition, participants will gain imrneasurable pleasure and satisfaction from the sensuous aesthetic experience itself, and frorn the time spent in outdoors in a natural settlng, erposed to Nature's nourishing influences. This Chapter has provided discourse about the use of aesthetic

experiences to foster the participatory consciousness in an educational setting. First, justification was given, both with respect to the ecological crisis and epistemology. Regarding the former, it was reiterated that the participatory consciousness c m help people perceive Nature with less estrangernent and provide access to the nurturing forces of the natural world. In addition, three key

elements were identified as signifiant factors in ecological programs seeking to foster the participatory consdcioumess. They are: direct outdoor sensory experiences in Nature. the revival of naturalist studies. and experienüal instruction concerning the specific places where students live. With respect to epistemological justlfication. it was observed that the partidpatory consdousness might function as a counterbalance to the predominant

Cartesian modet for knowledge acquisition. In addition. it was suggested that, if

aesthetic experiences were used to facilitate this perceptual mode. the additional benefit of accessing analogue knowledge might be obtained. Ne~t, the manner in which the aesthetic sensibility might foster the participatory consciousness

was discussed in terms of certain relevant concepts, such as the

sensuous and non-utilitarian nature of this perceptual mode. Then. the pragmatic question of how to develop the participatory consciousness in the fine arts disciplines was addresçed. referring sped*ficallyto the visual arts and

dance. Finally. several potential problems in implementation were cunsidered. Despite any possible obstacles. it was concluded that fostering the participatory consdousness would be a worthy venture. Many benefits can be derived from such an experience, including the potential for strengthening the bonds

between human beings and Nature, the ability to access Nature's nurturing forces. and the intrinsic satisfaction derived from this unique perceptual mode.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION This investigation has explored the notion that the participatory

consciousness might be developed in an educational setting in order to

address the problem of human estrangement from Nature. It has been suggested that human alienaUon from the natural world is a key factor in the

current ecological crisis. Our Cartesian worldview contributes to this estrangement, because it tends to construct human beings as separate, or disconnected, from the surrounding environment. By contrast. the participatory consciousness is a sympathetic and reciprocal perceptual mode, where an ongolng sensuous interchange occurs between perceiver and perceived. However, it was observed that, since Western society tends to distrust or discredt sensory input. people in this sodety might have difficulty entering into

the partidpatory consciousness. Regarding the latter, it was subrnitted that aesthetic experiences, which emphasize sensory perception and have the ability to access the preconceptual life-world. possess a strong potential for

facilitating the partidpatory perspective. It was noted that the aesthetic sensibility. although an innate capacity, requires further development through

some fom of education. Hence. the participatory consciousness, elicited by an aesthetic perceptual mode, couM be fostered as a strand in existing arts education programs. In addition to the benefits accrued by the participatory cansciousness itself, ernploying aesthetic experiences to access the former

would have further advantages. First, these experiences would be free from

otilitarian concerns, where the inMnsic value of the aeivity would be foremost,

and second. they comrnunicate in the realm of analogue knowledge. Finally, justification was presented for fostering the partidpatory consciousness in an educational setting, both wMh respect to the ecological crisis and epistemology. It was proposed that this perceptual mode can funetion as a balancing mechanism in relation to the predominant Cartesian worldview, it can help people obtain nourishment from Nature, and it can strengthen the bonds, or relationship. between humanity and the biologlcal wrnmunity. The practical aspect of developing the partidpatory conscioumess in arts education

programs was discussed wlth respect to the subject areas of visual art and dance. It was conduded that, despite any challenges to implementation,

fostering the partidpatory consdousness would be a satisfying and worthwhile pursuit for educators and students alike. Moreover. as suggested in the preceding chapters. I believe the participatory consdousness is of partiailar importance at this time in history. The ecological crias necessitates a change in worldview towards Nature, in my

opinion. Changing Our perspective towards the natural world should help humanity corne &a& into 'right relationship" with the rest of the biotic

cornmunity, relinquishingthe role of exploiter in favour of "plain member." A greater understanding of the human role within the natural world. recognizing that our spedes is ultimately dependent upon the health of its life support systems, would probably tend to decrease the degree of human destructiveness towards Nature. The participatory consdousness, in its experiential focus on sensuous perception, is one of many possible ways to accomplish this. to help humanity 'return to its senses." Employing the aesthetic sençibility to foster the participatory consdousness might be especially effective in helping us

appreciate the intrinsic, non-economic and non-utilitarian value of Nature. where its incredlble beauty and diversity of sensations c m provide vital

sustenance for the human spirit.

APPENDIX A ElGHT PRINCIPLES OF THE DEEP ECOLOGY PLATFORM 1. The well-Ming and flourishing of human and nonhuman life have value in themselves (synonyms: intrinsic value, inherent worth). These values are independent of the usefulness of the nonhuman world for human purposes.

2. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of these values and are also values in themselves. 3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisîy vital needs. 4. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantially small human population. The flourishing of nonhuman life requires a smaller

human population. 5. Present human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive, and the situation is rapidly worsening. 6. Policies must therefore be changed. These pdicies affect basic economic, technological. and ideological structures. The reçuking state of affairs wiil be deeply different from the present. 7. The ideological change will be mainly that of appreciating life quality (dwelling in situations of inherent value) rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a profound awareness of the difference between bigness end greatness.

8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or indirectly to try to implement the necemry changes. (Devall and Sessions)

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