economic and technical feasibility of increased manufacture and use of fertilizers agricultural ...
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144, 000 tons N, 290, 000 tons P2 0 5 and 196, 000 tons K20 needed by that date. Considering ......
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ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY OF INCREASED MANUFACTURE AND USE OF FERTILIZERS AGRICULTURAL LIMESTONE LIVESTOCK MINERALS BRAZIL
SIN
MANHATTAN,
'N
KANSAS
SSEARCH,
NC
P.O. BOX 727, MANHATTAN, KANSAS 66503
ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY OF INCREASED
MANUFACTURE AND USE OF FERTILIZERS,
AGRICULTURAL
LIMESTONE AND LIVESTOCK MINERALS IN BRAZIL
A Report to
The Ministry of Agriculture Government of Brazil and Office of Agriculture and Rural Development USAID/Brazil
Contract la-152
1964
Subsidiary of Dunlap and Associates, Inc., Darien, Connecticut
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGMENTS INTRODUCTION
xx 1
Objectives
2
Procedures Population- Food- Production
4
9
PRESENT AGRICULTURAL SITUATION
15
Exports -Imports
16
Farm Organization and Operation
21
Agricultural Production Why Most Brazilian Farmers Do Not Use Fertilizer Crops Livestock
22
26
30
46
DEMAND REQUIREMENTS FOR FERTILIZERS Requirements Based on Trends in Apparent
Consumption of Fertilizers Requirements Based on Rate of Increase in
Fertilizer Consumption in the United States,
1942-1962 Requirements Based on Plant Nutrients Extracted
53
54
59
by Crops Requirements Based on Recommended Fertilizer
Programs
65
The Use of Fertilizer to Reach Production Goals Fertilizer Demand for Use on Pastures
74
77
NITROGEN Summary Brazilian Nitrogen Consumption Present Brazilian Plans for Basic Nitrogen Production Direct Application Nitrogen in Brazil The Anhydrous Ammonia Station The Aqua Ammonia Station
71
79
79
81
100
104
125
138
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) PHOSPHATE Northeast Region Central Region Southern Region Imports POTASH Potash
Minor Elements TRANSPORTATION AND DISTRIBUTION
147 147
15Z
155
164
168 168 170
173
Transportation
173
Distribution
193
FERTILIZER-CROP YIELD RESPONSE
Z08
Phosphates in Soil Fertility Nitrogen in Soil Fertility Potash in Soil Fertility Sulphur in Soil Fertility Micronutrients in Soil Fertility Literature Citations
21z
234
243
252
255
Z61
ECONOMIC FACTORS INFLUENCING FERTILIZER USE
270
AGRICULTURAL LIMESTONE
Z8Z
Types of Liming Materials Application of Lime Limestone Demand Requirements and Resources Available
Rock Crushing Equipment Required Stationary Plant Portable Plant
Response of Crops to Ground Limestone
288
289
296 299
300
306 316
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 324
LIVESTOCK MINERALS
324
326
338
355
358
358
Feeding Requirements Salt Calcium and Phosphorous Trace Minerals Livestock Mineral Feeders Economic Value of Livestock Minerals IMPACT OF EXPANDED MANUFACTURE OF AGRICULTURAL MINERALS
AND USE
Value of Gains Summary RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A PROGRAM FOR THE
INCREASED MANUFACTURE AND USE OF
AGRICULTURAL MINERALS IN BRAZIL Development of Basic Materials Sources Improvement and Expansion of Processing and
Distribution Facilities Research, Education, Agricultural Extension Market Development and Promotion Credit Conclusion
366
367
374
377
378
381
388
400
401 409
APPENDIX A - INFORMATION ON PLANNED PROJECTS FOR EXPANSION OF FERTILIZER MANUFACTURE IN BRAZIL
A-1
APPENDIX B - DATA RELATING TO AREA OF CROPS CULTIVATED, YIELD OF CROPS PER HECTARE, VOLUME OF CROP PRODUCTION AND LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY NUMBERS
B-1
APPENDIX C - COST OF RAILROAD CARS, COST AND FLOW DIAGRAM FOR FERTILIZER GRANULATION PLANT
C-l
APPENDIX D - GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF LIMESTONE IN BRAZIL
D-1
SUMMARY The development of a sound and profitable agriculture in Brazil requires adequate attention to the providing of mineral nutrients for crops and livestock,
Soils in Brazil are generally acid and plant
nutrients have been lost by leaching and depleted by crop removal to the point that yields have been depressed and the feeding value of crops and forages reduced. To maintain present levels of domestic consumption and exports of agricultural products, by 1970 Brazil must increase its volume of food production by 23 percent.
Improvement in quality of diets is
badly needed and increased exports are necessary to finance economic development of the country. agricultural production.
These goals all require increases in
Although Brazil has vast areas of virgin land,
soils in such areas are generally unproductive and require fertilizer and lime for profitable cultivation. Over 50 percent of the Brazilian labor force is employed in agri culture and agriculture accounts for over 28 percent of the gross national income.
Agricultural products account for over four-fifths
of the total value of exports and account for about one-sixth of the total imports.
i
The increased agricultural production required by Brazil's expanding population and export trade can be met in two general ways increased land in agriculture or increased productivity on existing lands. This report is concerned primarily with the second of these alternatives, and more specifically with the possibility of increasing production through increased manufacture and use of agricultural minerals. Among the nations of the world, Brazil ranks in the lower third in relation to fertilizer used per cropped hectare, using only 8. 5 kilograms per hectare compared to 30.9 kilos for the United States, and a high of 450 kilos for The Netherlands and New Zealand.
More
than 95 percent of Brazilian farmers do not use commercial fertilizer. Enough fertilizer is used to adequately fertilize only eight percent of Brazil's cultivated lands and virtually no fertilizer is applied to the vast pasture Freas of the nation.
However, during the past decade
fertilizer consumption in Brazil has increased rapidly, particularly in the intensive areas of cultivation found in Sao Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul plus other areas of concentrated, specialized production.
Only
limited quantities of lime are used despite the acidity of most of the soils in Brazil.
ii
Demand Requirements for Fertilizers Basic fertilizer requirements for Brazilian crops, for the present and future, can be calculated under a number of different assumptions. Two realistic assumptions used in projecting fertilizer demands were (1) the trend in fertilizer consumption in Brazil would follow the trend in apparent consumption existing in Brazil 1950-1963, and (2) fertilizer requirements in Brazil would expand at a rate equal to the rate of fertilizer increase in the United States 1942-1962. Based on assumption (1) continuation of existing trends in apparent Brazilian consumption, by 1970 Brazil would require 91,000 tons of nitrogen (N),
191,000 tons of phosphate (PZ0 5 ), and 124, 000 tons of
potash (K 2 O) as compared to 65, 000 tons N, 138, 000 tons P2O5 and 89,000 tons KZO used in 1963.
Similar projections to 1983 indicate
144, 000 tons N, 290, 000 tons P 2 0
5
and 196, 000 tons K20 needed by
that date. Considering assumption (2) rates of increase in fertilizer use similar to those in the United States 1942-1962, by 1970 Brazil would require 140,000 tons of N, 200,000 tons of P 2 0
5
and 160,000 tons KZO.
By 1983 these requirements would be 600,000 tons N, 400,000 tons Pz0
5
and 450,000 tons KZO.
iii
Considering these two assumptions, number (1) should be considered as a minimum projection and number (2) should be regarded as a practicable and desirable goal for Brazil.
Fertilizer
requirements based on plant nutrients extracted by crops grown and based on recommended fertilizer programs for major crops were calculated.
Although the requirements resulting were too large for
practical attainment within the reasonable future, they serve to illustrate the potential magnitude of fertilizer requirements for Brazil. Nitrogen
Brazil should be able to become self-sufficient in nitrogen produc tion and should promote the use of direct application of anhydrous or aqua ammonia, the cheapest form of nitrogen for Brazil. In 1963 the apparent consumption of nitrogen as fertilizer in Brazil was 65,400 tons of which 52,000 tons, or 79 percent, was imported at a cost of nearly $12 million, equivalent to about 60 percent of the cost of installations required to make Brazil self-sufficient in nitrogen. Self-sufficiency, at 1963 levels of nitrogen usage, can be achieved by: 1.
Remodeling the Petrobras Cubatao installation to achieve its full capacity of 25, 000 tons per year of ammonia.
2.
Building a new 200 ton-per-day ammonia plant (70,000 TPY) at Capuava to operate on raw material from the Petrobras iv
refinery, or construction of 200 TPD anrmonia-urea plant in Bahia to take advantage of locally-available natural gas. The cost of either of these alternatives would be $16 million to $20 million depending on the type of final products required. In the longer-run, by 1970, both plants should be contructed. Production of ammonium sulfate from local steel plants should also be encouraged.
To make a start in the use of anhydrous or aqua ammonia, it is recommended that five direct application ammonia stations, with storage tanks, nurse tanks and applicators, be built in the State of Sao Paulo to operate on ammonia from Cubatao or on ammonia imported through the facilities of Ultragaz.
The cost of these five stations would
be approximately $275,000. Phosphate Brazil will become much less dependent on imported phosphate through the development of some of the fertilizer industry's plans for the manufacture of soluble P 2 0 5 . Feasible plans, already in existence, indicate that Brazil can become self-sufficient in phosphate production by 1970. Fortunately, large and suitable reserves of phosphate are wellto located in the north, central and southern parts of the country so as v
provide adequate coverage for existing and planned agricultural areas. The regional location of phosphate production is of particular impor tance in view of the transportation difficulties which exist in Brazil. The major reserve of phosphate in the Northeast is that controlled by Fosforita Olinda near Recife.
Although a well-designed and main
tained processing plant with a capacity of at least ZOO, 000 tons per year is in operation, high freight costs and a limited local market have combined to keep plant output low.
Other smaller phosphate
plants in the Northeast add to the regional total production to the point that ample supplies of locally-available phosphate should be obtainable for this region. With the largest known deposit of phosphate in Brazil, and a feasible plan for the production of thermophosphate, CAMIG at Araxa in Minas Gerais should be able to supply the Central region of Brazil. Thermophosphate is well-suited to soil conditions in Brazil and CAMIG has a loan application pending with the Agency for International Development which would permit the beginning of contruction of the necessary plant.
The CAMIG thermophosphate plant should be approved
for construction.
At present CAMIG has a modern, well-maintained
and operated plant producing direct application rock phosphate.
There
is a report of phosphate deposits in Goias which could add to the supply vi
of the Central region and which would be strategically located in view of the path of agricultural land development in this region. Almost 90 percent of the fertilizer consumed in Brazil in 1963 was used in the four states Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul.
The principal deposit in this area is at
Jacupiranga where plans are now progressing for the construction of a plant to produce 100,000 tons per year of concentrate in the first year with rapid expansion to 300,000 tons.
The operation is
based on a new method of benefication of large, underlying deposits of low-grade ore, and the process appears feasible.
There are
reports of additional phosphate deposits in the Southe'n region which could add to production in this area. In spite of the general availability of phosphate in Brazil, a strong program of geological exploration should be continued to locate additional reserves for future needs. Potash and Minor Elements There are no known deposits of potassium minerals in Brazil and for the foreseeable future Brazil will be primarily dependent on imports of this mineral.
Research on the extraction of potassium from sea
water and from feldspar and carnallite should continue, but offer little hope at present for the production of potassium for fertilizer use. vii
Since the soils of Brazil are generally acid and badly leached, there probably exists minor element deficiencies in many areas.
It is
suggested that a general purpose minor element mix be used in formula fertilizers in Brazil. Transportation and Distribution The lack of an adequate and efficient transportation system has been a major factor retarding the development of the agricultural minerals industry in Brazil.
Coastal shipping rates and port charges
on agricultural minerals in Brazil have been so high that in early 1964 it was cheaper to transport phosphate rock from the United States or Africa to Santos than it was from Recife to Santos.
Port congestion
and high cargo handling charges, particularly at Santos, further aggravated this problem.
Lack of an adequate system of railroads or
highways further restricts interregional transportation of fertilizers in Brazil and emphasizes the desirability of developing regionally-oriented sources of supply. The consumption and distribution of fertilizers in Brazil varies greatly from region-to-region.
In general, distribution facilities are
reasonably adequate at present levels of demand.
However, in certain
areas, such as parts of the Northeast, fertilizer is not readily avail able and an expanded distribution system would be required. viii
Another
exception is the lack of distribution facilities for liquid nitrogen
products, as was discussed in the section dealing with nitrogen fertilizers.
Fertilizer-Crop Yield Response Fertilizers, used in combination with other good farm management
practices, offer the possibility for substantial yield increases for most crops in Brazil.
All available research relating to fertilization
experiments done in federal, state and private research institutes and in agricultural colleges in Brazil was reviewed and summarized. In general, it was found that a typical application of 75 kilograms of P205 (phosphate) per hectare resulted in yield increases of 15 to 30 percent on sugar cane, 20 percent on corn, 10 to 15 percent on coffee, 20 to 25 percent on cotton, 10 to 20 percent on rice and substantial increases in the production of potatoes and wheat.
However, to get
the most satisfactory results, phosphate must be applied together with other fertilizers, lime and in combination with other good management practices. The need for nitrogen in the production of crops in Brazil is second only to the need for phosphorous. response was reported for nitrogen.
An almost universal yield
This indicates that over wide
areas of Brazil and for many crops, the application of nitrogen ix
increases production.
On coffee, nitrogen increased yields approximately
10-40 percent with some increases being much greater.
Corn yields
rose about 25 percent from the application of 60 kilograms of N and cotton yields increased by a similar amount.
Yields of sugar cane
also increased about 20 percent from the application of approximately 75 kg. of N. Most Brazilian soils contain a supply of potash in a form available to crops.
However, when soils have been cropped for a long period,
and especially when conditions of management have resulted in heavy production, then potassium deficiency frequently becomes evident.
A
relatively large amount of research has been done in Brazil on the response of sugar cane to potash, and a typical application of 75 kg. of KzO per hectare has brought about yield increases of 20-25 percent.
A
limited amount of research on coffee, corn, cotton, grasses, potatoes and wheat has also shown a positive yield response to potash.
Sulfur is another mineral element that is deficient in many areas in Brazil.
Since natural deposits of sulfur do not apparently exist in Brazil,
it has not been readily available for use in fertilizer.
Fertilizer trials
with sulfur on grass and cotton showed yield gains from this element. Somewhat the same situation exists with micronutrients such as boron, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc.
Limited experimenta
tion has indicated positive yield responses from the addition of these x
microelements.
The use of dolomitic limestone, which contains
magnesium, available in many areas in Brazil, has shown superior response over calcitic limestone.
Economlc Factors Affecting Fertilizer Use
Economic levels at which farmers can apply fertilizers will depend on yield increases obtained, value per unit of product, and cost of the fertilizer element and application. In recent years in Brazil, the increase in crop prices has lagged behind the rate of increase in fertilizer prices.
However, in spite of
this unfavorable relationship, the use of fertilizer in Brazil appears to have been profitable. Net returns to farmers from the application of nitrogen to crops ranged from highly profitable returns to some which were negative. In every case where a relatively inexpensive source of N (ammonium sulphate) was applied to crops and where PZO5 and KO were also available, positive net returns resulted.
This relationship further
emphasizes the importance of developing the use of anhydrous ammonia, the cheapest source of N to Brazilian farmers. The application of phosphate was generally profitable, especially when used in moderate amounts and in combination with other plant nutrients.
In the case of potash, it appeared that the application of xi
K 2 0,
with or without other plant nutrients,
was generally profitable.
Good yield increases were observed, and the cost of potassium chloride is relatively low.
Agricultural Limestone A program to improve the productivity of Brazilian agriculture must include steps to increase the production and use of agricultural limestone.
Except for the arid zone of the Northeast, presently
cropped soils in Brazil are generally so acid (pH 5. 5 or less) as to inhibit yields of major crops.
It is estimated that out of the 28.5
million hectares cropped in 1963, at least 10 million were so acid as to need limestone. Both calcitic and dolomitic limestone deposits are well-distributed throughout eastern and central Brazil and in southern Goias and Mato Grosso.
However, the western half of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa
Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul lack known deposits of limestone. To raise the pH by 1.0, for example from 4.5 to 5.5 on 10 million acres of acid soils would require approximately 30 million tons of
agricultural limestone applied over an eight-year period, or 3. 75 million tons per year.
This compares with an estimated 1963 produc
tion of ground agricultural limestone in Brazil of 250,000 tons.
In
view of the importance attached to the correction of acid soils in Brazil,
xii
the production of at least 3, 750, 000 tons of agricultural limestone per year should be adopted as a goal to be reached through a 25 percent increase per year for 12 years.
This goal can be reached
providing adequate rock crushing equipment is made available. Rock crushers and mills for the production of agricultural lime stone can be either stationary or mobile.
Most plants operating in
Brazil today are relatively inefficient, stationary installations.
Port
able, high capacity crushers as used in the United States could produce agricultural limestone in Brazil at a cost of $1. 47 per ton as compared to $1. 90 for a stationary plant.
It is recommended that at least one
modern, portable limestone crusher be brought to Brazil as a demon stration unit to be operated in principle limestone producing areas. Application of limestone to crops in Brazil resulted in increases in production generally ranging from 20 to 60 percent.
Economic
returns from the use of limestone were generally profitable, especially for sugar cane and cotton.
Corn and wheat showed good
yield increases, but being lower-valued crops did not return as large a profit as did sugar cane and cotton.
xiii
a/ri
Livestock Minerals An adequate supply of essential minerals is necessary for the health and growth of livestock.
The principal minerals required are
salt, phosphorous and calcium, together with small amounts of other minor mineral elements.
Of these minerals,
deficient in livestock rations.
salt is almost universally
The other minerals required are
normally available in rations commonly consumed by livestock. However, in areas where soils are deficient in these minerals, it is necessary to supplement rations by feeding mineral mixtures.
Such
is the case over much of Brazil where soils are generally deficient in calcium and phosphorous. observed in Ceara.
Instances of cobalt deficiency have been
As a result, Brazilian stockmen and poultry
producers should follow the practice of providing a basic mineral supplement to their livestock and poultry. Based on present and projected numbers of the various species and classes of livestock and poultry in Brazil, and on per head mineral requirements, and assuming certain practical levels of use, livestock and poultry in Brazil would have required 956, 000 tons of salt, 219, 000 tons of calcium and 160, 000 tons of phosphorous in 196Z, and will require 1,131,000 tons of salt, Z64,000 tons of calcium and 191,000 tons of phosphorpus by 1970.
Brazil should have no difficulty in xiv
providing these amounts of mineral supplements for livestock.
Salt
production is mainly from solar evaporation of sea water and this volume of production could be increased or salt could be obtained from large rock salt deposits located primarily in the Amazon Basin. Both calcium and phosphorous could be obtained in adequate amounts from either steamed bone meal or from defluorinated tricalcium phosphate produced from normal superphosphate fertilizer appears to be the more feasible source.
which
Minor mineral elements
should be fed where evidence of such mineral deficiencies persist. No adequate basis exists for the estimation of the expansion in livestock production which could result from increased feeding of minerals to livestock in Brazil.
However, an increase of but 5. 8
percent in production would offset the cost of livestock minerals in 1962 and it is reasonable to assume that the gain in production from feeding livestock minerals could easily be ten percent or more.
Thus
feeding livestock minerals would appear to be profitable in Brazil.
Impact of Expanded Manufacture and Use of Agricultural Minerals Expansion of the manufacture and use of agricultural minerals in Brazil will have a three-dimensional effect on the economy of Brazil. Agricultural production will be increased for both domestic and export sales and dependence on imports of agricultural minerals and xv
agricultural products will be decreased.
Further these developments
are interrelated and complimentary in their effects. Although precise calculation of the direct and indirect values attributable to increased manufacture and use of agricultural minerals in Brazil is impossible, an estimate of the total annual value added to the Brazilian economy by 1970 has been made.
The total gain is estimated
to be approximately $387.4 million, of which $326.9 million results from increased manufacture and use of fertilizers, $10.5 million from increased use of agricultural limestone, and $50. 0 from increased use of livestock minerals.
Recommendations for a Program for the Increased Manufacture and Use of Agricultural Minerals in Brazil Expansion of the manufacture and use of agricultural minerals in Brazil must proceed in a coordinated pattern to product the greatest economic gains. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Five basic areas of development must be considered:
Development of basic materials sources Improvements and expansion in processing and distribution Research, education and agricultural extension activities Market development and promotion Credit
Appropriate and simultaneous progress in each of these areas is essential to the overall success of the program.
The development of
the plan will necessarily require close cooperation between government
xvi
and private industry.
However, to the greatest extent possible,
control of basic materials resources, investments in processing and distribution facilities, and retail sale of agricultural minerals should be in the hands of private industry. Development of basic materials resources must proceed through an expanded, systematic minerals exploration and appraisal program, and a review and appraisal of presently-known mineral reserves. Close coordination between the petroleum industry and the agricultural minerals industry will facilitate such progress. Immediate encouragement should be given to the expansion of nitrogen production capacity through remodeling the Petrobras Cubatao installation to bring it to full capacity, and initiating plans for construction of synthetic ammonia plants at Capuava and in Bahia. The full ammonia potential of the steel industry should also be developed.
Plans and pilot distribution stations for the distribution
of anhydrous or aqua ammonia should also be given priority.
Although
such expansion is necessary, production capacity must not run too far ahead of demand. Brazil can become self-sufficient in phosphate production. Fosforita Olinda, Araxa, and Jacipuranga all have valuable reserves, well-located to serve major agricultural areas.
Fosforita Olinda
should be brought to full capacity through building demand in the xvii
Northeast.
The thermophosphate operation at Araxa appears feasible
and should be activated.
Full-scale pilot operations at Jacipuranga
should be completed and appraised regarding the feasibility of expanded commercial operations at that location.
Other smaller plants should
be expanded where well-conceived plans exist.
The possible develop
ment of processing facilities in new areas, such as Goias,
should be
considered as commercially-valuable deposits of phosphate are discovered. Research relating to the development of potash from local sources should continue. A major problem in expanding the use of agricultural minerals in Brazil is that of demonstrating to farmers and stockmen the desirability and profitability of using fertilizers, agricultural limestone, and live stock minerals.
Research, education and extension activities,
coordinated with advertising and promotion efforts of the agricultural minerals industry must be substantially expanded to meet this need. National, international and private research and educational agencies must work together in a coordinated program. Finally, credit must be made readily accessible to industry and agriculture to permit the growth of the agricultural minerals industry. Foreign exchange credit must be granted to industry for the timely xviii
purchase of imported raw materials and necessary equipment items. Credit must be available and investments encouraged by combinations of national and foreign capital where required for the construction of plants and the purchase of equipment.
Credit must be available for
operating expenses and discounting accounts receivable of processors and distributors.
Farmers must be educated with regard to the
usefulness of production credit and such credit must be readily available to them on reasonable terms.
The credit institutions to
provide such funds already exist in Brazil.
The major problems
are improving their services to agriculture, making such credit readily accessible when required, and educating farmers to the use of production credit for the purchase of agricultural minerals. The adoption and implementation of a program for the expansion of the manufacture and use of agricultural minerals in Brazil, will require the cooperation and coordination among national and inter national agencies and private industry.
Insofar as may be possible,
control and investment in the agricultural minerals industry should remain in the hands of private industry.
The agricultural minerals
industry is of strategic importance to the future of Brazil, and should receive the priority of interest and support which it requires.
xix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study would not have been possible without the interest and assistance of the many agencies, firms, institutions and individuals associated, directly or indirectly, with agriculture in Brazil. The cooperation and assistance received from Dr. Richard Newberg and Dr. Jefferson Rangel, Co-Directors of E. T. A.,
in reviewing pro
ject plans, developing contacts and providing general administrative coordination were most helpful in keeping the study operating smoothly and on schedule.
Mr. Leonard Brooks, AID Liaison Officer for this
project, was most helpful in expediting project progress.
Other E. T. A.
and AID personnel also provided time, information and useful sugges tions.
Oscar Thompson, Filho, Minister of Agriculture and formerly Secretary of Agriculture in Sao Paulo, took valuable time from his duties to discuss the needs for and problems associated with agri cultural minerals and plans to increase fertilizer production in Sao Paulo.
Information on the present size and scope of the agricultural
minerals industry and plans for future production and distribution of fertilizer and minerals was made possible by the cooperation and interest of the many firms and individuals in the industry. xx
Dr. Fernando Cardoso, formerly President of Syndicate of Fertilizer Mixers and Blenders and now Secretary of Agriculture of the State of Sao Paulo, and Jose Arnaro Pinto Ramos of Quinbrasil and their staffs were particularly helpful in this respect. Publications and price data for agricultural products and supplies provided by Dr. Rubens Dias, Head of the Division of Agricultural Economics for Sao Paulo were invaluable in determining the economic value of fertilizer use. The information and cooperation received from agronomic institutes and agronomists, throughout Brazil, was important to the development of a better understanding of the yield response from fertilizers on various crops in Brazil. Appreciation is also due the numerous other agencies and individuals who provided assistance and information on credit, transportation, agricultural policies and problems and many other areas of activity of importance in a study of this nature.
xxi
ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY OF INCREASED
MANUFACTURE AND USE OF FERTILIZERS, AGRICULTURAL
LIMESTONE AND LIVESTOCK MINERALS IN BRAZIL
INTRODUCTION The foundation of agriculture is in the soil, and the development of a sound and profitable farming system for Brazil requires adequate attention to the providing of adequate mineral nutrients for crops and livestock.
Experience and research in Brazil and throughout the world have shown that crop productivity can be markedly increased by proper use of fertilizers and agricultural limestone, and that the health and effi cient growth of livestock require a specific mineral balance in rations consumed.
An adequate and economical supply of plant nutrients and
livestock minerals is essential to the maintenance of a sound and expanding agriculture. time.
Brazilian agriculture is losing its battle with
The history of agricultural production in Brazil has, with some
exceptions, been that of exploitation of the soil, plant nutrients have been depleted to the point that yields have been depressed and the feeding value of feeds and forages has been reduced.
Still more
important is the fact that climatic conditions over much of Brazil are such that, even on newly-cleared lands, the basic plant nutrients in the soil
-2
have been depleted through leaching, erosion and other losses to the point that the natu±ral productivity of these soils is so low that even on these lands the application of fertilizers and lime is generally required. In order to halt this downward trend in the supply of mineral nutrients available to crops and livestock in Brazil, and to undertake to replace these elements which have been depleted from the soil, it is essential that there be developed an economically sound and prac ticably workable program for the promotion of the manufacture and use of fertilizers, agricultural limestone and livestock minerals in Brazilian agriculture. It is the purpose of this report to determine fertilizer and other agricultural mineral requirements and to describe in detail the economic and technical potential of Brazil for the manufacture of fertilizers, agricultural limestone and livestock feeding minerals, and to appraise the potential impact which would result from increased use of these materials in Brazil.
Objectives
The objectives of the project were as follows: 1. Measure and project the need and demand for fertilizers, agricultural lime, and livestock minerals in each of the major areas of agricultural production in Brazil.
-3 2.
Determine the potential sources of ingredients for fertilizers, agricultural lime, and livestock minerals in relation to possible areas of demand.
3.
Analyze the probable costs of transportation from points of production to areas of consumption under alternative trans portation systems.
4.
Describe the most feasible system for the manufacture and distribution of fertilizers, agricultural lime, and livestock minerals in Brazil.
5.
Define the number, type and location of the required manu facturing, blending and distribution facilities required, and present preliminary engineering plans and specifications for the needed facilities, including the estimated cost of each facility.
6.
Analyze the direct economic benefit of each proposed facility, including a projection of its annual earnings and operating costs, and compute a benefit-cost ratio for each proposed facility.
7. Determine the over-all economic benefits of each proposed facility to producers, the various Brazilian states and to the nation, and the improvement in Brazil's foreign exchange position which might result due to increased exports and decreased imports of agricultural products and supplies.
-4 8.
Outline specific Brazilian national and state policies designed to stimulate the economic use of fertilizers, agricultural lime, and livestock minerals, including an indication of adequate and economic
sources of supply of these materials. 9. Outline workable plans and procedures for the financing, con struction, operations and management of the fertilizer, agri cultural lime, and livestock minerals facilities proposed.
Procedures
The principal part of the work on this project was carried out in Brazil.
Work in Brazil began January 2, 1964, and was completed
May 5 of the saine year.
Team personnel and their areas of re
sponsibility were as follows: Raymond E. Seltzer, Project Director Phil S. Eckert, Project Co-Director George W. Barr, Farm Management Consultant Foster Crampton, Chemical Engineer George Crichton, Chemical Engineer Victor Pellegriri, Agricultural Economist and liaison representative with Escritorio Tecnico de Agricultura (ETA) Mr. Luis Rainho, Agronomist and liaison with Ministry of Agriculture, Covernment of Brazil Mr. Robert Rathjen, Agricultu-a1 Economist. Dr. Dr. Dr. Mr. Mr. Mr.
In the initial stages of the project, team members traveled extensively throughout the agricultural and agricultural mineral producing areas of Brazil, visiting farming areas, agricultural experiment stations and research institutes, mining operations,
-5 agricultural mineral processing and mixing plants, state and national government agencies concerned with problems of agricultural mineral production and use, and private firms in the agricultural mineral trade (Figure 1).
Discussions with these groups proved of great
value in appraising the existing status and potential role of such minerals in increasing agricultural production in Brazil. A large amount of research and study has been devoted to prob lems relating to the supply and use of agricultural minerals in Brazil. Careful attention was devoted to a study of such work, both that which has been published and experimental results available only in unpublished research reports.
These studies generally divide them
selves into two major groups:
(1) studies relating to the problems of
agricultural mineral supply and demand for specific areas, and (2) agronomic research related to the crop yield response associated with the application of specific amounts of specific minerals to specific crops in specific areas.
The recommendations in this
report are, of necessity, based on careful review and appraisal of the results of these studies, conducted in Brazil by Brazilian scientists whose training, knowledge, interest and experience have resulted in a substantial fund of knowledge from which the recommendations made in this report have been largely derived. In this sense then, this report is a cooperative effort between
AMAPA IDBRANCO
AWL~ONAS
I,
RIO;.00 MOIRTF
,
PARAIBA
jj PIAII ,AOORS'O ACRE
GOA
'
'
,'
'
I BAHIA ,'']" '', 'i! -ml
,'
-'
AIns A S1Ri'lifI
RODOI
r
' MIA oAI V'.
as
prJAMIRO
.'--.1 /PARANA
lit G.DOSWOL
+"
STA.CATAR1N
Figure 1. Locations visited during stuzdy of agricultural minerals in Brazil
-7-
Brazilian scientists, the agricultural minerals industry, government agencies, and others on one hand, and the Agri Research team on the other hand.
The cooperation in terms of access to published and un
published reports and the time given by Brazilian groups to discussions with project personnel, plus their review and appraisal of the results of this work in its developmental stages, have been of great value in the development of a report which it is hoped will be both technically accurate and practically acceptable. In the area of studies relating to fertilizer supplies and demand, particular appreciation should be given to the several recent work groups who have developed reports of significant value to this segment of the agricultural economy of Brazil. An excellent report, published in October 1963 and basic to the study of the fertilizer situation in Brazil, was prepared by a work group, appointed by the President of the Republic, and headed by Lt. Col. Dantas Borges.
Other members of this work group were:
Joaquim Ferreira Mangia, do Conselho de Politica Aduaneira Jose" Carvalho de Freitas, da Carteira de Come'rcio Exterior Arnaldo Perim, do Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econ8mico Mrio da Silva Azevedo, da Petroleo Brasileiro S/A Petrobrfs Lelio Telmo de Carvalho, da Comissgo do Plano do Carvao Nacional Pe'ricles Locchi, do Sindicato das Industrias de Mate'riasPrima para Inseticidas e Fertilizantes Jaime Santa Rosa, do Minist'rio da Indu"stria e do Comercio Abeilard Fernando de Castro, do Ministerio da Agricultura.
-8-
Another comprehensive report on Brazilian fertilizer was made by a work group appointed by the Council for Development in 1958, and headed by Alvaro Barcellos Fagundes.
Other members of this
work group were: Joaquim Ferreira Mangia Leandro Vettori Leopoldo Miguez Mario da Silva Pinto Ruy Miller de Paiva Silvio Froes de Abreu. A third national study was conducted by the Department of Economics of the National Bank for Economic Development (BNDE) and its report, "The Brazilian Fertilizer Market", was published by the Bank in February, 1963. In addition to reports which are national in scope, the Secretaries of Agriculture, in the various states have had work groups who have studied the problems and possibilities attendant with increased production and use of fertilizers in their states.
As an example, one
of the most recent and comprehensive of these studies was that made in the fall of 1963 by a work group in Sio Paulo headed by Dr. Oscar Thompson Filho, at that time Secretary of Agriculture for Sio Paulo and later Minister of Agriculture for Brazil.
-9-
Population - Food - Production
Brazil i6 one of the largest nations in the world.
It has vast,
undeveloped land resources, but political uncertainty, lack of capital, lack of an adequate road and railroad system, plus the remoteness of some of its better lands, serve as restrictive forces in relation to the development of such lands.
In addition, the myth of the fertility of
virgin lands, especially in the tropics, has been generally disproven. The new lands of the Altoplano or of Mato Grosso are not necessarily fertile and generally will require fertilizer and agricultural limestone to bring them to profitable levels of productivity.
Population
The 1963 population of Brazil was estimated to be 77, 500, 000 persons, and the National Census Service estimates that the population in 1970 will be 95, 300, 000 (Table 1 and Figure 2). an average annual increase of 3. 0 percent.
This represents
Further, there is a
progressive trend toward a greater proportion of the total population in urban centers.
For example, in 1953, 60 percent of Brazil's
population was classified as rural and 40 percent as urban.
In 1963,
rural population had dropped to 51 percent of the total and urban population accounted for 49 percent.
By 1970 urban population is
-10Table 1.
Estimated population of Brazil, 1953-1960 with projections to 1970 1
Year
Estimated population-millions Urban Rural Total
1953
56.7
34.0
2Z.7
1954
58.4
34.3
24.1
1955
60.1
34.7
Z5.4
1956
62.0
35.3
26.7
1957
63.8
35.8
28.0
1958
65.7
36.3
29.4
1959
67.7
37.0
30.7
1960
71.0
39.0
32.0
1961
73.1
39.1
34.0
1962
75.3
39.3
36.0
1963
77.5
39.6
37.9
1964
79.8
39.9
39.9
1965
82.2
40.3
41.9
1966
84.7
40.8
43.9
1967
87.2
41.3
45.9
1968
89.8
41.9
47.9
1969
92.5
42.6
49.9
1970
95.3
43.5
51.8
t
Source: Based on data from Servico Nacional de Recenseamento and and "Brasil, Sinopse Preliminar do Censo Demografico", 1960.
80-.
7©"
70.
4
0
©"
@- 1950
Figure 2.
1954
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
Population estimates, Brazil, urban and rural,
1953-1960 with projections to 1970
Source: Servicio Nacional de Recensamento,
1953-1960
-12 expected to comprise 54 percent of the total, with rural population 46 percent, This growth in population together with continued urbanization of the Brazilian population, will place an increased strain on the agri culture of BIazil, particularly if Brazil is to maintain its current level of agricultttral exports.
Food
Brazil is not a deficit area in terms of per capita calorie consump tion levels.
In a study by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, publish
ed in November$ 19631 , the .958 food consumption level for Brazil was estimAted at Z, 2
caloaiesi compared to a reference standard of
2, 500 calorie., for Latin America.
However, in terms of quality of
diet, there is need for l nprqcvonent in Brazil. of dietary levels is given by ,' roots and tahbrs in ,
A general indication
relative importance of grain products,
diet, particularly as compared to consumption
of livestock pi-ducts, fats atid oils.
For example, in terms of total
calorie supply, Brazil obtained 51.8 percent from grains,
roots and
tubers (of which 16.3 percent was from mandioca), and 19.0 percent
1 Brown, Lester
f.,
Man, Land and Food, Economic Research Service,
U. S, Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Economic
Report No. 11, November, 1963.
-13 from fats, oils, and livestock products.
The relative position of diets
in Brazil compared to other areas in the world is shown in Table 2. These data show that in terms of the ratio of calories from grains, roots and tubers, compared to fats, oils and livestock products, Brazil with a ratio of 1:0. 37 is substantially below the United States (1:2. 10) and Western Europe (1:0. 88) and is even slightly below the average for all of Latin America (1:0.41).
Table 2. Relationship between composition of Brazilian diets 1 and diets in other areas
Brazil
United States
Latin America
Western Europe
Percent grains,
roots and tubers
51.8
24.2
50.7
43.3
Percent fats, oils
and livestock products
19.0
50.5
20.9
38.0
1:0.37
1:2. 10
1:0.41
1:0.88
Composition of total calories in diet
Ratio grains roots and
tubers to fats, oils and
livestock products
1 Calculated from data obtained from Brown, Lester R., Man, Land and Food, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agri culture, Foreign Agricultural Economic Report No. 11, November, 1963.
If Brazil is to up upgrade the quality of its diet, it must eventually divert a larger part of its agricultural resources to the livestock sector.
-14-
This will require intensification of crop production if levels of production of these crops are to keep up with expanding demand.
It is of interest
that the two countries with the highest levels of fertilizer use in the world, the Netherlands and New Zealand, are also among the group having the highest percentage of their diets furnished by livestock
products, fats and Oils. If Brazil is to merely maintain its present dietary level between 1963 and 1970 it must increase food production by 23 percent.
Any
improvement in dietary levels or increase in agricultural expr'rts will require a more intensive effort toward increased production.
-15-
PRESENT AGRICULTURAL SITUATION
Agriculture continues to be the mainstay of the Brazilian economy, although the rate of agricultural expansion has lagged behind industrial growth in recent years.
Agriculture contributed 28. 2 percent of the
national income in 1960 (table 3) and industry contributed 26.0 percent. However, over 50 percent of the labor force was engaged in agriculture in 1960.
Table 3.
Year 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1 Source:
National and agricultural income, Brazil 1952-19601
National income Cr$
293.3 358.9 455.2 575.7 749.0 865.3 1,056.2 1,418.5 1,901.2
Income (Cr$ billions) Agric. income as j0 Agricultural of National income income Cr$
Anuario Estati~'t'zo do Brasil
84.9 104.7 135.8 172.0 199.3 243. Z 271.4 384.1 536.0
28.9 29.2 29.8 29.9 26.6 28.1 25.7 27.1 28.2
-16Exports -, Imports
Exports
Agricultural products account for over four-fifths of the total value of exports of Brazil (table 4 and figure 3), and average approximately one billion dollars annually.
Exports of coffee alone account for 50 to
60 percent of the value of total exports.
Shipments of cocoa amount to
approximately five percent of total exports and cotton in recent years has accounted for eight to nine percent of the value of total exports. Total value of exports has declined slightly in recent years, due primarily to a decrease in value of coffee exports. Exports of agricultural products are of critical importance to the Brazilian economy since they represent the major source of foreign exchange which is urgently needed for the importation of equipment and basic raw materials (such as potash) not available in Brazil.
Imports
Imports of agricultural products into Brazil are relatively less important, accounting for but 12 to 16 percent of total imports (table 5 and figure 4).
Wheat is the primary agricultural import,
accounting for about 10 percent of total imports and for two-thirds of total agricultural imports.
Composition of total exports,
Table 4.
Value Percent Value millions total millions
Year
dollars
1956
$1029.8
exports
Percent total
Percent Value total millions
Percent Value total millions
Percent Value millions total
Total Exports Percent Value total millions
exports
dollars
exports
dollars
exports
dollars
exports
dollars
$ 90.5
6.1
$127.9
8.6
5132.b.7
89.5
$1482.0
6.5
47.3
3.3
172.2
12.3
1156.4
83.0
1392.0
100.0
9.Z
28.0
Z.2
185.1
14.8
1016.0
82.3
1243.0
100.0
85.2.
6.6
36.8
2.8
206.3
16.0
1071.9
83.6
1282.0
100-.0
3.8
185.6
14.3
1041.1
80.3
1269.0
100.0
1106.8
78.8
1403.0
100.0
80.4
1214.0
100.0
dollars - exports
69.4
$ 78.5
5.2
1957
845.5
60.7
91.4
1958
687.8
55.7
115.1
1959
743.6
58.0
1960
71Z.7 56.1
94.2
7.4
48.6
1961
710.4
50.6
60.9
4.3
11Z.9
8.0
ZZZ.6
15.8
196Z
64Z.7
5Z.9
41.1
3.3
115.2
9.4
177.7
14.6
1 Source: Anuario Estatistico do Brasil
I
Other Agr. Exports Total Agr. Exports
Cotton
Cocoa
Coffee
1956-19621 Brazil, value in U.S. dollars, and percent of total,
976.6
100-0
-18
1.5
1.4-
No
01ragricultualexports
0.9
o
:icuota exports
1.2 0
0. 0.8 0.6
otal eprt
Bal
k
v e CCoffe Coffee
U
9
or
6
0. 0.37
Yea 0. 5 0.104
1/ Sorce:Anuaio Etatitic
1956
1957
do Bricl
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
Year
Figure 3 .
Composition of total exports,
1/ Source:
Anuario Estatistico do Brasil
Brazil, value in U.S.
dollars,
1956- 19621
-19Table
5.
1956-196Z Agricultural imports and total imports, Brazil,
Wheat & Flour
Year 1'956
Percent of Value total millions imports U.S. dollars $115.3
9.3
Total Agr. Imports Percent of Value total millions U.S. dollars imports $186.7
1
Total Imports Percent of Value total millions U.S. dollars imports
15.1
$1,234
100.0
1957
107.6
7.6
18Z. 7
12.2
1,489
100.0
1958
116.2
8.6
160.9
11.8
1,353
100.0
1959
131.9
9.5
174.7
12.7
1,374
100.0
1960
142.7
9.7
192.6
13.1
1,462
100.0
1961
139.5
9.5
193.3
13.2
1,460
100.0
1962
161.6
10.9
235.2
15.9
1,475
100.0
I Source:
Anuario Estatistico do Brasil
-20
1.5
1.4
Total imports
S1.1 01.0
ricultural i
0. 9 -Nona
ports
• 0.8
0.7
m
0
40.6 0 0
.4
1-4
Total gricultural imports
Other agricultura imports
0. 2
Im :orts of wheat
1957
1956
Figure
4.
1/ Source:
1958
1959 Year
1960
1961
Agricultural imports and total imports, Brazil, 1956-19621/
Anuario Estatistico do Brasil
1962
-21
-
In contrast to exports, which have declined in total value, the value of imports has risen slightly but steadily since 1956.
Farm Organization and Operation
Brazilian agriculture is a mixture of both the old and the new. Farmers in some areas, particularly the central south, are progressive managers who use modern cultivation practices, advanced farming procedures.
fertilizers, and other
In contrast to this, many subsistence
farmers still practice slash and burn agricultural techniques using hand implements or oxen.
Farmers in Brazil generally have little or
no formal education, thus limiting their ability to accept and assimilate new technology. There were 3,349,400 farms reported in the 1960 census. distribution of farms and area in farms, by size of holdings, in table 6.
The
is shown
Over 88 percent of the farms are less than 100 hectares in
size, yet this 88 percent of the farms accounts for only 20 percent of the total farmland.
Farms of 10,000 hectares or more account for
only one-tenth of one percent of the farms but 19.8 percent of the farm land.
By far the largest proportion of the farms are occupied by owner-
operators. farms.
However, many of these are hardly more than subsistence
-2Z
Table 6.
-
19601 Number of farms and area of farmland, by farm size,
Size (hectares)
Farms Percent of Number total number (thousands)
Farmland Percent of Area total area (thousands of hectares)
Less than 10 10to 100 100 to 1000 l,O00to 10,000
1,499.5 1,494.5 315.1 31.2
44.76 44.63 9.41 .93
5o923.1 47,697.8 86,291.9 72s794.5
2.23 17.97 32.51 27.42
10,000 oi more
1.7
.05
52,743.4
19.87
Size uncertain
7.4
.22
3,349.4
100.00
265,450.7
100.00
Total
Source: Anuario Estatistico do Brasil,
1963.
Agricultural Production
The increased agricultural production required by Brazil's expanding population and export trade can be met in two general ways
(1) increased land in agriculture, or (2) increased productivity on existing lands.
Land
Brazil has large areas of land which can be brought into agricultural production - at a cost and over time.
A projection of past trends in
land development indicates an increase in!cultivated hectares from
28.5 million hectares in 1962 to 35.5 million R, 197G, a gain of nearly
25 percent (figure 5)j
Much of this area lies in the Planalto Central
and further west and north in Mato Grosso.
Although the soils of these
areas vary, they have two common characteristics, acidity and a relatively low inherent fertility.
The use of fertilizers and agricultural
limestone iA a prerequisite to sucessful farming in the area.
This
conclusion is reinforced by a study of the Planalto made by the American International Associdtion in which they concluded that the development of this area was dependent on the establishment of a domestic fertilizer industry capable of supplying the demands of an industrialized 1
agriculture. Intensification The second alternative, increased productivity on existing lands, demands increased intensification of farming methods, increased fertilization being perhaps the most important.
There is a direct
relationship between fertilizer use and levels of crop production. Figure 6, from the Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations shows this relationship and also shows that Brazil ranks in the lower third in fertilizer use among the 41 countries studied.
As an average
over the period 1956-1958, Brazil used only an estimated 8.5 kilograms
1 "Survey of the Agricultural Potential of the Central Plateau of Brazil," a report of the American International Association under U.S. Contract AID-12-1Z0, March, 1963.
40 35.5
35
,
30
0
z5
~)20 U
J
15
10
51
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963 1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Year
Figure
5 .
Total hectares grown,
principal crops,
Brazil,
1953-1962,
with projections to 1970
1970
VALUE
-
INDEX
S
New ZealOWn
400
3009
300
.3
.3!3
/'.
0
100
50
150
200
250
300
.350
50
450
400
FERTILIZER USE
Figure 6.
1. 2.
Butrma Argentina
8. 9.
3.
Thailand
10.
4.
Pakistan
11.
S.
Turkey
12.
6.
India
7.
Syria
1%
Indonesia Philippines
15. 16.
South Africa Yugoslavia
Canado
17.
Spain
Colomabia
18.
Greece
25.
Mexica
19.
U. S. A.
13.
Braoil
20.
14.
Chile
21.
22. 23.
Australia Italy
29. 30.
France Austria
36. 37.
Switzerland West Germany
Peru
31.
South
38.
Japan
Egypt
32.
Denamark
39.
Belgiunm
26.
Finland
33.
United
Portugal
27.
Israel
34.
Norway
Ceylan
28.
Sweden
35.
Taiwan
•24.
Korea Kingdoma
Luxemabourg
40. Netherlands 41.
New
Zealand
Curve of average relationship between fertilizer use and value index of crop production (Per Arable Hectare 41 Countries, 1956-58) SOUREE
M4. S. tWILLIAMS$ AND J1.a. FERTILIZER
COUSTON. USE.
FAG.
CROP PRODUCTION ROurE.
19AS.
LE VELS AND
-26 of commercial fertilizer per hectare of arable land, compared to 30. 9 kilograms for the United States and approximately 450 kilograms for the Netherlands and New Zealand.
Yields in the United States
averaged approximately double those in Brazil and yields in the Netherlands and New Zealand were four times those in Brazil.
Why Most Brazilian Farmers Do Not Use Commercial Fertilizer
More than 95 percent of Brazilian farmers do not use commercial fertilizer.
Enough fertilizer is used to adequately fertilize only eight
percent of Brazil's cultivated land.
Of the mineral elements removed
by the harvested crops not over 12 percent is replaced by fertilizer. Moreover, essentially no fertilizer is applied to the vast pasture areas of Brazil which supply most of the feed for approximately 60 million head of cattle and 20 million head of sheep. Farmers do not utilize fertilizer for many reasons, good reasons. Two of these reasons were mentioned in the 1957 fertilizer study, Fertilizantes no Brasil. 1.
Ignorance of the advantage of fertilizer.
2.
Unfavorable relation between the price of fertilizer and the
price of agricultural products.
Unfortunately, both of these reasons still were operating in 1964.
In addition to the foregoing, a number of other reasons have been
-27 mentioned, in certain aspects overlapping, but in the sum total of which is seen a picture of the obstacles that stand in the way of a
broad expansion in the use of fertilizer. 3. Misinformation.
Much of the early research was based upon
an incomplete application of fertilizer.
Often only one or two or
three elements were added, when the limiting factor may have been lime or some other element.
Responses were not obtained, hence
the application of fertilizer was not recommended. Farmers are afraid minerals will kill organic organisms in the soil and have to be convinced in favor of chemicals.
Professor
Walter Lazzarini, Piracicaba, remarked that "The Instituto Agronomico was established 75 years ago but until 1955 it recommended only organic fertilizer.
In 1958 the results of Bra
zilian experiments showed conclusively that mineral fertilization could replace organic fertilization.
It was difficult to convince
even the technicians of this fact." 4.
Information unavailable.
Successful results from research are
often buried in governmental files rather than distributed to those who could benefit by them. 5. Ineffective fertilizer application.
Farmers and research people
often were discouraged in the first application.
Very frequently,
without experience or direction, the farmer applied the fertilizer
-28 by an ineffective method, in inadequate quantity at the wrong time, or used the wrong fertilizer.
Even the research worker, in one
specific instance of which we have evidence, spread lime on the surface of the ground at planting time.
This gave unfavorable
response while, had the lime been applied some months earlier
and incorporated in the soil, the result might have been very different.
A small amount of lime or phosphate or nitrogen often
shows no result while larger amounts are effective.
The farmer
may have put on elements that did not include the limiting factor followed by his decision against use of fertilizer. 6.
Cost-tax problems.
The farmer is unable to deduct the cost of
fertilizer before paying his taxes.
Taxes in Brazil have in sub
stantial part been collected by exchange rate manipulation.
By
this device the farmer is taxed not only on the return for his labor but also on his cash outlay. 7.
Leasing and tenure problems.
The farmer-tenant on the land
probably will not use fertilizer without the assistance of the land lord because ordinarily he operates for something like half of the crop.
Half of the increased return for fertilizer would probably
not encourage him to make the cash outlay required. 8.
Middlemen's margins.
The use of fertilizer is discouraged
by the system of marketing that channels profits into the hands of the middlemen and processors.
-Z9 9.
Fertilizers unavailable.
Very often fertilizers are not avail
able when needed. 10,
Lack of understanding regarding fertilizer use.
There is a
lack of understanding as to what fertilizer to apply and how to apply it. 11.
Lack of adequate financing.
There is a lack of a scheme for
paying for the fertilizer or financing its purchase.
Bonifacio
Carvalho Bernardes, Director of the Rice Experiment Station of Gravatai (64), points out that the use of fertilizers and correctives on rice in Rio Grande do Sul has been minimized by insufficient financing by the Banco do Brasil. 12.
Illiteracy.
Farmers cannot read the results of research.
Reports are too complicated. 13.
Minor element mixes unavailable.
Mixed fertilizers that
include essential minor elements simply are not available any where in Brazil. 14.
New lands available.
Shifting to new land has required only
outlay of labor, no cash outlay.
Farmers follow this practice as
long as they have access to new land and to cheap labor. 15.
Primitive farming methods.
Use of fertilizer does not fit in
well with the man-powered agriculture of Brazil back country. Fertilizer comes as a part of the machine age where lime is plowed
-30 under or mixed with the soil, nitrogen is placed below or near the seed and later a supplemental application is drilled into the soil. Fertilizer pays, or pays best, with modern cultivation practices, weed and insect control and with application in the right amount, in the right spot and at the right time. During the past decade, however, fertilizer consumption has increased rapidly, particularly on export crops.
Also in the advanced
farming areas such as Sao Paulo, Parana and Rio Grande do Sul new lands are becoming less available forcing farmers to fertilize rather than move to new land. About 75 percent of the commerical fertilizer used in recent years has been applied in the State of Sao Paulo.
Sao Paulo is the center of
chemical fertilizer production in Brazil and of more advanced agri culture.
Other States in the South are also using increasing quantities
of fertilizer.
Fertilizer consumption in the East and Northeast is still
insignificant compared to other areas. Only limited quantities of lime are used despite the acidity of many soils in Brazil.
Crops and Livestock
Crops accounted for 65 percent of the total value of agricultural production in 1959. Livestock and livestock products accounted for about 29 percent and forest products for about 6 percent.
The broad
-31 range of climatic conditions for Brazil provide favorable conditions to the production of nearly all tropical, semitropical and temperate zone plant life. Ten crops accounted for 85. 7 percent of the total area planted to permanent and temporary crops in 1962 (figure 7).
These major crops
and the number of hectares planted in 1962 were as follows: Beans Cocoa Coffee Corn Cotton
2,716,257 464,762 4,462,657 7,342, 795 3,457,859
hectares hectares hectares hectares hectares
Potatoes Rice Sugar cane Tobacco Wheat
196, 198 3,349,810 1,466, 619 23ZZ97 743, 458
hectares hectares hectares hectares hectares
Table 7 shows an increase from 19.6 million hectares in 1953 to 28.5 million hectares in 196Z for the principal temporary and permanent crops grown in Brazil.
A linear projection of this trend indicates that
the total area planted to temporary and permanent crops will be 35.5 million hectares by 1970 (figure 5).
This represents an average annual
increase of slightly over 3 percent. Besides the major crops listed above there are a wide variety of fruits, vegetables and other crops that are produced commercially and for home consumption.
Another crop of importance in many areas for
both human and livestock consumption is mandioca. hectares of mandioca were grown in 1962.
About 1. 5 million
-3Z-
Table 7.
Brazil, Tutal hectares grown, principal crops, Permanent Crops
1953-19621
Total Crops
Year
Temporary Crops
1953
15,941,084
3,724,315
19,665,399
1954
17,103,093
3,840,589
20,943,682
1955
17,717,367
4,159,723
21,877,090
1956
18,444,733
4,347,029
22,791,762
1957
18,664,733
4,637,975
23,302,708
1958
18,518,918
5,183,974
Z3,702,892
1959
19,320,617
5,452,150
24,772,767
1960
20,751,426
5,618,995
26,370,421
1961
21,700,946
5,627,721
27,328,667
1962
22,761,995
5,744,106
28,506,101
1 Source: Anuario Estatistico do Brasil
-33-
C 0 r
n 7
6 0 C 0 f f e e
5
t
C
h e r C r
0
0
4 t
R
p
i
s
o0
B
Uc
a)
-
e
e
a n
.1-4
M
u
a
g
n d
a r C
0
a
c
nl
a
e
1a
0.
Figure Source:
w h e t
Crop
7.
Planted hectares of principal crops, Brazil, 1962
Anuario Estatistico do Brazil.
-34-
During 1953-62, the weighted aggregate production index for the ten major crops rose by 160 percent, the hectares grown tidex rose by 41 percent and the yield index rose by 60 percent (table 8 and figure 8). Beans
Brazil is the world's largest producer of edible beans, a principal staple in the Brazilian diet.
The major bean producing states, Parana,
Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul, Sao Paulo and Ceara, contributed 60.7 percent of the total bean production in 1962.
These five states
also accounted for 59.2 percent of the total area planted to beans (figure 9).
The area planted to beans, in Brazil, increased by about
700,000 hectares between 1953 and 1962 or an increase of 35 percent. A projection of this trend indicates that by 1970 total area planted to beans will be about three million hectares (figure 19).
Total produc
tion of beans increased by 23 percent between 1953-62 and yields have actually decreased slightly during the same period (figure 22). Cocoa Cocoa, although it is one of the major agricultural exports, is not widely grown in Brazil.
In 1962, cocoa exports were valued at
14. 1 million dollars and accounted for 3. 3 percent of the value of total exports.
The only major cocoa producing state is Bahia, accounting
for 93.7 percent of the total cultivated area and 94. 3 percent of the total national production in 1962 (figure 10).
-35-
Table 8.
Year
Brazil, weighted aggregate indexes of planted jectares, yield and production, principal crops, 1953-1962
Index (Aug. 1953-1962 - 100) Total production Hectares grown Yield per hectare
1953
83
78
58
1954
87
84
69
1955
92
91
78
1956
94
84
82
1957
98
95
95
1958
99
95
86
1959
104
108
112
1960
110
116
128
1961
113
123
140
1962
117
125
151
I
Crops included are: beans, cocoa, coffee, corn, cotton, potatoes, rice, sugar cane, tobacco, wheat.
-36Yield Hectares Production 140 44 o 13u 2
2
120
Ll
110
100
.2
100
90
>
500
500
400-
40
Phosphate
0 1,
0P205 /7300
300-
Phosphate
-
C
Zi
M
P2 OS5 Potash K20
200
200/ ?
Nitrogen NI
1957
1963
1970
1983
1950
Year
Figure 32.
Potash K2 0
100.
100
00 1950
~
Fertilizer requirements,
1957
-963
1970
1983
fear
Brazil,
1950-1963 and projections 1970 and 1983, based on linear trends in apparent consumption
Figure 33.
Fertilizer requirements,
Brazil,
1950-1963 and projections 1970 and 1983, based on rate cf change in fertilizer consumption inA the U.S. 1942-1962
-67 such quantities by total production, provides estimates of the annual extraction of plant nutrients by crops grown.
It is realized that
nutrients extracted by crops will vary with level of yields and from one location to another.
However, it is believed that the basic data
used are representative of the major producing areas of Brazil, and that the resulting requirements are illustrative of the magnitude of the volume of plant nutrients required.
It is also realized that
fertilizer requirements cannot be based only on plant nutrient require ments, since different soils contain differential amounts of plant nutrients as a part of their inherent fertility.
However, nutrients
extracted provide a measure of the annual "take-out" of plant nutrients by crops grown and serve to indicate the need for fertilization over time. Plant nutrients extracted per hectare for major Brazilian crops are shown in figure 34.
These data were adapted from results of
experimental work by R. S. Catani, J. Romano Gallo, and E. H. Gargantini, at the Instituto Agronomico de Campinas, under Project No. 1, of the Commission on Soil Fertility.
The data were discussed
with agronomists at other leading Brazilian research institutes and agricultural schools and were compared with data from other research in Brazil, with data from the National Plant Food Institute in Washington, D. C.,
and with reported requirements for the crops concerned in other
parts of the world.
In general the data from Campinas were used but
were adjusted in some instances where requirements indicated
95 90
E
Nitrogen - N
[
Phosphorus - P205 Potassium - KzO
80 70 6Z 60
5
5
555 48 47
48 7";
50 0
44 3
40 30
-
32 31
55_
31
30
0
025 20
-
;
18
.
106
Cotton
Rice
Lint& Seed Grain 1500 1200
Bananas Potatoes Cocoa Tubers 15,000 8000
Figure 34. 1/ Z/
Coffee
Sugar Cane
Beans
(Yield in kilograms) Beans Beans Beans Stalks 2000 60, 000 1000 930
Toba, co lMancdoca Corn
Wheat
Roots 25,000
Grain 800
Leaves 1Zz0
Grain 2000
/ Plant nutrients extracted per hectare for major Brazilian crops_2
Nitrogen for beans provided in part by symbiotic fixation. Source: R.A. Catani, J. Romano Gallo, E.H. Gargantini, Instituto Agrondmico de Campinas, Proj. No. 1, da Comisslo da Fertilidade do Solo. Requirements shown also include allowance for stalks, straw or husks.
-69 differed sharply with those reported by other authorities. Nutrienc requirements per hectare were calculated based on reported yields for the crops shown. hectares grown were used. grown were employed.
For 1962 actual yields and
For 1970, projected yields and hectares
Nutrients extracted were calculated for 10
major crops (beans, cocoa, coffee, corn, cotton, potatoes, rice, sugar cane, tobacco and wheat).
Average nutrient requirements per
hectare were calculated and applied to the hectares of other crops grown.
Nitrogen (N)
As shown in table 9, estimated nitrogen extracted annually by crops grown in Brazil amounted to 689, 000 tons in 1962 and is estimated to equal 966,000 tons in 1970.
As compared to apparent
1962 consumption of nitrogen, this is approximately 14 times the amount consumed.
The 966,000 tons estimated extraction in 1970 is
approximately 10 times the projected supply based on past trends in domestic production plus imports.
Although it is doubtful that con
suxnption of nitrogen in Brazil will reach the tonnage extracted by 1970, such levels of fertilization are not unrealistic were Brazil to attain fertilization levels existing in the United States.
-70-
Phosphates (PZ0 5 )
Phosphates, in terms of P 2 0 5 , extracted by Brazilian crops were estimated at 264,000 tons in 196Z and 365,000 tons in 1970.
Brazilian
crops use relatively less phosphorous than nitrogen or potassium.
At
the same time, Brazil produces more phosphate fertilizers than nitrogen or potassium fertilizer.
As a result, apparent consumption and supply
of phosphate fertilizers come closer to meeting plant nutrient require ments for phosphorous than is true for nitrogen or potassium. consumption of PZ0
5
requirements for P 2 0
Apparent
in 1962 was equal to 45 percent of plant nutrient 5
and it is estimated that supplies of PZO5 based
on trends in domestic production plus imports of P 2 0 equal to 53 percent of plant nutrient requirements.
5
will be at least
If Brazilian crops
were fertilized with Pz05 at rates comparable to those existing in the United States during the period 1940-1944, the Pr0 5 provided would approximately equal the plant nutrient take-out. Potassium (KZO)
Potassium requirements of Brazilian agriculture, based on amounts extracted from the soil by crops grown, are high.
Certain
of the major crops important in Brazil require relatively large amounts
of nitrogen.
Crops such as bananas, coffee, cotton, sugar cane,
-71
mandioca, and tobacco all demand large quantities of potassium. Bananas,
for example,
require 95 kg of K 2 0 per hectare,
sugar cane
56 kg, and coffee and mandioca 48 kg of K 2 0 compared to 8 kg for 9 kg for wheat and 3Z kg for corn at yield levels existing in
beans, Brazil.
On the basis of plant nutrient requirement for KZO, Brazil would have required 669,000 tons of K 2 0 in 1962, compared with apparent consumption of 69, 200 tons.
By 1970 it is estimated that on this basis,
Brazilian crops would require 98Z, 000 tons of K 2 0 compared with an estimated supply of 124,300 tons imported.
Requirements Based on Recommended Fertilizer Programs
Fertilizer requirements for Brazil based on recommended fertilization programs result in N - P205 - KZO requirements so large that they are useful only to indicate the tremendous potential fertilizer demand which could exist in Brazil were all crops fertilized at recom mended levels.
Virtually all crops grown in Brazil need fertilizer and
the tremendous production potential inherent in Brazilian agriculture can only be developed through increased use of fertilizer.
However,
within the foreseeable future it is certain that all cropland will not be fertilized and that for land that is fertilized-, -quantities of plant nutrients applied will, in most cases, be below recommended rates. If all Brazilian crops were fertilized at recommended levels of
-72 nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P 2 0 5 ), and potassium (K2O), the require ments would be as follows: Year
Tons N
Tons P2O5
Tons KZO
1962
2,347,000
2,185,000
1,773,000
1970
3,040,000
2,694,000
2,299,000
Although these amounts appear so large as to seem impossible, consumption of these plant nutrients in the United States currently exceeds these tonnages.
For example, in 1962, usage of commercial
fertilizer in the United States was 3,378,000 tons of N, 2,761,000 tons of P 2 0
5
, and 2,260,000 tons of K 2 0.
However, had all U.S. cropland
been fertilized at the rates indicated for Brazil, the quantities required would have been nearly four times as large.
However, it is interesting
to note that the N - P 2 0 5 - K 2 0 ratio for plant nutrients used in the United States in 1962, 1. 0-0. 8-0.7 is similar to the 1.0-0. 9-0. 8 ratio resulting from the use of recommended fertilizer programs in Brazil, and the U.S. ratio was 1.0-0.9-0.8in 1959. Recommended fertilizer programs, for principal Brazilian crops, used in calculating these fertilizer requirements, are shown in table 13. It is recognized that it is impracticable to specify uniform crop fertilizer programs for individual crops which would be applicable throughout Brazil.
Regional differences in soils, climatic factors,
crop yields and other locational factors are such that fertilizer recommendations must be adapted to specific situations existing in
-73-
Table 13.
Crop Bananas
Generalized fertilizer recommendations used in calculating fertilizer requirements of Brazil
Application, kg per hectare N P 20 5 KZO 100
60
Beans
8
20
8
Cocoa
45
40
75
Coffee
200
50
150
Corn
80
100
40
C otton
70
90
60
Mandioc a
30
60
30
Potatoes
65
200
130
Rice
30
80
40
Sugar cane
60
80
60
Tobacco
40
140
100
Wheat
50
100
30
150
These recommendations are generalized and will not apply specifically to any one state in Brazil. They were developed after extensive review of literature available and after consultation with soil scientists in leading Brazilian agricultural schools, agronomic institutes, and state and federal research institutes. They are used in this report only for the purpose of calculating reasonable expectations of present and future fertilizer require ments were the crops shown fertilized at recommended levels.
-74 specific localities.
However, since such localized recommendations
are not available in Brazil, and since the purpose of this calculation was to indicate the general magnitude of fertilizer requirements based on recommended fertilizer programs,
the generalized recommendations
shown in table 13 were developed after extensive review of available literature and after consultation with agronomists in leading Brazilian agricultural schools, agronomic institutes,
and state and federal
research institutes. It must be recognized that were all Brazilian crops fertilized at recommended levels, the resultant production would undoubtedly be substantially in excess of domestic market demands.
Surplus problems
would arise and farm product prices would fall unless extensive efforts were made to develop export markets or unless government production control and/or price support programs were initiated.
However, recom
mended fertilizer programs can be used as a tool to permit the attainment of specific production goals for specific crops where expansion of production of such crops is desired.
The Use of Fertilizer to Reach Production Goals
Use of fertilizer is justified only when increased production of food or fiber results.
Consequently, the government can use fertilizer
supply and price as a device to promote or curtail the production of a
-75 given commodity.
For example, should the government of Brazil desire
a specific increase in soybeans,
a plan for making fertilizer available
along with instructions for its use would bring about the desired increase quickly and at low cost.
In the following sections is indicated the quantity
of fertilizer needed to increase production by five percent with respect to two crops, corn and sugar cane.
A similar plan could be prepared
for any of Brazil's principal crops.
Fertilizer Requirements for Increased Production of Corn
There has been considerable discussion of an expansion in corn production in Brazil, looking toward the production of more meat, especially beef, both for consumption within Brazil and for export and possibly for increased export of corn itself.
Corn, both in the form
of grain and silage, could supplement the vast pasture lands of Brazil and put cattle in a form ready for the consumer market.
The area
planted to corn in 1962 was reported to be 7,340,000 hectares, following an average increase per year of about one-fourth million hectares for the preceding nine years.
The yield of corn was relatively
constant for several years immediately preceding 1962 and the produc tion in 1962 was reported to be 9,580,000 metric tons. Brazil can increase its production of corn without adding any acreage.
From agronomic data reviewed in this study, it appears that
yield of corn could be increased about 20 percent with the use of 60 kg
-76-
PZ05 per hectare, also increased 20 percent with the use of 60 kg of nitrogen and increased 20 percent with the use of 60 kg of KZO.
The
.,ombined increase of 60 percent would amount to about 1500 kg on the type of farms where experimentation has been conducted.
These farms,
in general, produce without fertilizer about twice the national average of 1300 kg per hectare. To obtain a five percent increase in corn production in one year or an increase of 500, 000 tons from fertilizer alone, it would be necessary to apply fertilizer in the amounts mentioned above to about 335, 000 hectares, which would require Z0,000 tons of PZ05, ZO,000 tons of nitrogen and Z0,000 tons of KZO. Fertilizer Requirements for Increased Production of Sugar Cane
The area planted to sugar cane amounted to about 1, 500, 000 hectares in 196Z.
The area has been increasing consistently about
five percent per year, or 50,000 hectares each year, for nine years. Production of sugar cane amounted to 62 million tons in the year 1962, the production having risen about six percent annually over a nine-year period. The yield of sugar cane averaged 4Z tons per hectare in the years 1960 to 1962.
The yield increase over the nine-year period ending
with 1962 was about one percent per year. In the years to follow 1964, Brazil can continue to increase its
-77 production of sugar cane five percent per year without adding area, that is,
by inc.easing yield through the application of fertilizer.
From the
data assembled in this study, it appears that, conservatively, one can expect an increase of 15 percent from 75 kg of P 2 0
5
per hectare, also
15 pcr-cnt increase from 75 kg of nitrogen per hectare and 20 percent increase from 50 kg K 2 0 per hectare.
The combined increment of
around 50 percent would amount to 40 tons per hectare on the kind of farms where experimentation has been conducted.
In carrying out an
expansion program based on fertilizer, it is presumed that the better producing areas, where yields are already higher than average, will be first to use the added fertilizer. Then, to obtain a five percent increase in production in one year or an increase of 3 million tons of sugar cane (420,000 tons sugar), it would be necessary to apply fertilizer in the amounts mentioned above to about 75,000 hectares which would require 5,600 tons of P 2 0 5,600 tons of nitrogen and 3,750 tons of K 2 0,
5
,
as well as lime on part
of the land.
Fertilizer Demand for Use on Pastures
It is recognized that proper fertilization of improved pastures, such as Colonial grass, can result in substantial increases in livestock feed produced.
Results of experiments on pasture fertilization are
reported in the section of this report dealing with the agronomic value
-78 of fertilizers (pages 217, 238, 246 and 253). of Pasture fertilization generally tends to lag behind fertilization cash crops.
Although there will be instances where improved pastures
will be fertilized, the demand for pasture fertilization will develop slowly. There are no adequate data relating to the hectares of improved in pastures in Brazil at present, and projection of future expansion area of improved pastures and use of fertilizers or agricultural limestone on such pastures would be hazardous. In view of this, no allowance,
in terms of fertilizer demand
requirements, has been made for pastures in this report.
However,
it is entirely conceivable that as the livestock economy of Brazil developes, a substantial demand for fertilizers, including minor could elements, for use on pastures could result - a demand which eventually equal or even exceed the demand for fertilizers used by cultivated crops .
-79-
NITROGEN
Summary
Brazil should be able to become self sufficient in nitrogen production and should promote the use of direct application of liquid ammonia - the cheapest way of getting nitrogen into the ground. In 1963 the apparent consumption of nitrogen fertilizer in Brazil was 65,400 tons of which 5Z, 000 tons or 79 percent was imported. representing an estimated foreign currency outlay of $11,900,000. This figure is about 60 percent of the cost of installations required to make Brazil self-sufficient in nitrogen. Self-sufficiency, at present levels of nitrogen use, can be achieved by: 1. Remodeling the Petrobras Cubatao installation to achieve its full capacity, equivalent to Z5,000 TPY of NH 3 .
In 1963
this plant made only 20,000 tons of NH 3 . 2. Building a new 200 TPD - 70, 000 TPY NH 3 plant at Capuava to operate on raw material from the local Petrobras refinery. Part of this production should be utilized for direct application to the soil and ammoniation of normal superphosphate.
The
-80 installation rest can be converted to urea or used in a nitrophosphate to make complex fertilizers.
The total cost of these installations is
for estimated at about: $16,300,000 for NH 3 - urea, and $19,700,000 NH 3 - complex fertilizer. is needed in Brazil.
Either of these combinations of materials
The nitrophosphate route would provide,
addition to 52,000 TPY of N, 42,000 TPY of soluble P 2 0
in
5.
An equally desirable alternate to this plan would be the of construction of an ammonia-urea plant in Bahia to take advantage locally available natural gas.
In the long run both should be established.
it is To promote the use of inexpensive direct application ammonia be built in the suggested that five direct application ammonia stations State of Sao Paulo.
These stations combined could handle about
000 for 3000 TPY of ammonia and would cost a total of about $275, five stations.
Until a new ammonia plant is built in Brazil, ammonia
for direct application can be obtained, as found most desirable,
either
through from the Petrobras ammonia plant at Cubatao, or imported Santos. the existing storage and transport facilities of ULTRAGAZ in These facilities can handle small 500-ton shipments of ammonia. be of The CIF Santos cost of ammonia in such small quantities would the order of $100 per ton.
-81 -
Brazilian Nitrogen Consumption
Nitrogen is one of the three major plant nutrients. in most mixed fertilizers but the greatest tonnage,
It is included
in countries with I
methods.
advanced agriculture, is used by various direct application
Nitrogen has the quickest and most pronounced effect of any of the plant nutrients on plant growth and improved crop yields.
Some
benefits of adequate nitrogen fertilization are: a) better soil water utilization, that is,
higher resistance to
drought;
b) encouragement of above-ground vegetative growth;
c) deep-green leaf color;
d) grain plumpness;
e) increased grain protein;
f) better assurance of regulation of P and K utilization; g) increased succulence,
especially desirable in forage crops
and green, leafy vegetables. There is a large potential for increased nitrogen utilization in Brazil, not only to improve agricultural crop yields, but also for the more efficient production of pastures for cattle feeding.
1 Direct application as used in this report refers to application of fertilizer in forms other than mixed (formulated) fertilizers.
-82The Present Situation
The evolution of nitrogen consumption in Brazil is shown in table 10, page 57.
In 1963 the level of consumption reached
65, 600 tons, as shown below in detail:
Table 14.
Brazilian national production of nitrogen in 1963
Company Petrobras - Cubatao CSN - Volta Redonda
Tons Product 1 56,000 T/ANL
7,200 T/AS2
Usiminas - Belo Horizonte 2,400 T/AS 65,600
Tons N 1l,4803 1,476 492 13,448
1 Ammonium nitrate limestone 2 Ammonium sulfate 3 Actual production of nitrogen was 14, 949 tons of nitrogen for Petrobras with 3,469 tons going to industrial uses and the
balance for fertilizer.
The total apparent consumption of nitrogen for fertilizer usage in 1963 was estimated from 1963 national nitrogen production, 1963 imports for Santos and 1962 imports for ports other than Santos augmented by 20 percent.
Table 15 summarizes this information.
Table 15.
Product
Ammonium sulfate
Brazilian production tons tons product nitrogen
9,600
1,968
Ammonium nitrate limestone 56, 000
11,480
Urea
-
Sodium nitrate
by products,
1963
Source - 1963 Estimated imports, Estimated imports':: Estimated imports*Imports-Santos Porto Alegre-Rio Grande Recife Other ports Total supply tons tons tons tons tons tons tons tons tons tons Percent product nitrogen product nitrogen product nitrogen product nitrogen product nitrogen of total
127,050
-
26,045
-
27,230
-
5,583
-
17,255
-
3,537
5,621
1,152
-
-
-
186,756
38,285
58.5
56, 000
11,480
17.6
-
9,640
4,338
426
193
1,495
674
156
72
11,717
5,277
8.1
-
19,660
3,047
2,663
413
300
48
9,ZZ4
1,431
31,847
4,939
7.6
1,650
247
3,322
498
19,828
2,975
4.5
Potassium sodium nitrate
-
10,852
1,6Z8
4,004
602
Ammonium sulfate nitrate
-
1,840
478
4,195
1,091
Other nitrogen fertilizers
-
956
196
Total
-
13,448
-
35,536
-
8,078
Percent of total
-
20.6
-
54.3
-
12.4
196Z imports plus 20 percent.
w
Sources of Brazilian nitrogen supply,
-
-
-
-
2,448 -
-
-
-
6,035
1, 569
2.4
502
865
177
4,269
875
1. 3
5,008 7.6
-
3,330
-
65,400
-
5.1
2
100.0
100.0
-84Analysis of table 15 shows that 58. 5 percent of the total nitrogen supply in 1963 consisted of ammonium sulfate,
17.6
1 percent was ammonium nitrate limestone , 8. 1 percent urea, 7. 6 percent sodium nitrate and the balance (8. Z percent) was other nitrogen products.
Just over one-fifth of the total supply
was produced nationally.
The principal nitrogen product pro
duced nationally, ammonium nitrate limestone, was produced entirely by Petrobras. Details of Petrobras nitrogen production for 1963 are as follows: 20,309 T NI-I 3 Produced 2,440 T NH
3
Sold as such
56,249 T HNO3 Produced 1,946 T HNO 3 Sold as such 3,667 T AN Produced 3,490 T AN Sold 56,050 T ANL Produced 55,468 T ANL Sold
1
Also known as Cal Nitro
-85-
As compared to agriculturally more developed countries, the consumption of nitrogen in Brazil is extremely low, as indicated in table 16. Notably absent in Brazilian nitrogen fertilization practice is the use of direct application of liquid nitrogen, as anhydrous ammonia, agua ammonia or nitrogen solutions.
In the United States, more direct
application nitrogen is applied as anhydrous ammonia than in any other form.
The reasons are simple:
(1) it is agronomically just as good
as any other source of nitrogen, (2) it is the cheapest way to get nitrogen in the ground, and (3) it is available in large quantities.
Nitrogen Imports
Seventy-nine percent of 1963 total nitrogen consumption in Brazil was imported at an estimated cost of
11. 9 million dollars in foreign
currency.
Imports of nitrogen into Brazil have been increasing at a more rapid rate than imports of other plant nutrients, having nearly tripled during the past ten years.
Imports in 1954 were equal to 16.5 thousand
tons of N compared with approximately 51 thousand tons in 1963. Over three-quarters of the nitrogen imported by Brazil comes from Europe, with West Germany accounting for nearly 48 percent of the total.
Chile supplied 15 percent in 1962, the United States 5.6
-86-
Table 16.
Unit consumption of Nitrogen in 1961 in various countries
Country
Kg of N consumed Per capita Per hectare cultivated land
Europe Denmark Netherlands Sweden France Spain Portugal Italy
27.1 19.4 14.2 12.7 9.0 7.9 6.6
44.5 215.0 29.5 Z7.8 12.9 16.9 21.0
Africa Egypt South Africa Morocco Kenya
7.4 3,3 0.8 0.6
59.7 5.0 1.2
1.3
Asia Israel Japan South Korea Philippines China
8.5 7.2 8.0 1. 6 0.6
53.8 81.7 66.3 5.7 3.5
America 14.8 4.8 4.7 4.2
19.0 17.1 27.1 1.9
Mexico
3.5
6.4
Chile BRAZIL Argentina
1.8 0.8 0.5
8.6 2.0 0.7
United States Costa Rica Peru Canada
-87 percent and Russia 3. 0 percent (table 17). By product,
68 percent of total nitrogen imports consisted of
ammonium sulfate,
urva - 10 percent,
sodium salt petre - 10 percent,
potassium salt petre - 6 percent, ammonium sulphonitrate - 5 percent, and other products I percent.
Future Requirements To meet the food requirements of a rapidly increasing population, particularly in areas such as the State of Sao Paulo, where the availability of fertile virgin land is exhausted,
increased use of
nitrogen and other plant nutrients is indispensable. Future nitrogen requirements were estimated by various methods.
A maintenance-basis estimate, based on the linear pro
jection of past nitrogen utilization, indicates a minimum nitrogen consumption of 90,800 tons by 1970.
How Self-sufficiency in Nitrogen Might be Attained Brazil can and should become self-sufficient in nitrogen pro duction.
The key is the local production of anhydrous ammonia
which can then be used in a variety of ways: a.
Direct application to the soil.
b.
Ammoniation of normal super and triple superphosphate.
c.
Manufacture of granular mixed fertilizers.
Table 17.
Origin of nitrogen fertilizer products imported into Brazil, 1962
Country
Product
Tons imported
Tons nitrogen
Percent of total N imports
Value 2
$
374.736 338,258 36,478
9,137 8,296 841
1,827 1,701 126
4.58 4.26 .32
Belgium (Total) Ammonium sulphate Ammonium sulphonitrate
26,286 25,496 790
5,43Z 5,227 Z05
13.62 13.10 .52
1, 135,333 1,099, 020 36,313
Chile (Total) Sodium salpetre Potassium salpetre
39,564 24,692 14,872
6,058 3, 827 2,231
15.19 9.59 5.60
2,785,701 1,808,862 976,839
France (Total) Ammonium sulphate Calcium ammonium nitrate
2,608 Z, 268 340
516 465 51
1.30 1.17 . 13
116,075 100,095 15,980
West Germany (Total) Ammonium sulphate Ammonium sulphonitrate Calcium ammonium nitrate Calcium nitrate Urea
87,356 74,303 6,876 1,780 496 3,901
19,116 15,232 1,788
267 74 1,755
47.94 38.18 4.48 .70 .18 4.40
4,104,681 3,257,034 390,146 85,071 27,764 344,666
Austria (Total) Ammonium sulphate Calcium ammonium nitrate
Holland (Total) Ammonium sulphate Urea
4,560
2,700
1,860
1,390
553 837
3.48 1.38 2.10
287,426 125,340 162,086
Italy (Total) Ammonium sulphate Urea
2,551
2,451
100
547
502
45
1.37 1.25 .1Z
117,485 108,762 8,723
100 100
20 20
.05 .05
Norway (Total) Urea
3,165 3,165
1,424 1.424
3.57 3.57
268,162 268,162
Russia (Total) Ammonium sulphate
5,999
5,999
1,230
1,230
3.08 3.08
236,560 236,560
197
197
88
88
.22 .22
18,057 18,057
30
30
15
15
.03 .03
2,992 2,992
10,833
10,833
2,22l
Z,221
5.57 5.57
449,006 449,006
100.00
9,905,709
Japan (Total) Calcium cyanamid
Switzerland (Total) Urea
Trinidad (Total) Urea
U.S.A. (Total) Ammonium sulphate Total Imports
192,3863
39,884
9,495 9,495
1 Source: Lohmann, Otto, Brazilian Fertilizer Imports, 1962, Sao Paulo, August 1963. 2 CIF price in U.S. dollars. Does not include fertilizer compounds.
-89 d.
Conversion to arnmnium nitrate and/or urea for direct applica tion, incorporation into mixed goods, manufacture of direct application nitrogen solutions and manufacture of ammoniun phosphates.
By 1970, assuming that imports of sodium nitrate from Chile and ammonia production by Petrobras at Cubatao will remain at about the present rate and that the steel companies' plans to expand ammonium sulfate production will be realized, the estimated supply of nitrogen would be that shown in table 18. Table 18.
Estimated 1970 nitrogen supply, by source, Tons
Material
Source
Brazil.
%N
Tons N 5,280
Imported
NaNO 3
35,000
16
Petrobras - Cubatao
NH 3
20,000
&;.2
16,440
CSN - Volta Redonda
(NH 4 )ZS0
4
18,600
20.5
3,810
Usiminas - Belo Horizonte
(NH 4 ) 2 SO
4
7,200
Z0.5
1,480
Cosipa - Sao Paulo
(NH 4 ) 2 SO
4
20,000
20.5
4,100
31,110
Total
To achieve self sufficiency therefore, local production of N should be increased by: 90,800 - 31,110 = 59,690 TPY N which is equivalent to 72, 500 TPY of anhydrous ammonia.
a=ri
-90As discussed in the following section, if all Brazilian plans for nitrogen production were realized, by 1970 there would be available 300, 000 tons of N or about three times the projected minimum requirement for the element. There are a number of alternate, about equally-attractive ways, to achieve self sufficiency in nitrogen. select one above the other.
There is no clear cut reason to
In the long run, all should probably be
carried out. To supply the deficit of 59,690 TPY of N by 1970, adapting current Brazilian plans, there are the following possibilities: Alte rnate I a. Petrobras remodels its installation at Cubatao to 140 TPD NH 3 = 49, 000 TPY NH 3 from present actual production of 20,000 TPY. Increments -
23,800 TPY N
b. Cia. Siderurgica Nacional at Volta Redonda makes 56,000 TPY NH 3 .
Increments -
46,000 TPY N
Total increments -
69,800 TPY N
There would be a surplus of 10,000 TPY of N or about 10 percent of the minimum requirements. absorbed.
This is not serious and would probably be
-91 -
The cost of these facilities would be of the order of magnitude of: a. Remodel Petrosbras
$ 4,500,000
b. CSN plant
15,500,000
Total
20,000,000
Since ammonia plants operate 350 days per year while the demand for ammonia is seasonal, money was included for a urea plant to take 90 percent of the NH 3 production. Alternate II a. Petrobras remodels Cubatao plant to 70 TPD NH 3 = Z4, 500 TPY N Increment b. A Z00 TPD NH 3 plant is built, either in Capuava Increment Total Increment
4,500 TPY N or Bahia 57,500 TPY N 62,000 TPY N
Supply and demand are almost exactly matched. As explained above, it is necessary to provide a facility to utilize the ammonia which is not sold directly.
Table 19 shows an estimate
of the possible distribution of products for this alternate assuming that excess NH 3 is converted to urea.
Table 20 gives a similar
estimate, assuming that excess ammonia is made into nitric acid and used to make nitrophosphates. Tables 21 to 25 show estimated capital and operating costs for
-92 a 200 TPD NH
3
plant located at Capuava operating on naphta by high
pressure steam reforming and for two alternate methods of handling the ammonia not used for direct application and ammoniation; (1) manufacture of prilled urea, and (2) manufacture of 15-15-0 nitrophosphate.
Capital for each of these two alternates is approx
imately: Capital Required
NH 3 Plant ZOO TPD - Storage Prilled Urea Plant 340 TPD
NH 3 - Urea
NH 3 - Nitrophosphate
$ 8,800,000
$ 8,800,000
7,500,000
0
Nitric Acid Plant 260 TPD
0
2,900,000
Nitrophosphate Plant 90 TPD
0
8,000,000
Total
16,300,000
19,700,000
The nitrophosphate alternate requires more capital. it also makes 42, 000 TPY of available Pz0 5 .
However,
Table 19.
Estimated distribution of NH 3 production for 1970 bulk of ammonia used to make urea
Product and source
TPY Product
Present Petrobras capacity 1.
Ammonium nitrate-limestone
-
122, 000
New 20) TPD plant at Capuava 1. Direct application NH 3 2. Anmmoniation of NSP & TSP
(assume 1/3 of production will be ammoniated)
a. NSP expected production by 1970 - 450, 000 TPY at 60 Kg NH 3 /ton NSP b. TSP expected production by 1970 - 100, 000 TPY at 69 Kg NH 3 /ton NSP 3. Urea 4. Losses
Percent N
TPY N
25,010
20.5
25,010
-
57, 543
6,000
8Z. Z
4, 932
9, 000
82. 2
7, 398
2,300
82.Z
1,891
87,830
46.0
40,402
-
2,920
Table 20.
Estimated distribution of NH 3 for 1970 - bulk of ammonia to make nitrophosphate
Product and source
TPY Product
Percent N
Z5, 010
Present Petrobras capacity 1.
Axm-nonium nitrate-limestone
New 200 TPD NH 3 plant at Capuava
TPY
IZZ, 000
-
ZO. 5
Z5, 010
-
57, 543
1.
Direct application NH 3
6,000
82. Z
4, 93Z
2.
Amrnoniation NSP and TSP
7; 000
82.2
5,754
3.
Nitrophosphate 15-15-0
279,000
15.0
41,850
4.
Losses
-
-
5,007
N
-95Table 21.
Estimated manufacturing cost of anhydrous ammonia in Brazil, 1963, U.S. dollars
Process: Capacity: Installed cost: Location: Note:
High pressure steam reforming of Naphtha 200 TPD - 70, 000 TPY ammonia $8,000,000 Capuava, Sao Paulo Does not include storage
Cost item
Quantity/ton
Naphtha* Power Cooling water Treated water Catalyst & chemicals Supplies Total
$30. 00/T 0.94 tons 5 mils/Kwh 770 KWh 4 /1000 gal 90 1000 gal 24 /1000 gal 1.3 1000 gal
Unit cost
Cost/ton NH 3
7 men/shift = 28 men at $600/year Vacation at 10% Social laws & fringe benefits 90% of direct labor Total direct labor
$28.20 3.85 3.60 0.31 0.65 0.40 $37.01 0.24 0.02 0. 19 0.45
Maintenance 5% x $8,000, 000
5.71
Depreciation 8%6 x $8, 000, 000
9.14
Taxes and insurance Z@ x $8, 000, 000
2. 29
Plant overhead 1501o direct labor
0.68
Total manufacturing cost
$55.28
* Cost difficult to estimate because of unsettled exchange situation. world standards $30 per ton is high.
By
ad
-96Table 2Z.
Estimated cost of anhydrous ammonia storage, Brazil, 1963, U.S. dollars
Type:
Low temperature (-28 F.) atmospheric single tank with single shell, umbrella roof, external insulation
Storage capacity:
8, 000 tons NH 3 = 40 days
Throughput:
70, 000 TPY NH 3
Installed cost:
$800, 000
Cost
Cost item
$/ton throughput
Power 50 KWh at 5 mils
0. 25
Direct labor 4 men at $600
0.03
Vacation & fringe benefits 90% of direct labor
0.03
Maintenance
4% x 800, 000
0.46
Depreciation
8%6 x 800, 000
0.91
Taxes & insurance
2% x 800, 000
0.23
Plant overhead 150% direct labor + fringe benefits Total storage cost
0.09 $2.00
-97-
Table 23.
Estimated manufacturing cost prilled urea,
Brazil, 1963, U.S. dollars
Process:
Total recycle - Inventa
Capacity: Installed cost: Note:
340 TPD - I12, 000 TPY prilled urea $7, 500,000 Includes 3 months storage and shippingmill
Cost/tori urea
Cost item
Ammonia CO Z Processoil
0. 60 T 0. 80 T 3.5 gal
Fuel
10 MM Btu
Process water
40 M gal
Treated water
60
Power Supplies
225 KWh
Shipping bags Clay
Unit cost
Quantity/ton
$57. 28/T from NH 3 plant 20 gal
gal
Production rate TPY urea 87,830 tons 112, 000 tons $34.37 -
$34.37 -
0.70
0.70
4.50
4.50
4/1000 gal
1.60
1.60
0.24/1000 gal
0.01
0.01
5 mils
1.13 0.50
1.13 0.50
3.00 1.20
3.00 1.20
47.01
47.01
0.20
0.16
0.18 0.38
0.14 0.30
45
MM Btu
0.02 T at $60/T
Total Operators 6/shift = 24 men Shipping 5 men 1 shift = 5 men Total -29 men at $600 Vacation and fringe benefits at 90%6 of direct labor Total direct labor Maintenance
5% x 7, 500, 000
4. 27
3.35
Depreciation
8% x 7, 500, 000
6.83
5.36
Taxes and insurance
2%6 x 7, 500, 000
1. 71
1.34
6.57
0.45
$60.77
$57.81
Plant overhead 150% direct labor Total manufacturing cost
-98Table 24.
Estimated manufacturing cost of nitric acid, Brazil, 1963, U.S. dollars
Process:
Oxi.dation of ammonia
Capacity:
87, 000 TPY 100% HNO 3 as 58% acid
Installed cost:
$2, 900, 000
Location:
Capuava, Sao Paulo
Cost item
Unit cost
Quantity/ton
Am,-nonia Cooling water Treated water
0. 290 T 43, 000 gal 180 gal
Catalyst
0. 0054 Troy oz.
Steam Powver Supplies Total
120 lb 210 KWh
$57.28 4 /1000 gal 0. 24/1000 gal -
0.65/1000 5 mils
Rate: 80, 500 TPY NHO 3 cost/ton HN03 $16.61 1.72 0.04 0.50
0.08 1.05 0. 50 20.50
Operators - 9 at $600
0.07
Vacation and fringe benefits 90% of direct labor Total direct labor
0.06 0.1 3
Maintenance
776 x 2, 900,000
2.52
Depreciation
8%6 x 2, 900, 000
2.88
Taxes and insurance
2%0 x 2, 900, 000
0.72
Plant overhead 150%6 direct labor Total manufacturing cost
0.20 $26.95
-99Table 25.
Estimated manufacturing cost of nitrophosphate, Brazil, 1963, U.S. dollars
Process:
Carbonitric - PEC
Capacity:
300, 000 TPY of 15-15-0
Installed cost:
$8,000, 000
Location:
Capuava
Note:
Includes 3 months storage and shippingmill
Cost item Phosphate rock Serrana 40% P 2 O5 Amrnonia-anhydrous Nitric-acid - 100% MgSO4 Power Fuel Supplies Clay Bags Total
Sao Paqlo
Quantity/ton
0.405 T 0.099 T 0.365 T 0.010 T 40 KWh 1. 3 MM Btu
Unit cost
Rate: 278, 000 TPY product cost ton product
$21.00 57. 28/T 26.95/T 80/T 5 mils 0.45 MM Btu
0.020 T
60/T
$8.51 5.67 9.84 0.80 0. 20 0.59 0.50 1.20 3.00 30.31
= 36 men = 15 men 51 men at $600 Vacation and fringe benefits 90% of direct labor Total direct labor Operators 9/shift Shipping 3-5 man crews
Maintenance Depreciation Taxes and insurance
7% x 8, 000, 000 8% x 8, 000, 000 2% x 8, 000, 000
Plant overhead 150% direct labor Total manufacturing cost
0.11 0. 10 0. 21 2. 01 2.30 0.58 0.32 $35.73
-100Present Brazilian Plans for Basic Nitrogen Production Current Brazilian plans for expanding fertilizer manufacture are detailed in Appendix A under - Project Information.
Those
concerning manufacture of ammonia and other basic nitrogen materials are summarized in table 26. Mixed Goods
1.
The State Government of Sao Paulo plan for the production of
nitrophosphates at Capuava, using raw material from the local Petrobras refinery for the production of ammonia is highly sensible except for its size which is perhaps too large for the present degree of development of the fertilizer market.
There
are planned 100, 000 TPY of N, 100, 000 TPY of PZO5 and 84, 500 TPY of KzO which, respectively, are 1.1, 0.5 and 1.5 times the projected minimum consumption of these elements for 1970. plant, if operated as planned, would cause serious disruption of the present fertilizer manufacturing and mixing industry in Brazil.
However, if its capacity were reduced to about
This
Table Z.
Summary of present Brazilian plans for expanding basic nitrogen production Plan
Sponsor and timing
TPY N
Mixed Goads - Nitrophosphates 1. State of Sao Paulo Department of Agriculture Timing: Uncertain Commrnt: May be too large for present market
1, 200, 000 TPY mixed nitrophosphate fertilizer at Capuava, Sao Paulo
2. Prosul Timing: Uncertain Comm-nt: A well planned dream
70, 000 TPY 16-14-0 nitrophosphate mixed fertilizer at Charquenda R. G. do Sul
11,000
3. Fertilnor Timing: Late 1965 Commmt: Possible-NH 3 -doubtful
143, 000 TPY 7-14-7 mixed goods on imported NH 3 . Own NH 3 by about 1970
10,000
100, 000
Ammonia - Urea 4. Petrobras Timing: 1968 Co-nmmt: Should be scheduled sooner
Remodel Cubatao plant from 70 TPD to 140 TPD NH3. Incremental
5. Petrobras Timing: by 1967 Comment: Possible-very worthwhile
70, 000 TPY NH 3 as 82, 500 TPY urea & 17, 500 TPY NH 3 on local natural gas in Bahia
55, 300
6. Cia. Siderurgica Nacional Timing: Plans just starting Co:nmm~nt: P reliminary planning
56, 000 TPY NH 3 using by-product N Z from O plant and H 2 from coke oven gases, at Volta Redonda R J
46, 000
7. Nitrobrasil Timing: Unknown Comment: Small plant-outcome unknown
35, 000 TPY NH 3 as 54, 500 TPY urea and 10, 000 TPY of NH 3 on Petrobras Bunker C. - at Jacarei-Sao Paulo
Z7, 500
Z3, 900
Ammonium - Sulfate 8. Cia. Siderurgica Nacional Timing: 1966-1970 Comm.mt: Probable
Increased steel production will mean in-
creased ammonium sulfate production: Pres ent=7, 200 TPY; 1966-13, 300 TPY; 1970=
18, 600 TPY; at Volta Redonda, R. J.
2, 300
Incremental
9. Usiminas Timing: 1964 Comment: Just starting production
New steel mill; by-product ammonium sulfate 7, 200 TPY, at Belo HorizonteMG
10. Cosipa Timing: 1964 Comment: Just starting Total Nitrogen Planned
1,500
Steel plant just underway. 20, 000 TPY ammonium sulfate at Sao Paulo-SP4 4,100 281,800
ail,
-102 50 percent of that projected in the original plan, it would be one of the most satisfactory solutions to the problem of making Brazil self sufficient in nitrogen. It should be noted that the P 2 0
5
in nitrophosphates is present as
dicalcium phosphate which is agronomically available, but not water soluble.
ft lacks the imme~diate response of water soluble P 2 0
5
.
Ho.vevvr, in Brazil's acid soils it should be more rapidly available than in sweet soils. 2.
Prosul's plan for nitrophosphates in Rio Grande do Sul, which
involves 11, 200 TPY of N and 9,800 TPY of P 2 0 5 , making NH 3 from oil or local coal, is technically sound, however, the nitrate form of nitrogen may be und .sirable for rice grown under water, which is one of the area's major crops. 3.
Fertilnor's plan for mixed goods, based on imported sulfur and
ammonia plus Olinda rock, is a fine concept.
It is doubtful that the
final step in their plans, the manafacture of ammonia, will be realized soon, however, the project contemplates 10, 000 TPY, N, 20, 000 TPY P20
5
and 10, 000 TPY K 2 0.
Am-nonia - Urea
1.
Petrobras' plan to remodel its Cubatao ammonia plant from 70
TPD to 140 TPD of NH 3 is very desirable and should be done as soon
-103 as possible.
The plant, at least should be modified to attain its nominal
capacity of 70 TPD = 24, 500 TPY NH 3 . has been 20, 000 tons in 1963.
Maximum production to date
The plant product is ammonium nitrate
limestone. 2.
Petrobras plan for Bahia to make 200 TPD = 70, 000 TPY of
ammonia as 82, 000 TPY of urea and 17, 500 tons of NH 3 for direct sales, using locally available natural gas, is very worthwhile.
There
is reported to be enough natural gas in Bahia for 1, 000 TPD of NH 3 = 350, 000 TPY NH 3 = 290, 000 TPY of N.
Such reserves are enough to
make Brazil self-sufficient in nitrogen for many years. 3.
The Cia. Siderurgica Nacional plan at Volta Redonda for 56, 000
TPY NH 3 using by-product nitrogen from a planned oxygen facility, and H 2 from its present coke oven gas is also sound.
It is reported
that they are going ahead with the oxygen plant, however, the ammonia part of the plan is very preliminary. 4.
Nitrobrasil's plan for 35, 000 TPY NH 3 as 54, 000 TPY of urea and
10, 000 TPY of NH 3 for direct sales, from Petrobras Bunker C, at Jacarei, S. P.,
is good and conventional.
The capacity of the plant
should probably be doubled to achieve greater economy.
Ammonium Sulfate
Plans for increased ammonium sulfate production by the steel
-104 companies, resulting from increased steel production, will very probably be realized by 1970 bringing national production to 45, 800 TPY = 9,400 TPY nitrogen.
Direct Application Nitrogen in Brazil
It is estimated that at present Brazil uses about 40 percent of its nitrogen for direct application, all as solid materials, mainly ammonium sulfate.
The cheaper liquid forms,
such as anhydrous
ammonia and aqua ammonia, are not used because they are not avail able and because there is a widespread misconception that the technology involved is too advanced for present Brazilian agricultural conditions. Brazil should start now to promote the use of direct application ammonia -- or aqua ammonia -- because it has proven, in other countries, to be the most economical source of nitrogen applied in the ground, as well as being equal to any other source of nitrogen in agronomic quality, where the soil is suitable. Brazil should not delay getting started with direct application liquid nitrogen until a plentiful supply of local amrnonia is available. As a matter of fact, it should prepare for that day by starting now, on a small scale, using either local ammonia from the Petrobras Cubatao plant or, if it cannot be made available,
imported ammonia which,
-105 in small 500-ton lots, can be unloaded in Santos and distributed by trucks utilizing available, existing facilities which belong to Ultragaz. It is recommended that at least five stations for direct application of liquid nitrogen, either as anhydrous or aqua ammonia, be installed in the State of Sao Paulo.
The choice between anhydrous and aqua
ammonia is a matter of local preference.
Anhydrous ammonia must
be converted into aqua at the distribution station. easier to apply than anhydrous.
Aqua is generally
The final cost of N in the ground
is about the same for aqua and anhydrous.
The cost of these five
stations would be about $275, 000, including all the necessary applicators and nurse tanks. A comparison of the cost of nitrogen to the farmer as ammonium sulfate and as liquid ammonia is shown on table 27.
It shows that
in Brazil, even with high-priced imported arnnonia, nitrogen can reach the farmer cheaper as ammonia than as anmonium sulfate. Because of the importance of direct application liquid nitrogen, the subject is discussed in detail in the following sections, including equipment and station costs.
Table 27.
Estimated cost of nitrogen to the farmer in Sao Paulo - comparison between direct application anhydrous ammonia and ammonium sulfate, U.S. dollars
Material
Applied As
Ammonium sulfate
3, 000 TPY anhydrous amminia imparted in 500 ton ship lots
Am. sulfate ZO.5% N
Anhydrous 82.2% N
$/ton
$/ton
$ 41.00 1.30 -
Cost CIF Santos Unloading Port storage-2 shipments at $2/ton x month Rail transportation to Sao Paulo Store -bag- load- administration-profit Truck transportation to farm-400 km at $0, 0167/ton x km Truck transportation to anhydrous or aqua station 500 km at $0, 042/ton x km Anhydrous or aqua station costs and profit Administration at 7 % sales
Aqua Z0% N
30, 000 TPY anhydrous ammonia imported in 5, 000 ton ship lots Anhydrous 82. 2% N
Aqua
20% N
$/ton
$/ton
$/ton
$100.00
$100.00
$ 85.00
$ 85.00
0.17 8.00 -
0.17 8.00 -
0.17 8.00 -
0.17 8.00
1.00 8.70 6.70
-
o-
-
-
21.00
21.00
21.00
21.00
-
24. 15
24. 15
-
11.54
26.00 11.54
26.00
9.65
9.65
Cost to farmer (not including his labor)
$ 58.70
$164.86
$166.71
$147.97
$149.82
Cost to farmer per ton of N
$286.34
$200.56
$202.81
$180.01
$182.26
Cost to farmer cents per pound N
$ 13.0
$
$
$
$
9.1
9.2
8.2
8.3
-107-
Sources of Information in Table 27
1. CIF Prices a. Amrnonium sulfate - actual price paid by importer in Sao Paulo b. Anhydrous ammonia - estimated as follows: 500 ton loads Cost FOB Caribbean Ocean freight Cost CIF Santos
$ 70 30 100
5, 000 ton loads $ 65 20 85
2. Unloading a. Ammonium sulfate - suggested by Wigg Shipping Co." b. Anhiydrous ammonia - 1, 500, 000 cruzeiros for 5, 000 ton ship = 300 Cr/ton at 1800 Cr/$ = $0. 17/ton - per "Ultragaz"
3. Anhydrous Ammonia Port Storage
$2/ton x month per "Ultragaz"
4. Ammonium S.ifate Rail Freight to Sao Paulo 13.20 Cr/ton x km in bulk x 100 krn = 1320 Cr at 1320 Cr/$ = $1. 00 - taken from rail rate schedule 5. Ammonium Sulfate Track Freight 25 Cr/ton x km in 10 ton trucks x 400 km - 10000 Cr/ton at 1500 Cr/ton = $6. 70. Average rate quoted by two trucking c ompanie s. 6. Anhydrous Ammonia Track Freight 62. 9 Cr/ton x km in 10 to 20 ton full trucks 88. 5 Cr/ton x krn in less than 3 ton lots per "Ultragaz , - 62. 9 Cr at 1500 Cr/$ - 0, 042 $/ton x km
7. Anhydrous Station Costs Per estimate table 8. Administration Expense - Anhydrous Ammonia Estimated
-1089.
Store - Bag -Load-Administration-Profit
Ammonium Sulfate
By difference between cost delivered in Sao Paulo and a recent sales price of 95, 000 Cr/ton at 1, 830 Cr/$ = $52/ton
10. Distance Sao Paulo to Farm Assumed 400 km covers Eastern Parana, most of Sao Paulo, Southern Minas Gerais to Belo Horizonte.
-109Types of Direct Application Nitrogen Products
There are several different kinds of direct application nitrogen products,
each having its own properties and technology.
Anhydrous Ammonia Anhydrous ammonia is shipped, stored, and applied as a highly compressed and liquefied gas.
When introduced deep into the soil by
suitable applicators, the liquid ammonia reverts to the gaseous state and is immediately captured by moisture and colloidal material in the soil.
It is then rapidly converted by soil organisms into the nitrate
form of nitrogen. Chemically, anhydrous ammonia consists of about 82 percent nitrogen aad 18 percent hydrogen. hand as NH 3 .
It is represented in chemical short
"Anhydrousr means without water.
If liquid ammonia is released in the atmosphere, it rapidly expands into a colorless gas.
Its rate of expansion is so great that large
quantities of heat are absorbed from the surrounding atmosphere.
As
a result any moisture present in the atmosphere is concensed into the dense, white vapor seen around applicator nozzles and other equipment when ammonia is bled into the air.
Anhydrous ammonia is non
corrosive to steel and itis not toxic or flammable. However, because it has a great affinity for water, it will immadiately react with water
-110
in the air or on the skin to form ammonium hydroxide, a strongly caustic compoand which can cause severe burns to living tissue.
Because of this and because of the pressure under which it is stored,
ammonia must be handled with the correct equipment and proper procedures.
Some advantages of anhydrous ammonia are: 1.
It has the highest amount of available nitrogen of any nitrogen material - 82. 2 percent.
2.
It is generally the lowest-cost form of nitrogen available to the farmer.
3.
Am.monia cdmbes real,.ly with clay and organic matter in the soil to resist b,'Nching,
4.
Amonlia can be applied at any time of the year in soils that are not extremely sandy.
5.
Ammonia is a (om of nlogen readily utilized by most cash crops.
6.
Ammonia has no inert ingredients to pay for or transport.
7.
Ammonia is easy to handle.
8.
Anhydrous ammonia may be stored the year around anywhere without fear of the solution crystallizing out because of low temperatures.
-111-
In countries with a well-developed agriculture, the use of anhydrous ammonia for direct application to the soil is increasing at a very rapid rate.
In the United States, more direct application nitrogen is applied
as anhydrous ammonia than any other direct application form.
Aqua Ammonia Aqua ammonia is a solution of anhydrous ammonia in water. Chemically, in this form, it is a base called ammonium hydroxide.
It
is a colorless liquid with the same pungent odor as anhydrous ammonia. Although the concentration of the solution can be varied widely, the most common solutions contain about 24 percent ammonia (about 20 percent nitrogen).
Solutions of this concentration can be stored at
atmospheric pressure under most circumstances. Aqua ammonia solutions can be handled in mild steel equipment, and while slightly higher in cost than anhydrous ammonia because of additional handling and storage costs, these solutions are enjoying in creasing and widespread usage.
It is somewhat easier to apply than
anhydrous ammonia since it does not require as much special equip ment and must only be injected about two inches into the soil. Aqua ammonia, to a great extent, enjoys the same advantages as anhydrous ammonia.
It does,
however, have some distinguishing
features which account for its selection over other nitrogen solutions in some cases.
-iZ-
I.
Aqua ammonia solutions can be stored year around without the solution crystallizing due to low tempe2ratures.
2.
Compatible materials, fungicides,
such as herbicides,
pesticides, and
may be added to aqua ammonia if proper pre
cautions are followed. 3.
Aqua ammonia exerts much lower pressure than anhydrous ammonia.
4.
Aqia ammonia does not require high pressure equipment and handling techniques.
5.
Aqaa ammonia can be applied to the soil for approximately one dollar per acre less than anhydrous.
This is due to the
extra power needed to apply anhydrous deeper in the ground.
Nitrogen Solutions for Direct Application There are two basic types of nitrogen solutions for direct appli cation, non-pressure and low-pressure.
Each of these types is
discussed in detail in the following sections: 1.
Non-Pressure Nitrogen Solutions Non-pressure nitrogen solutions are solutions of ammonium nitrate,
urea and water. nitrate and urea.
They contain nitrogen in all three forms, ammonium, Non-pressure nitrogen solutions are non-volatile
and can be used on the surface of the soil as a broadcast, a top-dress or a side-dress fertilizer.
These solutions are also "non-burning",
-113 which means they can be sprayed directly on foliage without the risk of injury to the plant.
Because of this, non-pressure solutions are
great favorites in wheat-producing areas waiere top-dressing is widely practiced. The concentration of nitrogen in non-pressure solutions is limited by the solubility of the constituents in water.
High concentration
solutions have salting out temperatures which are high enough to limit their use to relatively warm weather.
Non-pressure solutions can be
made with salting out temperatures low enough to permit their use in colder weather, but their lower nitrogen concentration makes them less economical. Non-pressure solutions are generally stored and handled in aluminum tanks and equipment.
Because their vapor pressure is
essentially zero, this equipment need not meet any pressure require ments. 2.
Low-Pressure Nitrogen Solutions Low-pressure nitrogen solutions are those nitrogen solutions
which have a vapor pressure not greater than 20 pounds per square inch.
They consist of free ammonia in combination with ammonium
nitrate and water.
Some solutions of this type also contain urea.
low-pressure solutions are volatile; that is,
All
they will release ammonia
into the atmosphere unless stored under pressure, consequently they
-114
must be injected from two to four inches below th2 soil surface.
Low
pressure solutions have several advantages over non-pressure types. They can be mad- higher in analysis, thus reducing the amount of material which needs to be handled and applied.
This has the additional
benefit of making them more economical. A wide range of low-pressure solutions can be made to meet local market preferences,
special crop needs,
and the broad temper
ature ranges that may be encountered in storage and on farms. Low-pressure solutions are more corrosive than other types of nitrogen solutions.
Thzy must be handled in aluminum alloy or stain
less steel tanks and equipment, capable of withstanding a pressure of 37. 5 pounds per square inch. In summary, the advantages of low-pressure solutions are: a. Only relatively shallow application is needed, so less power is required to pull the applicators. b. These solutions have a higher nitrogen content than non pressure solutions which means there is less product to handle per unit of plant food. c.
These solutions provide proven yield responses.
d.
Thay provide lower cost nitrogen than non-pressure solutions.
e.
They are easily handled.
f.
They are available in a wide variety of concentrations.
Am-nonium Nitrate Ammonium nitrate in the United States is the most popular solid form of direct application nitrogen.
Chemically, ammonium nitrate
is a salt containing about 33. 5 percent nitrogen in the slightly impure agricultural grade.
Am-nonium nitrate has long been a favorite for
plow-down and top-dress use.
It is also the most common form of
nitrogen used in bulk blended fertilizers. Am-nonium nitrate is a more expensive form of nitrogen than the liquid forms mentioned above, but is is widely used and has the advantage of being easy to handle in any type of dry spreading equip ment.
Thus, it lends itself to being stored and applied by the farmer
at his convenience with his own equipment. In the United States, although the demands of efficient farming will probably shift consumer preference to the more inexpensive and convenient liquid forms of nitrogen in the future, ammonium nitrate can be expected to retain its dominant position in the market for some years to come. presents
Hovever, the use of ammonium nitrate in Brazil
problems.
by the military and
Because of its explosive nature it is controlled is not generally available for use as fertilizer.
Urea Urea occurs naturally as an important component of urine, Peruvian
-116 guano, and poultry manure. all of which is available.
Pure urea contains 46. 6 percent nitrogen,
In recent years, synthetic urea has attained
for itsclf a share of the direct application market.
While it is some
its what more expensive than the other forms of nitrogen, it releases nitrogen slowly and avoids some of the loss of plant food through leaching.
ft is most widely used as a plow-down fertilizer.
Am-nonium Phosphate, Am-nonium Sulphate, and Other Solid Forms of Nitrogen Other solid forms of nitrogen are available and are used to some extent as direct application material.
These forms usually are at a
cost disadvantage except in special circumstances.
A few of the more
common types are listed below: 1.
Ammonium Phosphate There are two forms of ammonium phosphate,
monoammonium phosphate (11 - 48- 0) and diammonium phosphate (18-46-0).
The ammonium phosphates are used plow-down, top-dress,
and to some extent as side-dress fertilizers.
2.
Ammonium Sulfate
Ammonium sulfate is produced chiefly as a by-product of the
steel industry. nitrogen.
This by-product material contains about Z0. 7 percent
Ammonium sulfate is a major ingredient of mixed fertilizers,
and it is also widely used as a direct application material.
It is seldom
-117 used on unlimed soils because of its high physiological acidity. Where sulphur is lacking in the soil or air, it is valuable for its sulphur content. 3.
Potassium Nitrate Until recently, potassium nitrate has been too expensive for
use as a fertilizer. called saltpetre,
The usual grade of potassium nitrate, also
contains 13.2 percent nitrogen and 44 percent
potash. 4.
Miscellaneous Forms Sodium nitrate,
calcium nitrate, and cyanamid are some other
forms of solid nitrogen material which are used to a limited extent. Sodium nitrate,
imported from Chile, has some importance in Brazil.
How to Handle Aqua Ammonia Solution with Safety
Aqua ammonia solutions are simply a solution of anhydrous ammonia in water.
The solution will usually contain about 24 percent
ammonia but some solutions may contain a much higher percentage of ammonia.
Therefore, the effect of aqua ammonia solution is
nearly as harmful to human beings as the effect of anhydrous ammonia. Most aqua ammonia solutions are stored at zero gauge pressure or at the most, low pressures (3 to 17 PSI at 1000 F.).
-118 As a solution or as a gas, ammonia is very irritating to the skin, eyes and respiratory tract.
If its fumes are strong enough to cause
coughing, they can cause giddiness,
unconsciousness,
and even death.
The ammonia vapors from an aqua solution are lighter than air and, therefore, adequate ventilation is the best way to prevent accumulations. These vapors are hard to ignite, but under certain conditions they can burn or explode. Ammonia solutions are corrosive to copper, copper alloys, aluminum alloys, and galvanized surfaces. When handling aqua ammonia solutions or anhydrous ammonia, the following safe practices should be observed in order to avoid the possibility of serious injuries: 1.
Wear rubber cup type chemical goggles,
rubber chemical
gloves, and protective clothing on all exposed skin areas. Z.
Have a safety shower or a 50-gallon open top drum, filled with fresh water in areas where solution leaks,
splashes, or
spills may occur and have a first aid kit (ammonia type) available. 3.
Have a gas mask of the U.S. Bureau of Mines approved ammonia cannister type and a full rubber suit available so these can be wori if it is necessary to go into an area where there is a high concentration of ammonia vapors.
-119 4. If severe contact with aqua ammonia should occur, move the patient from the contaminated area immediately.
Flush the
contaminated areas of the body with large quantities of running water, remove any contaminated clothing under the running water, and call a doctor.
If the person is unconscious,
remove
him from the contaminated area; if he is not breathing, admin ister artificial respiration, administer oxygen if it is available, and call a doctor. 5. If a fire occurs,
extinguish it with water and remove the gas
from the atmosphere with a water spray or fog type nozzle. 6. Inspect aqua ammonia facilities monthly to make sure they are in safe working order.
Pay special attention to the condition of
hoses, valves, piping, housekeeping, nurse tanks, applicators and to safety equipment and first aid supplies. 7. Review the properties, dangers, and precautions necessary to safely handle aqua ammonia with each person handling this material at least yearly so these people will know the hazards present and what to do if an accident should occur. 8. This information is only a brief summary of information about aqua ammonia.
It is suggested that further detailed information
about the handling of aqua ammonia be obtained from a manufacturer or the Manufacturing Chemists Association, Washington, D.C.
Table 28.
Typical composition of direct application nitrogen materials
Nitrogen product
Total nitrogen percent
Composition by weight Ammonium Free nitrate Urea ammonia
Water
percent
percent
percent
percent
28.0
30.0
32.0
39.5 42.2 44.3
30.5 32.7 35.4
-
30.0
-
25.1
-
ZO.3
Low-pressure nitrogen solutions N-37
N-37U
N-41S
N-41U
N-41W
37.0
37.0 41.0
41.0
41.0
66.8 58.5 65.0 58.0 55.5
0 7.7 0 11.0 0
16.6 15.3 22.2 19.0 Z6.3
16.6 18.0 12.8 12.0 18.Z
Aioaioa N-82 N-20
82.2 Z0.0
99+ 24.3
0 0
Ammonium nitrate prills
33.5
Urea
45.0
Non-pressure nitrogen solutions N-Z8 N-30 N-3Z
0 0
0 0
95+
0
0
0
96+
0
0
-
-121Anhydrous Ammonia
Anhydrous ammonia is a liquid under pressure with a guaranteed 8Z. 2 percent nitrogen. 18 percent hydrogen. NH
It consists by weight of 82 percent nitrogen and Anhydrous ammonia has the chemical symbol of
Anhydrous means "without water."
.
It has a vapor pressure of
211 pounds per square inch at 1040 F and a saturation temperature of minus 108o F.
In its liquid state ammonia weighs 5.15 pounds per
gallon at 600 F. If liquid ammonia is released in the atmosphere it rapidly expands into a gas which is colorless, although it first appears as a dense white vapor due to the intake of heat from the atmosphere. Anhydrous ammonia is stored, transported, and otherwise handled as a liquid by keeping it under pressure in special containers. Ammonia is not flammable as distributed and used for agriculture, and is so classed in the United States by the Interstate Commerce Commission.
It is not toxic or poisonous, although in moisture it is an
alkali which can give severe caustic burns to living tissues.
Because of
this and the pressure under which it is contained, ammonia must be used with correct equipment and procedures. The most important agricultural use of ammonia is for direct application as fertilizer.
-122-
Advantages of Anhydrous Ammonia
1. Anhydrous ammonia has the highest guaranteed amount of
nitrogen of any nitrogen material - 8Z. 2 percent.
2. Ammonia is the most economical nitrogen fertilizer. 3. A farmer does not have to maintain his own anhydrous ammonia storage, nor does he have the risk of caked or broken bags of fertilizer. 4. Ammonia application equipment is efficient and available at
a reasonable cost.
5. Ammonia combines readily with a clay and organic matter in
the soil to resist leaching.
6.
Ammonia is a form of nitrogen readily utilized by most cash crops.
7. Directly applied, ammonia works with the soil bacteria to
decompose organic residues to humus.
8. Ammonia can be applied at any time of the year in soils that
are not extremely sandy.
9. There is no uneven fertilizer pattern from wind with correctly
applied ammonia.
10. Ammonia application is easy to combine with other tillage functions where agriculture is mechanized.
-123
11.
Am-nonia is easy to handle.
IZ.
Am-nonia contains no inert ingredients to pay for or trans port.
1 3.
Anhydrous ammonia may be stored the year around anywhere in Brazil without fear of the solution crystallizing due to low temperatures.
Agronomic Use
Anhydrous ammonia provides an important step to profit and prosperity for farmers by providing them with an excellent and economical source of the most critical plant food - nitrogen. Anhydrous ammonia is knifed into the soil at root zone depths of six to eight inches.
In general ammonia spreads about three to four
inches from th.e release point in the soil, although some ammonia goes farther in cracks and root channels.
In other words, the ammonia
of concentration decreases going outward in a band from the point release.
As a result, the young roots first reach low concentrations
when small amounts of nitrogen are needed. Anhydrous ammonia can be successfully applied throughout a long season.
The general application periods are during pre-plant and
side-dressing.
-124-
Preplant application of anhydrous amminia can be performed any time from about eight weeks before planting up to the time o' planting the crop.
Preplant application insures that adequate nitrogen is Moist soils
available to the crops from the start of seed germination.
are in excellent condition for preplant application because they are normally cultivated into good tilth in preparation for planting. Crops can be satisfactorily side-dressed with anhydrous ammonia. Side-dressing may be done from the time of germination up to the time the crop is too big to move the equipment through it. Ammonia application to young, growing small grains or pastures is termed top-dressing.
Anhydrous ammonia can be successfully
applied provided the soil is in good tilth, well mulched and not exces sively wet or trashy.
Smal grains should be top-dressed before the
plants get too large, about six inches maximum height.
If the seed
was drilled instead of broadcast, the top-dressing application should be made in a cross direction to the row.
Immediately after top
dressing, the field may have a ragged appearance, with a few plants uprooted.
Nevertheless, the crop soon grows out of this condition
and the desired yield increases are generally obtained. Anhydrous ammonia should be correctly applied, six to eight inches below the surface.
Soil tilth should be in good condition for application
loose and friable - with no undue amoant of trash or clods.
Soil
-1Z5 moisture should be below the field capacity (point where free drainage ceases).
Higher rates of ammonia application for higher yields must
be coupled with other good management practices in crop production to obtain optimum results. Irrigation application of anhydrous ammonia is advantageous. Less application labor and equipment is required than for any other fertilizing method.
Nitrogen can be applied through irrigation when
a crop is tco big for a tractor to pass through.
It keeps to a minimum
the number of times equipment must be moved over the soil and thereby reduces compaction and production costs.
Anhydrous ammonia in
irrigation water allows constant feeding of crops.
Frequent and
smaller application of nitrogen then becomes practical. The Anhydrous Ammonia Station
General Principles Locating a nitrogen station whether it is anhydrous ammonia, aqua ammonia, or nitrogen solution, is basically the same.
There must be
a substantial agricultural area and potential market for nitrogen reasonably close to the station. road or on a railroad siding.
It is helpful if it is located on a main
Ample room is desirable for its operation
and it should not be too near homes or business areas.
In the United
States a good station will sell not only nitrogen, but atso phosphate,
-126 potash, and minor elements based on crop needs and returns. Generally, anhydrous ammonia works best in level to slightly rolling,
uniform soil areas where a reasonably high rate of nitrogen
per acre is needed.
Since anhydrous ammonia must be applied six to
eight inches in the soil and "sealed in", medium to heavy soil is preferred. ferred in sandy,
good textured, well drained,
Anhydrous ammonia is not pre
rocky, wet, hard pan, buckshot soils or on small
farms.
The Anhydrous Ammonia Station Equipment
The basic equipment needed for handling ammonia is a storage vessel.
It can be tank car, bulk storage tank, nurse tank, or the tank
on field application equipment.
All ammonia tanks are constructed of
steel according to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers' specifications and designed for 250 PSI working pressure. cylindrical in shape with rounded ends or heads.
Most are
All tanks must have
certain openings to which various valves, hoses, compressors, other fittings may be attached.
or
These tanks range in capacity from
100 to 30,000 gallons and ammonia may be stored in them the year around without refrigeration or other protection.
Ammonia may be
stored in large spherical 2,700 ton capacity Hortonspheres with a to 460 F. working pressure of 60 PSI, provided the ammonia is cooled
-127 or below.
Today ammonia is also stored in 15, 000 ton cylindrical
tanks at lower pressure, provided the temperature of the liquid ammonia is held near 00 F. Most ammonia stations have one or more 6,000, or 30,000 gallon steel storage tanks. working pressure.
These tanks are rated at 250 PSI
The tank size chosen depends upon expected volume
of sales and the method of transportation used.
These tanks are
permanently installed on steel or concrete saddles. States,
12,000, 18,000,
In the United
generally speaking, a station can handle up to 250 tons of
ammonia annually through a 12,000 gallon tank; 250 to 350 tons through an 18,000 gallon tank, and 350 to 600 tons through a 30,000 gallon tank. The put4hrough will vary depending on the type of delivery, service, and length of the local application season.
Smaller-size tanks are
satisfactory only when dependable truck transport is available. At each ammonia station, some method of transferring the ammonia from the tank car or transport to storage tanks is needed.
Equipment
is also required to transfer ammonia from storage into 1, 000 gallon nurse tanks for delivery to farms.
The usual transfer procedure is to
pump the vapor from the tank being filled into the one being emtied. The liquid then flows, through separate lines, lower pressure.
into the tank with the
Special vapor compressors are used for this purpose.
It is desirable to have an enclosure around the compressor and main
-1Z8 valves to the tank for safety reasons. Two pipe lines are needed from the storage tank and compressor direction out to the point where cars are unloaded, and two in the other to the point where nurse tanks are loaded. vapor and one for the ammonia. direction from the vapor.
One line is used for the
The ammonia flows in the opposite
It is a good idea to color code the liquid
and the vapor fittings to prevent mix-ups when connecting transfer lines.
The lines consist of heavy-duty pipe with the necessary cut-off
valves, elbows, gauges, ammonia hose and couplings.
These should
and be arranged to reach a convenient loading spot, yet be as short free of bends as possible to keep friction to a minimum. Each anhydrous ammonia station should have about 10 applicators and 15 nurse tanks.
Each of the anhydrous applicators will cost about
$800 for a complete "heavy duty" unit.
The 1,000 gallon nurse tanks,
including trailers, will cost approximately $800. scale Ammonia is sold by weight, therefore, a heavy duty platform is needed to weigh the nurse tanks before and after filling. should Every anhydrous ammonia station or aqua ammonia station for be furnished with a copy of the Anhydrous Ammonia Handbook American Agriculture , or its equivalent.
It is published by the
Tennessee; Agricultural Institute, 304 Claridge Hotel, Memphis, price - $3.50 per copy.
-129
.
Figure 35.
.
.{
Anhydrous ammonia nurse tanks
-130
.- I (.;
A U.S. pull-type applicator
4.-
K.
' ..
.:%
~
,K'
.
I
A,
4",.
.
.,
'
"L
j
eI
'
,'k '''
e
Tractor-mounted applicator used at Luiz de Queiroz Superior School of Agriculture, Piracicaba, February, 1964.
Figure 36. Applicators for anhydrous ammonia.
-131-
Tal le 29.
Specifications and costs of an anhydrous ammonia station, Brazil
Storage Capacity
30,000 Gallons
Tank dimensions: Inside diameter of tank Overall length of tank Weight - pounds
108 inches 64 feet 6 inches 80,000 U, S. Dollars
Cost Tank Delivery Site preparation Foundation Compressor Valves & piping Installation Electrical Contingency
$ 9,700
Battery limits total
$15,900
5-ton shipping scale 2 Office, furnished & equipped 400 Ft at $20/Ft2 10 applicators at $800 15 nurse tanks on trailer at $800 2 pick-up trucks at $3,500 TOTAL
800 200 600 1,800 1,200 800 300 500
1,500 8,000 8,000 12,000 7,000 $52,400
-132-
Table 30.
Anhydrous ammonia station operating costs
Basis: 600 TPY NH 3 - 60 operating days - Brazil,
Rate $/working $ Total/ day day No. Labor: Station manager Station clerk Station attendant Total
1 1 2
$10.00 5.00 2.50
$10.00 5.00 5.00 $20.00
Fringe benefits at 60 percent of labor costs Total labor & supervision
U.S.dollars
$ Total/ 60 days
$
600 300 300 $ 1,200
720 $ 1,920
Maintenance 6 percent x $52,400 investment
3,140
Depreciation 7 percent x $52,400 investment
3,670
Taxes and insurance 1 percent x $5Z,400 investment Supplies - utilities
Total operating costs Profit 10 percent x $5Z,400 investment Total Per ton NH 3
5Z0 100
$ 9,250 5,240 $14,490 $ 24.15
-1 33Specification for Anhydroit, Anmnmonia Slation
Furnish and install an anhydrous anmnionia bulk storage plant consisting of the following:
Storage Tank Flrnish and install one 18,000 gallon anhydrous ammonia storage tank designed for 250 PSI working pressure the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Code rated. should !e X-Rayed.
Al
welded joints on tank shell
The :.rnk should have a minimum shell thickness
of .78 inch and a head thickness of .439 inch.
The tank should be
equipped with the following openings: Relief valves openings Vapor Volume gauge (float type fixed outage gauge set at 85%) Fixed tube and pressure gauge Liquid - bottom inlet (with deflector) Manway - 16 inch diameter Thermowell Drain If the tank is equipped with flange nozzle openings, flanges should be steel 300 PSI design working pressure.
If couplings are to be used
on tank, extra heavy couplings should be used.
Ammonia Compressor Furnish and install one anhydrous ammonia gas transfer compressor to be a two stage air-cooled type having a piston displacement of not less
-134Anhydrous Ammonia Tank Car
/
Flexible Hose
Anhyd rous Ammoniam Tank urse
T
lief Valves st at 250 psi)
s
Fm
o
Liquid Ammonia to Storage
4h
5 HP Anhydrous
~Ammonia or Field
U"Flexible
T ransfe r
apiaor Line.
Compressor
_
/ ,
Fill & Vapor,,
.,
Withdrawal
Nurse Tank
or Field Applicator
Figure 37.
j,
I
Anhydrous ammonia station layout
.
-135 than 14.0 C. F.M. at approximately 600 RPM.
The compressor
should be capable of taking suction at a maximum of 250 PSIG and producing a maximum discharge pressure of 250 PSIG.
Compressor
should be capable of unloading a 10,000 gallon anhydrous aninionia tank car in 4 hours.
Compressor should be equipped with one four
way transfer valve, scale trap, adequate high-pressure relief to protect ammonia compressor and two pressure gauges have a 0 to 400 PSI scale.
Furnish one 5 HP 1750 RPM 3 phase and/or single phase
60 cycle 220 volt open drip-prouf, high-starting torque motor with V-belt drive all mounted on a steel base.
(Motor current character
istics to follow with each order).
Electrical Compressor should be complete with a 60 amp fuse disconnect and size 1 or lP manual starter equal to Allen-Bradley Noma type 1, bulletin 609.
Electrical feeder supplying bulk plant should not be
smaller than 3 - No.
10 weather-proof wire for 3 phase current and/or
3 - No. 6 weather-proof wire for single phase 230 volt current.
Concrete Piers Steel reinforced concrete piers should be erected on undisturbed soil and be of sufficient size to provide a soil loading not to exceed 1,200 lb./sq. ft.
Use 3,000 lb. per square inch compressive strength
-136 concrete when constructing tank piers.
Piping and Fittings All pipe should be schedule-80 steel pipe. forged steel, at least 300 pound class. screwed or welded 300 pound class.
Flanges should be
Fittings should be either
Litharge and glycerine could be
used on screwed fittings, but back-welding would be preferred.
Before
ammonia is admitted to a new storage system, the entire system should be tested for leaks by introducing 150 PSIG of air pressure and swabbing all joints with soapy water.
If liquid and vapor lines are to be installed
under ground, wrap each line with a covering of Polyken protective tape coating after the system has been tested for leaks.
The purpose
of the coating is to reduce external corrosion and piping failure. Field tank loading risers, rail car unloading risers and transport unloading connections should be securely anchored and supported.
Valves Valves should be all steel and rated for at least 300 PSIG working pressure.
Valves should be equal to the type manufactured by Bastian
Blessing Rego Globe and angle valves screwed or flanged type No. A 7513A.
These valves have a working pressure of 400 PSIG.
Wherever
a portion of a line carrying liquid ammonia can be isolated as between two valves,
a relief valve must be provided to relieve hydrostatic
-137 pressure.
Provide a 1/4" Rego No. A 8002 V. relief valve.
Provide
a manually operated bleed valve to relieve the press ire at all hose connections before breaking unions.
TanX Connection Liquid and/or vapor tank connection should be provided with excess flow valve.
Liquid outlet should have a 2" x 2" Rego No. A 3292 excess
flow valve and a vapor connection with a 1/4" x 1 1/4" Rego No. A 3182 excess fluw valve. tank valves.
Irmediately after the excess flow valve, provide
Provide a 2' flexible steel hose to connect from storage
tank liquid and vapor valves to the 1" vapor and Z" liquid lines.
The
flexible steel hoses allow for movement due to tank settling or temperature expansion and contraction.
Relief Valve Relief valves should be equal to the type manufactured by Bastian Blessing Rego relief valve manifold A 7564 G containing 3 relief valves type AA 3135 relief valves.
The relief valve manifold enables, any one
of the three installed safety relief valves to be replaced while container is under pressure.
Relief valves should be provided with rain caps
and vent stacks eight feet above top of tank.
The relief valves should
be set at 250 PSIG discharge pressure; any two having a capacity of 11,400 cubic feet per minute suitable for tanks having surface area up
-138 to 2,032 square feet.
Anhydrous Ammonia Hose All flexible hose connections should be equal to B.
F.
Goodrich
anhydrous ammonia hose having a working pressure of 350 PSIG with a minimum bursting pressure 1750 PSIG.
Hose should be branded with
the name anhydrous ammonia and also show recommended working pressure.
All ammonia hoses should be fitted with high pressure lug
clamp type hose connections.
On the liquid line from the tank car
between the tank car valve and the hose connection, a 2" x 2" excess flow valve Rego No. A-3292 should be installed.
The Aqua Ammonia Station
General Principles
Ammonia The same general principles outlined in "The Anhydrous Station" Section will apply here.
The Aqua Ammonia Station Equipment The aqua ammonia station usually requires an aqua ammonia
hoses convertor, a storage tank, scales, and the pumps, valves and is produced necessary for making and handling aqua. Aqua ammonia by dissolving anhydrous ammonia in water.
Commercial grades of
-139 aqua usually test from 20 to 24 percent nitrogen.
An aqua ammonia
solution containing 20. 6 percent nitrogen will have no pressure up to 990 F.
At 1040 F.
the pressure will be only a modest, 2 PSI.
Mild steel tanks with welded seams are generally used for storing aqua ammonia. when in use.
They are designed to be operated with breather vents
The ammonia fumes that may escape through this vent
when the pressure is great enough to cause the vent to open should be bubbled into a barrel of water, through a hose connected to the vent, in order to avoid the obnoxious odor that might be caused by ammonia fumes. To produce aqua ammonia, 75 gallons of good water are needed per minute.
It takes 18 or 19 thousand gallons of water to convert a
10, 000 gallon rail tank car of anhydrous ammonia to aqua ammonia plus any additional cooling water needed.
Therefore, it is essential
that an aqua ammonia station have access to a good water supply. An aqua ammonia station also requires a convertor to dissolve the ammonia in water.
It consists of a 21,400 gallon steel tank with a
30 pound working pressure.
It is used as follows.
A known amount
of water is pumped into the tank and anhydrous ammonia is slowly injected into the water through holes in a pipe in the bottom of the tank. The water is circulated from an outlet at the bottom of the tank through a spray pipe in the top of the tank, by the use of a circulating pumping
-140 system.
This cools and mixes the anhydrous ammonia and water in a
closed system to prevent loss.
It takes 6 to 12 hours to make Z0, 000
gallons of aqua ammonia solution containing 20. 6 pe -cent nitrogen using this convertor,
in the event faster production of aqua ammonia
is needed, more efficient convertors are available. Factors to be Considered in Selecting an Aqua Ammonia Station A 10, 000 gallon tank car contains Z6 tons of anhydrous ammonia. When dissolved in water it will produce 106 tons or 27, 397 gallons of aqua ammonia containing 20.6 percent nitrogen or 25 percent ammonia. This concentration of aqua ammonia has two pounds of pressure at 1040 F.
The cost of the water, electricity, and labor to convert the anhydrous
to aqua is approximately 1/4 cent per pound of nitrogen per gallon.
The
specific gravity is 0. 911 and 64.1 gallons contains 100 pounds of nitrogen at 600 F.
A 1, 000 gallon nurse tank will hold 1, 560 pounds
of nitrogen as aqua ammonia. Due to its low pressure, aqua ammonia is safer for the "hired man" to handle than anhydrous ammonia or low pressure solutions. It has the same good characteristics in the soil as anhydrous ammonia and has to be injected only three or four inches, about half the depth anhydrous ammonia has to be applied.
Due to this fact it costs
approximately $1. 00 less per acre to apply aqua ammonia than to apply
-141 anhydrous ammonia.
A Z6 ton car of anhydrous ammonia will supply
the nitrogen for 520 acres at the rate of 82 pounds of nitrogen per There
acre as anhydrous ammonia or converted into aqua solution.
fore, a saving in cost of approximately $520.00 per car of anhydrous ammonia can be made by converting the anhydrous into aqua.
This
saving will more than take care of the $106.00 conversion cost and the extra handling expenses.
In addition, aqua ammonia can be stored in
subzero weather without difficulty, the same as anhydrous.
It can be
stored in mild steel containers that cost much less than the 250-pound pressure equipment needed for storing and handling anhydrous ammonia. It is also safer to handle, than anhydrous ammonia. In a recent issue of "Feeds Illustrated", Frank Kaiser gave the following comparison between the cost to the farmer of nitrogen from anhydrous ammonia and aqua ammonia applied to the soil at Watseka, Illinois.
Anhydrous Ammonia (82% Nitrogen) Application: 40 acres per day ...
using 5-bottom plow.
Rate - 70 lbs. of N per acre. A ton of anhydrous ammonia contains 1, 640 lbs. of N.
At the
rate indicated, this is enough N to cover 23.4 acres. Selling price of anhydrous ...
$140.00 per ton.
Application charge, $2.00 per acre times 23.4 acres ...
$46.80.
-142-
Total cost of applying a ton of anhydrous
...
$186.80
or 11. 4 cents per lb. of N applied.
Aqua Ammonia (20% Nitrogen) Application: 85 acres per day Rate - 70 lbs.
...
using 3-bottom plow.
of N per acre.
A ton of aqua ammonia contains 400 lbs. of N, or enough to
cover 5.7 acres at this rate.
Selling price of aqua, 20% N
..
$35.00 per ton.
Application charge, $1. 00 per acre times 5.7 . ..
5.70
$40.70
$40.70 divided by 400 lbs. N equals about 10. 2 cents per lb. of N applied. Each station should have five applicators. applicator will cost approximately $800.
A heavy duty aqua
A minimum of eight 1, 000
gallon nurse tanks are needed for each station.
Each aqua nurse tank
costs approximately $800. About the same amount of anhydrous ammonia can be expected to move through an aqua station as was outlined for an ammonia station. In the United States aqua usage is expected to increase in the next few years for the following reasons. 1. It is safer for the hired man to handle than anhydrous ammonia or low pressure solutions.
-143-
Z. It can be applied at lower costs per pound of nitrogen than nitrogen solutions at any rate per acre, and is cheaper than anhydro,;o ammonia at rates below 60 pounds of nitrogen per acre.
At higher rates it is just as economical as anhydrous.
3. Pound for pound of nitrogen applied it is just as efficient in crop production as nitrogen solutions or anhydrous ammonia. Aqua ammonia may be used to good advantage in any concentrated farming area where low pressure nitrogen solutions or anhydrous ammonia can be used, or in a
.
area where a non-pressure
nitrogen solution is knifed in the soil. 4. It does not have to be applied as deep as anhydrous. .
It costs less to apply than anhrdrous which must be knifed 6 to
8 inches deep.
6. It can be applied faster than anhydrous. 7. There is less chance of losing the nitrogen after application than anhydrous ammonia due to its lower pressure.
Anhydrous Ammonia R.R. Car
R
Valve
coRelief
19, 000 Gal. Make-up Tank Re lie f Valve L
.
R e cyc le /Loading
i
mPump
R. R. Ties
Gravel Pad
.
19, 000 Gal. Tank Storage
Loading Loading 1-ump
Pafr Nurse Tank or Applicator
(optional)
Delivery Truck
Figure 38.
Aqua ammonia converter station
-145-
Table 31.
Specifications and cost of an aqua ammonia stat;on, U.S. dollars
21,400 gallon 30 PSI steel tank, centrifugal pump, with 7 1/2 H.P. Ex Proof Motor, fittings and piping necessary for converting anhydrous $ 5,000.00 ammonia to aqua ammonia. Total cost 6000 gph well - complete
6,000.00
20, 000 gallon mild steel tank and fittings
2, 500. 00
Piping and loading pump
1,000.00
Electrical
500.00
Safety equipment
200.00
Freight
600.00
Site preparation
300.00
Foundation & erection
1,000.00 $17,100.00
5 Ton shipping scale
1,500.00
Office
8,000.00
5 Applicators at $800
4,000.00
8 Nurse tanks at $800
6,400.00
2 Pick-up trucks at $3,500
7,000.00
TOTAL
$44,000.00
-146-
Table 32.
Aqua ammonia station operating costs
Basis: 600 TPY NH
3
- 60 operating days - Brazil, U.S.
No. Labor: Station manager Station clerk Station attendants Total
dollars
Rate $/working $ Total/ day day
1 1 3
$10.00 5.00 2.50
$10.00 5.00 7.50 $22.50
Fringe benefits at 60 percent
of labor costs
Total labor & supervision
$ Total/ 60 days
$
600 300 450 $ 1,350
810 $ 2,160
Waiting time on NH 3 truck
2,700
Maintenance 6 percent x $44, 000 investment
2,640
Depreciation 7 percent x $44, 000 investment
3,080
Taxes and insurance 1 percent x $44, 000 investment
440
Supplies - utilities
150
Total operating costs Profit 10 percent x $44,000 investment Total Per ton NH 3
$11, 170 4,400 $15,570 $ 26.00
-I 17
-
PHOSPHAT E
Brazil will become much less dependent on imported phosphate through the development of its own reserves of phosphate rock and the implenentation of some of the fertilizer industry's plans for the ,ilanufacitirC of Soluble P205.
If the national consumption were to 190,000 to 200,000 TPY of P 2 0
follow the trend of past consumption, would be required by 1970.
Feasible present plans indicate that
B razil could be self-sufficient at that time,
Fortunately, located i
5
and at that tonnage.
large and suitable reserves of phosphate are well
the north, central and southern parts of the country so as
to provide adequate coverage for the agricultural areas now in use and considered for the near future.
Figure 39 shows the location of
major Brazilian fertilizer raw materials plants in 1963.
Taking the
major known reserves and superimposing some of the plans now being developed for their utilization, the general picture of phosphate in Ekrazil, by broad areas,
would appear to be as outlined below.
Northeast Region
The major well-known reserve is that controlled by Fosforita Olinda near Recife.
The latest information indicates a reserve of
30 to 50 million tons, probably nearer to 30 million.
Of this only
3 or 4 million tons can be mined by present open pit methods, with
-148-
U I }0MOIRTE
"
I
AAGA
AWOKAS~
21, ~QNDONIA
-, ., .' PIeAUa"6I0"TAL-1,40T
a
. AATO GOSSO
147fT7,0 CSN~~~0 AmS
JJ
""
U
"AGA
'
"t -
492 TN 1 3,IY48
'
Araxa Quimbrasil Serrote
Total
60, 000 TPY
17, 100 T PZ05
30, 000 TPY 38, 000 TPY 11,500 TPY
8, 700 13, 600 3, 250
,,
42,650
it
139,500
Figure 39.
S2UCII
"'S.
'
,
E .
. .
SIXTO
ll+
t ".4114 PARI'
Phosphate Production 1963 1 Olinda
,
/
Am.S - 1, 476 TN 200 T 7, 000 56, T ANL - 11, 480 TN',," 2, 400 T AS T otal
T
------..
Nitrogen Production 1963
USIM INAS
4
TO
HONDONtlA
CSN Petrobras
NS
'4
It
UAUWA
A.WARIM
Location of major Brazilian fertilizer raw materials plants, 1963
u.:'
-149 existing equipment, due to high overburden.
Some development work
has been done on underground mining techniques, and estimates have been made on equipment required for surface mining of the high over burden portions of the deposit.
The necessary equipment is expected
to require $1, 000,000 to $1, 500,000, probably mostly with foreign exchange cover.
While a well-designed and maintained processing plant, with a capacity of at least 200, 000 TPY of products is in operation, high freight costs and market limitations have caused the plant output to drop from a high of 165,000 tons in 1959 to a low of 50,000 tons in 1963, with resulting financial problems for the owners,
since the break
even is believed to be in the range of 80, 000 to 100, 000 TPY of product. In the past, high freight costs have been due more to port costs and the mandatory use of Brazilian ships than to any technical or equipment Added to this was the fact that foreign rock was protected
limitations.
by a low official exchange rate, while Olinda rock had to move and sell at the free rate.
This latter situation has now been eliminated.
Another problem is that plant production is about equally split between two grades of material. percent P 2 0
5
The high-grade material is 33-34
, a reasonably good acidulation material, sold dry,
unground for the manufacture of normal superphosphate.
The other
material is a fine fraction, 50 percent of the concentrator output,
-150 24-25 percent PZ0
5
, high in silica, 2Z-23 percent and quite high in This latter material is not
iron and aluminum, about 50 percent.
suitable for acidulation to normal superphosphate (NSP) and would be relatively expensive and difficult for the manufacture of H3PO4. Current practice is to blend the low and high-grade materials and sell a product of 28-30 percent Pz05, ground and bagged for direct application to the soil,
No practical method exists at the present
time for the concentration of the fine, low-grade material whereby it can be made suitable for acidulation. Sales in 1963 were 60,000 tons,
of which 50,000 tons were pro
duced and 10,000 tons taken from inventory. mostly sugar producers,
Of this, the Northeast,
used 25,000 tons of 28-30 percent P 2 0
5
,
ground for direct application and 5,000 tons were sold to Profertil,
an acidulator in Recife, presumably at 33-34 percent P205.
This
leaves 30, 000 tons which were shipped to other parts of the country. Approximately 1Z, 500 tons were shipped to Santos.
This tonnage must
have gone in bags, ground for direct application, since the bulk loading facility at the port at Recife did not appear to have been operated for at least a couple of years. The Fosforita Olinda management plans to produce about 100, 000 tons in 1964, which might be distributed as follows: Profertil has indicated an expansion to 24, 000 tons of NSP for the
-151 near future from the 12,100 tons produced in 1963. about 14,400 tons of 33-34 percent P 2 0
5
This would require
rock.
Companhia Agro Industrial Igarassu at Recife expects to start up a new dicalcium phosphate plant for 50 TPD of 40 percent P 2 0 Operations might get under way in August of 1964.
5
material.
At full capacity,
this operation could use some 18,000 TPY of 33-34 percent material and perhaps as much as 5,000 tons in 1964. Assuming that sales of rock in the Northeast for direct application increase to 30, 000 tons of 28 percent rock, the total sold locally would be on the order of 50,000 tons at a reasonable maximum.
Sales to the
rest of the country would have to increase to 50, 000 tons of direct application material from the 30,000 sold in 1963, which might well be possible under 1964 conditions of free exchange rate for fertilizer, shortage of exchange cover and closer control of labor practices. If Fertilnor were to build their proposed plant for 143, 000 TPY of 7-14-7 (nominal mix) at Recife, rock could be required.
another 60,000 tons of 33-34 percent
Adding this to Profertil, Companhia Agro
Industrial Igarassu and the local direct application requirements, there could be a production of 140,000 TPY of Fosforita Olinda rock phosphate for the Northeast, without shipments to other parts of the country.
At such rates, assuming the low-grade problem could be
solved by dropping the analysis of the direct application product to
-152 about 23 percent PZ05 and the acidulation grade to 32 percent, and at a ratio concentration of 3. 4 tons of ore per ton of product, the reserve would allow some 5 to 7 years before an additional investment for mining machinery would be required.
After this period, the reserve
would appear to have some 40 years of life at a rate of 200,000 TPY. This should provide time for prospecting to find additional sources of phosphate rock for the Northeast. To sum up, it would appear that Fosforita Olinda can provide an ample and economic source of phosphate rock for the Northeast for a good many years and the most reasonable program would be to concentrate on this objective.
There also appear to be ample
facilities planned and in operation for providing soluble P 2 0
5
for
this area.
Central Region
With the largest known deposit of phosphate in Brazil and a feasible plan for the production of thermophosphate from this low-grade, high-impurity material, it appears that the central area of the country can become self-sufficient in both soluble and direct application P 2 0 very shortly.
5
The deposit at Araxa, Minas Gerais, operated by
Companhia Agricola de Minas Gerais (CAMIG) is reported to contain some 90,000,000 tons of phosphate ore, notably high in iron ant unsuited
-153 for acidulation.
The concentrate from this operation, 28-30 percent
P205, ground 85 percent - 200 mesh, is currently being used for direct application to the soil at the rate of 30, 000 TPY. A well-developed plan for the manufacture of a fused magnesium silicate - tricalciumphosphate material, of high agronomic availability, is currently under study for the approval of financial assistance by AID. The plan calls for the manufacture of 50, 000 TPY of 20 percent P 2 0
5
thermophosphate in each three units to be installed in successive years, as the market develops.
The total capacity would be 150,000 TPY.
In
addition, it is the intention of CAMIG to continue to produce direct application rock, stepping up the annual rate to 40, 000 TPY. The market would be about equally divided between north and west Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais with some shipments possibly going to Goias as that area develops.
At the maximum planned tonnage of
40, 000 tons of rock for DA and 150, 000 TPY of thermophosphate, the reserve life would be over 300 years,
so rates of production beyond
those now contemplated could be considered practical as the market needs develop. While thermophosphate has practically no water-soluble P205, it is highly available and could provide an excellent source of P205 on the acid soils which are so prevalent in Brazil.
It will be many years
before liming becomes a general practice, and for all of this period,
-154 the proposed Araxa product will be a good source of P 2 0 5 .
Thermo
phosphate is not an unknown fertilizer, as some 370, 000 TPY are currently manufactured in Japan.
There is a considerable history of
the use of imported Japanese thermophosphate in Brazil by the farmers of Japanese extraction in Sao Paulo and elsewhere. The Project for Araxa would be delayed by two years or more if a test program on actual thermophosphate made from Araxa rock were insisted upon.
The major difference between the rock used by the
Japanese and that of Araxa is the high iron content.
Thermophosphate
manufacturers in Japan state that this will not hamper operational rates or fertilizer availability but will only lower the product grade somewhat. lower.
The ultimate grade may be lowered to 20 percent P 2 0
5
or
It is our opinion that the project should not be delayed for
agronomic test work.
At least the first processing unit of 50, 000 TPY
capacity should be installed and test and market determinations made from that source. All the principal manufacturers of fertilizer in Brazil have been contacted in 1964 and, without exception, have strongly recommended the production of thermophosphate at Araxa as a national necessity. They have also stated that thermophosphate can be sold in each of their areas in competition with NSP and at the same price per unit of available PZ0 5 . This endorsement from the future competition is a strong vote of confidence for the project.
-155-
There appear to be no known bottlenecks for the Araxa thermo phosphate project.
Ample,
cheap power, a nearby source of
serpentine, good outbound transportation, a local source of electrode paste and a competent local management are all present.
The existing
phosphate rock plant is well operated, and the reserves are large. Every effort should be made to move this from plans to reality in a rapid and orderly manner.
Southern Region
Almost 90 percent of all the fertilizer consumed, and 55 percent of the agricultural crop values produced in Brazil are accounted for by the four-state area of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul.
Of these states, Sao Paulo has tle largest number of technically
advanced farmers.
While a small amount of phosphate rock has been
produced in Sao Paulo for twenty years, the bulk of the raw phosphate has been supplied by imports from abroad and other areas in Brazil. The principal deposit in Sao Paulo has been that of Serrana, at Jacupiranga.
The overlying, weathered apatite has nearly been ex
hausted, so that production has fallen from a peak of 70, 000 TPY in 1961 to about 35,000 tons in 1963.
The plan for 1964 is 35,000 tons.
About two years ago, intensive studies were started on methods of
-156 beneficiation for the large underlying deposit of low-grade carbonatite apatite with the help of Quimbrasil, another member of the Santista Industrial Group, the principal manufacturers of NSP in Brazil.
The
project has now been successfully developed through the small pilot plant stage, and full-sized flotation cells have been ordered at a considerable cost to be sure that there will be no serious problems in scale-up to the full operational size. The deposit has been thoroughly prospected, above ground level, and reserves appear to be at least 150 million tons of ore at 6.5 percent TPY of P 2 0 5 . The present plan for the full-scale plant is 100,000 concentrate in the first year or so of operation with a rapid expansion to 300,000 TPY.
The product, if all goes as planned, will be one of
the finest acidulation grade phosphate rocks in the world. pilot plant sample analyzed: Percent P205
40.Z
Percent BPL
88.0
Percent Insol.
0.11
Percent I + A
0.35
Percent CO.
1.51
Percent CaO
54.0
Percent F
1.69
Mole. Ratio (CaO/PZO 5 )
3.4
A typical
-157-
At a ratio of concentration of eight tons of ore to one of product, and a production rate of 300,000 TPY, this deposit has a useful life of over 60 years.
Because of the product grade,
reserves, and location in Sao
Paulo, only about 20 miles from a port (owned by the same company), this development can become one of great importance to Brazil. put this potential 300,000 tons of rock in proper perspective,
To
it is
nearly doub]e the 1963 Santos import of rock, which was 154,000 tons. There are reasonably reliable reports that two more deposits of considerable magnitude exist in the southern area or nearby, which for reasons of business confidentiality cannot be discussed here in detail. It is probable that one of these can provide some 70, 000 TPY of acidulation grade rock in the near future. The estimated phosphate rock production by 1970, if the present, quite reasonable, plans mature on schedule is shu,,,i in the following table:
Table 33.
Location
Estimated phosphate rock production,
Tons rock
Tons P205
1970
Ore reserves
Years
Olinda Araxa
140 000 153,000
47,00C 41,200
30,000,000 90,000,000
60 300
Jacupiranga Other Total
300,000 70,000 663,000
120,000 24,000 232,000
150,000,000 Unknown
-
60
-158When compared to the estimated 1963 figures in the table below
for phosphate rock supply, considerable improvement is indicated.
Table 34.
Estimated 1963 phosphate rock supply
Soirce
Tons/rock
Olinda Araxa Serrana Serrote Imports,
60,000 30,000 38,000 11,500 154,662 35,IZ9 1,315 330,606
Santos RG-PA Recife
Total
Tons/P
20 5
17,100 8,700 13,600 3,250 50,600 12,700 407 106,357
0 At present, the only soluble PZ 5 produced in Brazil is normal
superphosphate.
Figure 40 shows the location of Brazilian plants
producing normal superphosphate in 1963.
The production of NSP in
1963 was is follows:
Table 35.
Company Quimbrasil Superfosfatos Elekeiroz C R A ICISA Profertil Total
Production NSP, 1963
Tons 192,000 70,000 33,600 15,400 16,400 12,100 339,500
Location Sao Paulo Sao Paulo Sao Paulo Porto Alegre Rio Grande Recife
-159-
RIO a00 NORTE PO'R45C
"",
-
-",
- S
•'
Company
Location
Q Quir
as il
(~Elekeiroz 5 GRA 6ICISA
""uefoftsSa 7 ,00
ife
Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo Porto Alegre Rio Grande
Totals
T ons NSP 12, 100 192,000
33,600 15,400
4
A,0rnuSr
TonsSA P2,
s",
-----
.
al
, -
-INtI -',
sIU
rLGO .
,ar
'
AI -
I FJARWII
2,420
38,400
6,720 3,080
16,400
3,280
339,500
68,000
Figure 40. Location of Brazilian plants producing normal superphosphate, 1963
-160-
It is estimated that the 1964 NSP production will be (if exchange cover is provided):
Table 36.
Estimated production NSP, 1964
Company
Quimbrasil Superfosfatos Elekeiroz Ferticap C R A ICISA Profe rtil Total *New plant starting 7/64
Tons
ZZ0,000 80,000 45,000
15,000 20,000 18,000 16,000 414,000
Location
Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo
Porto Alegre
Rio Grande
Recife
In order to utilize the rock phosphate estimated as being available by 1970, it will be necessary to provide some additional facilities for the production of soluble P 2 0 5 .
In the Northeast,
Profertil at Recife
plans an expansion to double its capacity for normal superphosphate, Companhia Agro Industrial Igarassu has a dicalcium phosphate plant nearly completed and Fertilnor is actively planning a large, conventional mixed goods plant. CAMIG, a! Araxa, has in final planning and approval stages, a proposal to build a thermophosphate plant to produce 150,000 tons per 1970. year of soluble fertilizer, which could be in operation well before There are a number of plans in the southern area, for the production
-161 of soluble P 2 0 5 , all of which are possible and most of which art: feasible.
These are listed below.
Company
Location
TPY and Planned Production
Quimbrasil Superfosfatos Elekeiros Elekeiros INEASA (3) ICISA (4) Superfosfato Jac. Prosul State of Sao Paulo
Jacupiranga Capuava, S.P. Jundai, S.P. Jundai, S.P. Santa Catarina Rio Grande, R.G. do Sul Jacupirahga, S.P. Charqueada, R.G. do Sul Capuava
100,000 40,000 35,000 120,000 60 000 26,400 48,000 70,000 100,000
TSP (1) TSP NSP (2) TSP TSP TSP NSP 16-14-0 N
100,000 P 2 0 5 84,000 K2 0
(1) triple superphosphate (2) normal superphosphate (3) Industria Quimica Brasileira, S.A. (4) Refineria de Petroleo Ipiranga The construction of one of the large TSP plants, or two of the smaller TSP projects would more than equal present imports of soluble P 20 5.
Any combination of plants which would provide an additional
50,000 TPY of soluble P 2 0 5 , above the present NSP capacity, would be a reasonable goal for meeting the minimum projected consumption trend for 1970. An estimate for 1970 of the production of soluble P 2 0 could very reasonably be achieved, follows:
5
, which
-16Z-
Source
Product
Est. national prodn. New plant, South Araxa Fertilnor CAll (1) Total
450,OOOT 100, 0OOT 150,000T 143,000T 15,OOOT 858,OOOT
Tons Soluble P 2 0 NSP TSP T/fcs. Mixed Dical
5
90,000 46,000 30,000 20,000 6,000 19Z, 000
(1) Could be feed phosphate, Cia. Agro Industrial Igarassu.
If the consumption of PZ05 follows a steeper trend than that indicated by the linear projection of past consumption, there should be no problem in providing facilities for soluble P 2 0 phosphate rock supply will be more of a problem.
5
, but the national
The reserves at
Araxa would seem to provide ample room for expansion, but a thermophosphate facility will have to go with the expansion. The best solution to the problem of future phosphate reserves for Brazil would be a strong program of geological exploration to find and develop additional reserves, hopefully in reasonably accessible locations. Recent exploratory activity in Goias indicates that.there are possibilities of the existence of major deposits of phosphate-minerals in that state. Should such deposits be commercially developed, their strategic location in relation to the path of future agricultural development in Brazil would be very important.
The only other reasonable alternate is
importation of phosphate rock with the resultant drain on hard currency exchange.
-163-
Some additional statistics on phosphate, based on 1963 production and imports at the Port of Santos and 1962 imports for other ports, follow: Estimated 1963 NSP supply, Brazil Source
Tons/NSP
Quimbrasil Superfosfatos Elekeiros CRA ICISA Profertil Imports Santos Imports RG-PA Imports Recife Imports Other
192,000 70, 000 33, 600 15,400 16,400 12, 100 3, 737 5, 374 706 1,498 350,815
Tons/P
20 5
38,400
14, 000
6, 720
3,808
3,280
2,420
747
1,075
141
300
70,163
Estimated 1963 TSP supply, Brazil Port Santos RG-PA Recife Other
Tons/TSP
Tons/P 2 O 5
33,254 9, 572 3,865 2,128
15,297
4, 403
1, 778
979
48,819
22,457
Estimated 1963 supply other soluble P 2 0 5 , Brazil Port Santos RG-PA Recife Other
Tons
Tons/P
20 5
7,917 1, 750 1, 564 811
1,738
370
6Z5
56
12,042
2,789
-164Estimated 1963 supply total soluble P 2 0 5 , Brazil Tons/P205
Source
67, 900 17, 782
5,848
2, 544
1, 335
National Production NSP
Santos Imports
RG-PA Imports
Recife Imports
Other Imports
95,409
Total
By taking the total 1963 production of rock P 2 O5 and subtracting to the national production of PZ05 as NSP, the percentage of soluble total PzO5 and the total apparent P 2 0
5
consumption can be derived as
follows:
28.73% 71. 27% 100.00%/
106, 357 tons rock P2O5 (67, 900) tons NSP PZO5 38, 457 tons P 2 05 and D.A. rock 95, 409 tons soluble Pz0 5
133,866 tons P 2 O5
Since 1963 import statistics were not available for ports other a consider than Santos, but contacts with individual importers indicate has able increase in importations for the other ports, about 20 percent tons of been added to imports through ports other than Santos, 4, 534 consumption total of 138, 400 P205, to arrive at a national apparent tons P205 for 1963. Imports
of Although Brazil is more nearly self-sufficient in the production
-165 phosphate than other plant nutrients, in 1962 imports accounted for approximately half of the total P 2 0
5
used.
Table 37 shows the division
of total supply between national production and imports,
1962 and
estimated 1963.
Table 37. Brazil, national production and imports, total phosphate fertilizers, 1962 and estimated 1963 Supply - total P 2 0 5 Source of supply
Estimated 1963 1962 Tons Percent of total Tons Percent of total
National production
61,910
51.1
42,650
30.8
Imports
59,127
48.9
95,750
69.2
121,037
100.0
138,400
100.0
Total
Note: National production of phosphate (P205) was calculated in terms of rock phosphate mined in Brazil.
The cost, all in foreign exchange, to Brazil of such imports amounts to $6, 000, 000 to $8, 000, 000 per year. Table 38 shows the country of origin, by products for phosphate fertilizers imported by Brazil during 1962.
Analysis of these data,
by country, shows that 68 percent of total P?0
5
imported by Brazil
came from the United States, 21 percent from Africa, 10 percent from Europe and approximately one percent from Japan.
Analysis of imports
by products shows 61 percent rock phosphate, 32 percent triple
-166Table 38.
Country
Origin of phosphate fertilizer products imported into Brazil, 19621
Product
Tons imported
Tons PZ0 5
Percent of otal P 2 05 imports
Value 2
4, 837 2, 837 2,000
1,495 1, 135 360
2. 53 1.92 .61
$ 247, 385
851 40 811
164 18 146
. 28 .03 .25
30, 078 3,480 26,598
Superphosphate Triple superphosphate
8, 532 863 7, 669
3,700 17Z 3, 528
6. 26 .29 5.97
587,840 37, Z43 550, 597
Triple superphosphate
1,ZZ2 1,222
562 562
.95 .95
92, 263 92,263
Thermophosphate
2,332 2,332
4Z0 420
.71 .71
137,988 137,988
Rock phosphate
25, 591 25,591
7, 933 7,933
13.43 13.43
453, 112 453,112
Rock phosphate
14,273 14,273
4,425 4,425
7.50 7.50
249,277 Z49, Z77
Yugoslavia (Total) Superphosphate
174 174
35 35
.06 .06
5, 631 5,631
118,396 10,076 31,610 76,710
40, 336 2,015 14,541 23, 780
68.28 3.41 24.61 40.26
4, 022,713 359,618 2,170, 5Z7 1,492, 568
176, Z083
59, 072
100.00
5, 826, 287
Belgium (Total) Dicalcium phosphate Thomas slag W. Germany (Total) Triple sup-rphosphate Thomas slag Holland (Total)
Italy (Total)
Jar -xn (Total)
Morocco (Total)
Togo (Total)
U.S.A. (Total) Superphosphate Triple superphosphate Rock phosphate Total Imports
191, 750 55, 635
1 Source: Lohmann, Otto, Brazilian Fertilizer Imports, 1962, Sao Paulo, August, 1963.
Z CIF price in U.S. dollars.
3 Does not include fertilizer compounds.
-167 superphosphate, four percent normal superphosphate, and three per cent other materials.
The large amount of rock phosphate imported was
related, in part, to the fact that coastal handling and shipping costs on rock phosphate from Recife to Santos were higher than shipping charges from thE United States or Africa (this is analyzed in detail in the section of this report dealing with transportation), and in part to the differential between the "official" and the "free" exchange rate which favored imported materials.
The exchange rate penalty has now been removed.
-168-
POTASH AND MINOR ELEMENTS
Potash There is no national production of potash in Brazil, and the country is dependent upon imports for all requirements.
Total potash
imports in 196Z were 71, Z49 tons of K 2 0 valued at about $6, 300, 000 and are estimated to be 88, 650 tons valued at $7, 500, 000 for 1963. For the foreseeable future,
Brazil will have to depend upon imports,
as there are no firm possibilities of national production in sight at this time.
However,
several possibilities do exist and are being
investigated at the present time. 1.
The manufacture of 16, 000 tons of KCl from the by-product mother liquor of a large salt combine, planned for the
Northeast.
The basis of the operation would be salt from
sea water by solar evaporation.
The large salt operation
in one location is still under study and the feasibility of KC1
production is beclouded by lack of chemical knowledge.
The
procedure is not practical on a large scale anywhere in the world at present. Z. Companhia Nacional de Fertilizantes Potassicas has an active project based on the production of 100, 000 TPY KzS0
4
from
-169 a 200, 000, 000-ton ore body of feldspatic material reported to be in the vicinity of Natal in Rio Grande do Norte, and is now in the preliminary engineering and feasibility study stages.
The reported capital requirement is 18-20 million
dollars, and the needed funds are said to be available.
The
process work is by Lurgi in Germany and the reported plant costs are between 55 and 60 dollars per ton of K 2 S04. Production is said to be possible by early 1966. 3.
A deposit of carnallite
(MgCl2 - KCI
an estimated 2 million tons of K 2 0, in Cotinguiba, Sergipe.
.6HZO),
amounting to
was discovered in 1942
Besides being small, the depth was
about 3, 900 feet and carnallite is not as economic to beneficiete as sylvinite (NaCi. - KCI). engineers,
A team of Canadian and Brazilian
employed by FAO, is presently studying the pos
sibility of this and the sea-water approach.
The apparent consumption of K20 for Brazil for 1963 was estimated as follows: Tons KZO
Source Imports Imports Imports Imports
Santos 1963 RG-PA 1962 Recife 1962 Other 1962
66,577 9, 0Z3 5,920 3,451 84, 971
Plus 20% increment, ports other than Santos Total
3,679 88,650
agri
-170-
This compares to imports of 69, Z01 tons in 1962, 60, 189 tons in 1957, and 15, 347 tons in 1952.
The consumption of potash has been
increasing, but at a slower rate than has been the case for nitrogen or phosphate fertilizers.
Cost of phosphate imported during 1962 was
$6,909,358. Table 39 shows potash imports for 1962 by country of origin and by product.
Analysis of imports by country of origin shows four major
suppliers of about the same importance relative to volume supplied. West Germany supplied 23 percent of the total, France 22 percent, and the United States and Russia 21 percent each.
Israel supplied nearly
7 percent and the remainder came from Chile, Belgium, East Germany and Italy.
In terms of pioducts imported, 91 percent was potassium
chloride, 5 percent potassium sulphate, 3 percent potassium saltpetre and about I percent magnesium potassium sulphate.
Minor Elements Since most of the soils of Brazil are highly acid and many are badly leached, there undoubtedly exists a severe minor element deficiency problem in many areas.
An exacting program to define the
precise areas and deficiencies would take a long time and a great deal of effort which would dilute the research effort required for the primary and secondary nutrients.
-171-
Table 39.
Country
Origin of potassium fertilizer products imported into Brazil, 19621
Product
Tons imported
Tons K20
Percent of total K20 imports
$
Value
2
Belgium (Total) Potassium sulphate
2,352 2,352
1,152 1,152
1.62 1.62
Chile (Total) Potassium salpetre
14,8723 14,872
Z,231 2,231
3.14 3.14
976,839 976,839
France (Total) Potassium chloride
25,634 25,634
15,380 15,380
21.61 21.61
1,369,744 1,369,744
East Germany (Total) Potassium sulphate
1,215 1,215
595 595
.84 .84
84,384 84,384
28,867 25,658 1,669 1,540
16,552 15,395 818 339
23.26 21.64 1.15 .47
1,480,880 1,289,254 112,214 79,412
Israel (Total) Potassium chloride Potassium sulphate
8,175 7,200 975
4,798 4,320 478
6.74 6.07 .67
407,770 345,370 62,400
Italy (Total) Potassium sulphate
1,048 1,048
Russia (Total) Potassium chloride
25,104 25,104
U.S.A. (Total) Potassium chloride Magnesium potassium sulphate
24,913 24,713 zoo
West Germany (Total) Potassium chloride Potassium sulphate Magnesium potassium sulphate
Total Imports
132,1804
165,328 165,328
.72 .72
71,014
71,014
15,062 15,062
21.17 21.17
1,154,972
1,154,972
14,872 14,828 44
20.90 20.84 .06
1,198,427
1,186,266 1Z,161
71,156
100.00
514 514
6,909,358
1 Source: Lohmann, Otto, Brazilian Fertilizer Imports, 1962, Sao Paulo, August 1963.
2 CIF price in U.S. dollars.
3 This figure is duplicated in the nitrogen table as is the total value.
4 Does not include fertilizer compounds.
-172-
It is suggested that a "shotgun" approach be taken toward the problem by having a team of well-qualified agronomists, made up of both Brazilian and international personnel, recommend an all purpose mix of minor elements for use by both fertilizer manu facturers and experiment stations.
This material would then be
manufactured in Brazil for inclusion in the regular mixed formu lation for the farmer. Where known minor element deficiencies are found, the standard mix should be supplemented to the extent required. Such procedures are quite common in the more advanced agricultural countries of the world, even though much more is known about the minor element deficiencies than in Brazil.
-173-
TRANSPORTATION AND DISTRIBUTION
The use of commercial fertilizers by the agricultural sector, as with most commodities, depends, in large part, on the cost and avail ability of transportation and distribition facilities.
A relatively in
expensive and efficient transportation and distribution system is essential to make fertilizers readily available to farmers at a cost which permits their use.
Transportation
The lack of an adequate and efficient transportation system has been a major factor retarding the development of the agricultural minerals industry in Brazil.
High cost of services, operational in
efficiency and inadequate facilities have resulted in high mineral prices to farmers and have prevented the maximum development of national resources of agricultural minerals.
Coastal Shipping
Coastal shipping plays an important role in Lhe BraziliaL, and transportation system.
corIorny
With 4, 600 miles of coast line and the lack
of an adequate road and railroad system, coastal shipping is depended
-174 upon for most of the long distance hauling.
Coastal shipping rates are
considerably lower than truck or rail rates.
Table 40 shows shipping
rates and figure 41 shows the comparison between truck, rail, and coastal shipping freight rates for fertilizers.
Although coastal ship
ping rates are lower than truck or rail rates, they are usually higher than competitive ocean freight rates. among others,
This is one of the reasons,
that coastal shipping and Brazilian ships in general
have not been used more extensively in the movement of agricultural minerals in and to Brazil.
Other factors that restrict the use of ocean
vessels are transit time, poor transit connections and lack of vessels because of high down-time due to maintenance. In 1962, the Brazilian fertilizer industry imported, from the United States and Africa,
116, 574 metric tons of phosphate rock I while one of
the national producers of phosphate rock, Fosforita Olinda, was operat ing at about 30 percent of capacity. 1963.
This same situation prevailed in
The high cost of coastal shipping from Recife to Santos and Rio
Grande, and the protection given to foreign phosphate rock due to the low exchange rate for imports were the main causes of this problem.
1 Lohmann, Otto, Brazilian Fertilizer Imports, 1962, Sao Paulo, August, 1963, p. 69.
-175Table 40.
Net coastwise ocean rates on bulk and
bagged fertilizersI
Distance
Fertilizer in bulk rate
Fertilizer in
bags rate
(Km.)
(Ca'$/ton-Km.)
(Cr$/ton-Kn.)
100
9.02
36.08
200
9.02
18.34
300
9.0Z
17.Z8
400
7.66
9.69
600
5. 63
7.05
800
4.65
5.71
1000
4.53
6.04
1200
4.08
5.38
1400
3.77
4.91
1600
3.54
4.57
2000
3.21
4.07
2400
2.99
3.75
3200
2.71
3.34
4000
2.55
3.09
5000
2.42
2.90
6000
2.33
2.76
Source: Cabotagem Maritima - Tabela de Frete 1 Valid from November 13, 1963 to July 24, 1964.
.
,r.
-176
30
28
26,
:
24
22
-
20
,6
14 Q) 1.1II
TRUCK,
BAGGED FER'ILIZER
2
U
(
IiIIllillilallli
IIB~
NET "HIP R.%TFS (BAGGEO)
10
%
RAIL, BAGGED FtFRTILIZI R
6
4L
'; ................. .......................... NET
SHIP RATES
ULK)
2
0f 200
L 400
600
800
1000
1200
p
p
p
1400
1600
1600
I1 2000
P 2200
AL 2400
2600
200
Distance (km.) Figure 41.
Net rates per ton-kilometer by truck, rail and ship
3000
-177-
It was, in early 1964, cheaper to transport phosphate rock from the United States or Africa to Santos than from Recife to Santos.
The
distance from Recife to Santos is about one-fourth the distance from Tampa, Florida to Santos.
Table 41 gives an indication of the cost
of shipping phosphate rock from Recife to Santos in November, 1963. In November of 1963, the official import exchange rate for The cost of shipping
fertilizer was 620 cruzeiros per U.S. dollar.
bulk, unground phosphate rock from Recife to Santos, when converted to dollars, was $20. 47 per ton of material.
The average CIF expense
of imported phosphate rock for the port of Santos in 1962 was $9. 19
1
This is less than half the cost of shipping from Recife to Santos and involves a much greater distance. In March of 1964, the import exchange rate was allowed to move with the "unofficial" exchange rate.
On April 15, 1964, the import
exchange rate was 1, 140 cruzeiros per dollar.
When the figures shown
in table 41 are converted at this rate, the cost of shipping phosphate rock from Recife to Santos becomes $11. 13.
Even at this rate average
transportation on imported rock phosphate from points in Africa or the United States, is still $1.94 below the transportation cost from Recife to Santos.
1 Lohmann, op. cite, p. 69.
Table 41.
Expenses involved in transporting one ton of Olinda phosphate from Recife (Factory) to Santos
Expen ses
Shipping Rates I o-f-droun-i--Tk .... "t~g
h-a-g -e-T
(Cr$/ton)
(Cr$/ton)
Net freight Add'l freight Res. 1578 (loading) (unloading) CMM Res. 1345 Maritime Fund Port Authority expenses loading unloading Port Fund Stowage Unloading Mdse. Protection loading unloading Loading checking clerk Unloading checking clerk Mdse. Protection Checking clerk (loading) Checking clerk (unloading) Customs Inspection Decree Law 3381 Vacation allowance Stevedores Unloaders Loading checking clerk Unloading checking clerk
6, 581.57
8, 292. 56
73.89 552.84 526. 53 394.89
1, 763.58 1, 975. 12 663.40 497. 55
878.10 684.43 191.14 101.66 1, 159.23
878.10 684.40 424.09 1, 374.21 1,660.36
7.00 32.91 56.70 377.50
79. 37 90.78 531. 14 392.18
2.02 18.27 1.00 987.24
22. 88 26. 17 1.00 1,243.69
7.00 32.91 3.33 22. 91
79.37 90.78 31. 16 23.80
Gross freight
12,693.07
20,825.69
External expenses (movement from plant to port) Freight charges
1, 602. 00 12,693.07
6, 814.50 20,825.69
Total expenses
14,295.07
27,740.19
Source: Fosforita Olinda S/A.
Based on freight rate- as of November, 1
1963.
-179Fosforita Olinda has the port facilities to easily handle, in bulk, their total annual capacity of rock.
Their port facilities, located in
warehouse 15, include adequate storage and an unloading pit from which phosphate can be moved by conveyor belt directly to the hold of the ship.
The capacity of the conveyor is 250 tons per your, which is
adequate, but could handle 1, 000 tons per hour with minor modifications. One possible improvement would be constructing a cover over that portion of the belt exposed to the weather to permit operation under rainy conditions.
The only restricting factor is the water depth which
limits the size of the ships that can be used to 6, 000 tons or less. The only apparent short-run solution to the problem is for the Federal Government to subsidize Fosforita Olinda directly in the amount of the difference between the Recife-Santos rate and the U.S. Santos rate or grant them a rate equivalent to the U. S. -Santos rate. Such an arrangement would help put Fosforita in a competitive position in relation to foreign suppliers of phosphate rock but may not solve the problem completely. The problem of securing Brazilian vessels still remains.
The
Brazilian coastal fleet is short of vessels and its service is inefficient and slow.
Thus, a ship owner will not be inclined to haul phosphate
rock when lighter, higher-value cargos are available.
-180 of Fosforita The most feasible long-run solution for the utilization market in the Olinda phosphate would be the development of a regional Northeast.
If the development of phosphate production in the South
as planned, and Central regions in the next three to five years matures there will be no real need for Olinda rock in these areas.
A discussion
con of the possibility of using Olinda rock locally and other problems of this cerning Fosforita Olinda can be found in the phosphate section report.
Port Problems the Another major bottleneck in fertilizer transportation has been port of Santos.
The cost of unloading fertilizers at Santos ranges
than from $1. 25 to $2.25 per ton higher, depending on t1he product, and on it usually costs for unloading in the United States or Europe, Rio the average costs $1. 00 per ton more than at Porto Alegre or Grande.
The total excess costs for unloading fertilizers at the port
175. 1 to be from $597, 875 to $1, 076, estimated were 1963 in of Santos from This does not include IZ, 5Z8 metric tons of phosphate rock Olinda received through the port of Santos in 1963. involved.
The problems at the port of Santos are numerous and lack of Some of the factors are port congestion, labor problems,
1 Total fertilizer imports for Santos in 1963 were 478, 300 metric tons.
-181 modern port equipment, inefficient and unproductive port services and lack of sufficient transportation facilities to move the commodities from the port. Port congestion is, in general, the result of insufficient docking space, use of out-dated equipment and institutional structures which restrict the productivity of manual workers.
In essence, the problem
is that while European and North American ports unload 43 to 103 tons of merchandise per hour, in Brazil the rate fluctuates between 25 and 1
30 tons per hour . The following list of fhips with fertilizer cargos, their arrival dates and dates they finished unloading gives some indication of the port congestion at Santos. Finished unloading
Name of ship
Arrival
Chryssi S.M.
1-Z3-64
2-4-64
Alexander S.M.
3-5-63
4-3-63
Rio Mar
9-15-63
10-27-63
Nedi
9-18-63
11-2-63
--
7-8-63
8-28-63
In addition to various other causes of port congestion, there is low labor productivity.
Labor is expensive because it is slow.
Because unloaders, for example, are not paid by the hour but per 1 "Santos: An Unsatisfactory Port", Transporte Moderno, January, 1964.
-182 ton or cubic meter of merchandise unloaded, port congestion and labor problems become a vicious cycle.
The unavailability of equipment
and the extent to which the port is congested forces stevedores to work Consequently, they charge more per quantity of
at a slower pace.
merchandise handled so that they can maintain a relatively fixed monthly income.
As the wage per ton or cubic meter of merchandise
increases, the stowers tend to work less overtime causing further port congestion. Dock work is done in accordance with the following schedule: Normal working hours:
Overtime periods:
7 to 11
1 to 5
11 to 1
5 to 7
7 to 10
10 to 11 (meal time) 11 to 2 (normal overtime) Z to 7 (special overtime).
Table 42 shows the number of workers needed to unload fertilizer in Brazilian ports.
The list of 39 workers in this table work aboard
the ship and does not include crane operators nor stowers whose work position is the area of the docks.
1 Transporte Moderno, op. cit., p. 44.
-183-
Table 42.
Necessary ship unloading crew for
unloading fertilizers, two holds
Workers
Stevedores
Number
30
Counters
2
Master counter
1
Conferents
2
Guide conferent
1
Substitute
I
Adjutant conferent
1
Chief conferent
1
Total
(15 per hold)
(1 per hold)
(1 per hold)
39
Solution The most direct solution to the port problems at Santos, as far as fertilizers are concerned, would be a separate dock facility with adequate unloading equipment.
Such a facility would include a pier,
storage, cranes, conveyor belts from ship to storage, tracks, hopper cars,
overhead conveyors for moving materials from storage to rail
car, etc.
dollars.
The necessary investment is estimated to be 10-11 million
This assumes that the necessary area is available in or
near the port of Santos for such a facility.
-184-
However, planned increases in national production of fertilizers during the next three to five years, if they materialize, would make & large investment in a port facility for handling imported fertilizers unprofitable. The alternative solution is to make the entire port more efficient thus helping not only the fertilizer industry, but also all other imports and exports.
Operating the port on a regular three-shift-per-day
basis would have the most immediate effect on reducing port congestion. Plans also exist for increasing docking space.
Upon completion of
the terminal in Sao Sebastiao, it is planned to transfer Santos petroleum shipments to that port.
The 720 meters of docking space
at Saboo, which is presently being used for bulk liquid shipments, could then be used to receive bulk solids as was originally intended. The critical period for the imports of fertilizer through Santos will be the next three to five years, the time it will take the Brazilian fertilizer industry to effect a substantial increase in domestic pro duction.
If the annual increase in fertilizer imports through Santos
for the next few years is as large as it was between 1962 and 1963 (50 percent), the port costs and problems will increase substantially unless immediate steps are taken to improve the port.
As has been
pointed out there are a number of plans for such improvement in existence; it is a matter of getting the job done as rapidly as possible.
-185-
Shortages of rail cars and trucks for moving imported materials, particularly bulk materials, from the port have also contributed to the congestion at Santos.
The effect of improvement in port facilities
and labor productivity will not be fully realized unless this problem is also corrected.
It is recommended that the problem of transporta
tation facilities for moving imported products to the interior be Estimates on
studied and recommendations made for improvement.
the cost of tank cars and hopper cars can be found in table 1 in appendix C. Although this report is concerned mainly with the port of Santos because it handles 67 percent of all Brazilian fertilizer imports, other ports have similar problems.
Porto Alegre and Rio Grande
handle nearly 21 percent of the total fertilizer imports.
Both of these
ports have labor problems, obsolete, inadequate equipment, and a shortage of docking space which causes excess costs of unloading. However, their problems are not as severe at present because the total tonnage of imports is not as large as at Santos.
Steps should be
taken now to improve the efffciency of port labor and services and to up-date and expand unloading facilities.
Fertilizer tonnages at Porto
Alegre and Rio Grande will probably increase, even as Brazil becomes more self-sufficient in fertilizer, since most of the fertilizer used in Rio Grande do Sul will come from Bahia, Jacupiranga and Araxa.
-186-
If the efficiency of these ports is not improved, the cost of fertilizers to the farmers will increase.
If it becomes necessary to ship by
truck or rail to insure delivery in a reasonable length of time, fertilizer prices will increase even more, since both rail and truck transportation rates in general are more expensive than ship rates. Nine other ports in Brazil handled 1Z.4 percent (6Z,494.6 metric
1 tons) of the 196Z fertilizer imports.
Recife, in the Northeast,
accounted for 7.5 percent of this total. Railroads
Rail transportation for agricultural minerals in Brazil is generally slow and inefficient.
This is not a problem peculiar to
agricultural minerals, but is an inherent problem of rail transport ation in general in Brazil that affects all sectors of the economy. Problems of rail transportation are numerous, including sucb things as lack of modern equipment, differences in rail gauge, poor coordi nation between various rail systems, absence of any rail facilities in many areas, and lack of good trunk lines for connecting various regions of the country. The cost of rail transportation for fertilizers is higher than
1 Lohmann, op.cit., p. 23.
-187 coastal shipping but considerably less than trucking costs. (Figure 41 ). 1 There is also, as shown in table 43,
large variation
in the basic freight rates for fertilizers as charged by the various railroad companies.
The rates shown in table 43 cover all chemical
2 fertilizers
and agricultural lime shipped in bags and apply to one-half
carlots or more.
The rate for less-than-one-half carlots is about
28-35 percent more in bagged form.
Bulk fertilizer rates for some
fertilizers, particularly superphosphate, are 15 percent higher than for the same fertilizer in bagged form.
Besides the basic rail rate
for hauling fertilizers, some of the larger fertilizer companies pay 5-10 percent additional in gratuities to insure better service and faster delivery. Most of the fertilizer shipped by rail in Brazil is in bagged form. Fertilizers or limestone shipped in bulk is usually hauled in box cars or open cars covered by tarpaulins.
Closed hopper cars for hauling
dry, bulk fertilizers and tank cars for hauling high-pressure, liquid fertilizers are apparently not available.
Some closed hopper cars
Since any ad valorem tax that might be applicable is not included in the rail rates, the difference between rail and shipping rates is greater than is shown in Figure
2 There are no published rates for hauling anhydrous ammonia or
other liquid fertilizers.
-188Table 43.
Basic rail freight rates, bafged fertilizers,
effective March 1, 1964
(C___per kg)
Estrada de Ferro Central do Brasil
Companhia Mogiana de Estradas de Ferro
0.23 0.69 1.15 1.78 2.19 2.74 3.11 3.60 3.92 4.34 4.61 4.96 5.19 5.34 5.44 5.57 5.66
Rede Mineira de Distance Viacao km.
Rede Ferroviaria do Nordeste
Viacao Ferra Federal Leste Brasileiro
0.41 0-20 0.57 51-60 0.72 91-100 0.96 151-160 1.12 191-200 1.36 251-260 1.52 291-300 1.76 351-360 1.92 391-400 2.16 451-460 2.31 491-500 2.55 551-560 2.71 591-600 2.95 651-660 3.11 691-700 3.35 751-760 3.51 791-800 3.75 851-860 3.90 891-900 4.14 951-960 991-1000 4.30
0.IZ 0.35 0.59 0.90 1.11 1.43 1.64 1.96 2.17 2.48 2.69 3.01 3.2Z 3.54 3.75 4.06 4.27 4.5q 4.80 5.12 5.33
0.12 0.35 0.59 0.90 1.11 1.43 1.64 1.96 2.17 2.48 2.69 3.01 3.22 3.54 3.75 4.06 4.27 4.59 4.80 5.12 5.33
0.16 0.47 0.78 0.96 1.07 1.23 1.34 1.48 1.57 1.69 1.77 1.88 1.96 2.08 2.16 2.27 2.35 2.47 2.55 2.66 2.74
5.64 5.86 6.17 6.38 6.70 6.91 7.23 7.44
5.64 5.86 6.17 6.38 6.70 6.91 7.23 7.44
2.86 2.94 3.05 3.13 3.25 3.33 3.44 3.5Z 3.64 3.72 3.83 3.91 4.03 4.11
1051-1060 1091-1100 1151-1160 1191-1200 1251-1260 1291-1300 1351-1360 1391-1400 1451-1460 1491-1500 1551-1560 1591-1600 1651-1660 1691-1700
4.54 4.70 4.94 5.10 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1750 1800 1 Does not include ad valorem tax.
-
Estrada de Ferro Leopoldina
Estrada de Ferro Sorocabana
0.10 0.31 0.52 0.64 0.73 0.80 0.86 0.93 0.97 1.03 1.07 1.13 1.17 1.22 1.26 1.32 1.36 1.42 1.45 1.51 1.55
0.23 0.69 1.15 1.78 2.19 2.74 3.11 3.60 3.92 4.34 4.61 4.96 5.19 5.31 5.44 5.57 5.66 5.78 5.86 5.97 6.04
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
•
-
6.14 6.21 6.32 6.39 6.49 6.56 6.67 6.74 6.84 6.91 7.02 7.09 7.19 7.26
7.35 7.44
-189 are presently being built for hauling grain, but reportedly there will be none available for fertilizers or limestone. As fertilizer demand increases and market areas become larger, and as Brazil develops a national phosphate and nitrogen fertilizer industry, facilities for bulk shipment of fertilizers by rail could reduce the cost of fertilizer to farmers and help make the fertilizer industry more efficient.
The savings in bags alone would amount to
3-5 dollars per ton, not to mention savings in time and labor for loading and unloading, and the ability to move larger volumes more rapidly. Hopper cars for hauling phosphate rock and thermophosphate from the mines at Araxa and Jacupiranga to manufacturers of fertilizer materials in Sao Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul, would be much better and more efficient than using open rail cars or trucks.
This is also
true for moving fertilizer materials from manufacturers to mixers and to warehouses in the consumption areas. Companhia Agricola de Minas Gerais S/A (CAMIG) could use hopper cars for transporting thermophosphate from Araxa to the Sao Paulo market, as well as for transporting nitrogen and potassium from Sao Paulo and Santos for the fertilizer industry in Minas Ger.ir. Rail cars could be used for hauling urea and ammonia from Bahia to Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo when Petrobras begins production at
-190-
Salvador. The use of rail facilities for transporting fertilizer in the future will depend on the service and facilities provided by rail lines being equal to or better than that provided by truckers. Trucks
Much of the fertilizer in Brazil is presently shipped by truck. Trucking, although the most expensive form of transportation, (Figure 41 ), is the fastest and most efficient.
Trucks are used for
hauling phosphate rock from Jacupiranga to fertilizer manufacturers in Sao Paulo as well as for hauling mixed and simple fertilizers from the plants to warehouses in the interior. The principal reason that trucks are so widely used for hauling agricultural minerals is that trunk transit time is generally less than 1 This situation for rail or ship, and in some cases is less expensive. results from an expanding road system in Brazil, the port and coastal shipping problems and poor cabotage connections.
"Porto Alegre un Porto A Ver Navios," Transporte Moderno, March, 1964, p. 53. A five liter bottle of wine transported by truck from the producing area in Rio Grande do Sul to a grocery in Sao Paulo would be de livered in three days with a freight of 100 cruzeiros. But, if it is transported by boat from Porto Alegre to Santos and then to Sao Paulo it would take 30 days and the freight would be 250 cruzeiros.
-191-
All but two of the trucking companies contacted during the course of this study had no current published rates for hauling fertilizer. This stems from the fact that fertilizer consumption is seasonal and most truckers only transport fertilizer on a back-haul basis when no other cargo is available.
Rates under these circumstances are
usually negotiated on a contract-to -contract basis, and will vary according to the availability of trucks, the kind and form of the merchandise, the distance to be hauled, the quality of roads to be used, and other factors. for bagged fertilizers.
Table 44 gives an indication of truck rates The rates shown are from two large trucking
companies which do long-distance hauling.
The figures in table 44
are based on rates to selected points in Brazil so that they not only reflect cost as a function of distance, but also the ease of getting to a particular location. Intrastate fertilizer shipments are usually handled by small, independent truckers and in trucks owned by fertilizer manufacturers and mixers.
The rate for hauling fertilizer from the dealer or ware
house to the farmer during the 1963-64 cropping season was about 35 cruzeiros per ton-kilometer.
However, with the general increase
in price levels since then the rate will probably be higher in 1964-65. The freight rates for fertilizer shown in this report may change rapidly or vary from area to area due to the following:
-192-
Table 44. Trucking distances and rates for
bagged fertilizers to selected points
from Volta Redonda, 1964
Distance (Km.) 110 130 240 300 385 450 6Z0 750
780 975 1000 1060 1175
1360 1400 1716 2370 2433
Rate (Cr$/ton-Km.) 31.8 26.9 Z5. 8 19.6 17.5 17.0
11.3
13.3 12.5 11.5 11.0 13.0
1Z.0
10.5
10.3
16.6
15.6
16.6
-193 1.
Monetary instability and its effect on rates, profits, wages, taxes, etc.
2.
The availability of transportation, and the season of the year when hauling is necessary.
3.
Distance of haulage., and degree of difficulty of the haulage.
Distribution
Tho consumptlLn and ,-ist i-iution ot agricultural minerals in
Brazil varies considerably by geo-economic regions.
The south
central region - the states of Sao Paulo and Parana - consumes about
72 percent of all fertilizers used in Brazil.
The southern region,
Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, consumes 15 percent; the central region, Salvador to Rio de Janeiro, 5 percent and the northern region, Belem to Salvador,
8 percent.
These figures are estimates
based on 1962 imports and national production and do not allow for possible inter-regional movement.
However,
from all indications,
inter-regional movements are small and would not materially affect the above estimates.
Figures 39 and 40 and table 38 in the phosphate
section of this report show the location and volume of national fertilizer production and imports respectively. The time available in the field did not permit contact with all fertilizer mixers and distribution facilities in Brazil.
However,
-194 sufficient contacts were made in each of the geo-economic regions to obtain a general picture of the fertilizer distribution system in each of the regions and for the country as a whole. It is estimated that 600, 000 tons of mixed fertilizers were pro duced in Brazil in 1963.
This is almost 60 percent of the estimated
1,0Z0,000 tons of fertilizer materials sold in 1963.
Nine fertilizer
mixers accounted for over 55 percent of the estimated 600, 000 tons of mixed fertilizer produced. Figure 42 indicates the number and general location of fertilizer mixing plants in Brazil.
The total number of plants shown (54) may
not be completely accurate but should account for 90 percent of the plants in existance.
Forty-one of the 54 plants are located in the
State of Sao Paulo.
Northeast Region
The type and number of physical marketing facilities available for the distribution of agricultural minerals varies throughout the country.
In the North and Northeast much of the fertilizer is imported
by sugar companies, cooperatives, and large sugar cane growers for their own use and very little of this is mixed and sold on a commercial basis.
Profertil in Recife imports large quantities of fertilizer for
mixing and also manufactures normal superphosphate.
Fosforita
-195-
RIO BRANCO
I
AABONAS.., ,
tS
S I
-
•
|
a'
"-
lI.0.1_SL
Figure 42.
lAR"N,"
, ",'CAAf;"
Location of fertilizer mixing plants in Brazil, 1964
l ....:'t" " ARHAIdII
-195aFigure 4Z.
State
Location of fertilizer mixing plants in Brazil, 1964 (continued)
Number of plants
41 Sao Paulo 23 Sao Paulo 2 Americana Z Piracicaba 2 Campinas 1 Araras I Franca 1 Indaiatuba 1 Jau I Limeira 1 Cruzes Mogi das 1 Monte Alto 1 Ribeirao 1 Santo Andre 1 Sao Carlos 1 Jundiai 1 Pres. Prudente
State
Number of plants
Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Rio Grande
7
Parana Curitiba
I
Guanabara Rio de Janeiro
2
Minas Gerais Belo Horizonte
I
Bahia Salvador
1
Pernambuco Recife
1
4 3
1
Z
1
I
-196-
Olinda, also in Recife, imports large quantities of fertilizers as does Alg. Lagense in Maceio.
These three companies accounted for 34. 5
percent of the total imports into the Northeast in 1962.
This does not
include ground rock sold by Fosforita for direct application. Central Region In the central region, particularly in Minas Gerais, an extensive network of agents and warehouses is operated by the Companhia Agricola de Minas Gerais S/A (CAMIG), a state-owned corporation. The distribution centers are used to handle other agricultural supplies in addition to fertilizers and limestone.
The CAMIG network consists Thirty-eight of the 74
of nine regional warehouses and 74 agencies. agents are considered trained agronomists.
The agents usually carry only limited inventories of fertilizers and lime from which they fill small orders. regional warehouses.
They also draw on
Large orders are filled directly from Araxa.
CAMIG has plans for constructing three regional mixing plants as a start for providing complete mixed fertilizers.
One plant, with a
one-shift capacity of 20,000 tons per year, is presently being built in Belo Horizonte.
All three mixing plants should be completed by
the time CAMIG finishes construction of their thermophosphate plant at Araxa.
Their plan is to sell about 60 percent (30,000 tons) of
agrLi
-197 their initial production of thermophosphate in Minas Gerais and 40 percent (20,000 tons) in Sao Paulo.
The sales of mixed fertilizers
in Minas Gerais in 1963 totaled 40,000 tons. Imports of fertilizer into the central region through Salvador, Vitoria and Rio de Janeiro in 1962 were 12,482 tons. fertilizer from Sao Paulo is also sold in Minas Gerais.
However, some Eight
companies imported fertilizers through Salvador, Vitoria and Rio de Janeiro in 1962.
Two of these companies handled 82. 5 percent of
the fertilizer imports for these three ports.
South-Central Region The most extensive system of distribution facilities for the marketing of agricultural supplies, including agricultural minerals, exists in the state of Sao Paulo.
The 39 mixing companies located
there operate 41 plants and 183 warehouses (most of which are shown in figure 43 ) in the state of Sao Paulo and another 30 warehouses in adjacent states.
1
The companies involved maintain an organization
of 162 inspectors and Z, 3ZZ salesmen and representatives to promote
Much of the information on the fertilizer mixing industry in Sao Paulo was taken from a study completed in 1962, "Importancia Economica e Grau de Desenvolvimento das Empresas Misturadoras de Adubos no Estado de Sao Paulo", Agricultura em Sao Paulo, Secretaria da Agricultura, Setembro, 1962.
710
SAO PAULO
Figure 43.
U-
Location of fertilizer distribution warehouses, Sao Paulo,
1962
-198aFigure 43.
Location
Location of fertilizer distribution warehouses, Sao Paulo, 1962 (continued)
Number of warehouses
28 Sao Paulo 6 Biuna 5 Pres. Prudente 5 Ribeirao Preto 4 Campinas 4 Limeira 4 Piracic aba Sao Joas da Boa 4 Vista Vargen Grande do 4 Sul 4 Braganca Paulista 4 Jundiai 3 Sorocaba 3 Mogi das Cruzes 3 Piedade 3 Indaiatuba 2 Pindamonhangaba 2 Taubate 2 Atibaia 2 Santo Andre 2 otia C 2 Porto Feliz 2 Itapetininga 2 Itabera 2 Americana 2 Bauru 2 Jales 2 Aracatuba 2 Irapuru Z Tupa 2 Bastos 2 S. Anastacio 2 Machado 2 Adamantina 2 Martinopolis Z Barretos 1 Guaracai I Guararapes 1 Penapolis 1
Promissao
Location
Number of warehouses
Guaimbe Marilia Assis Pompeia Paraguagu
Paulista Rancharia Regte Feijo Osvaldo Cruz Dracena Pres. Venceslau Pres. Bernardes Alvares S.Jose do Rio Preto S.Joaquia da Barra Franca Jaboticabal Araraquara Sao Carlos Jau Pirassununga Pinhal Araras Charqueada Cosmopolis Capivari Tatui Itaporanga Guapiara Capao Bonito Sete Barras Registro Iquape Juquia Itariri Santos Mairipora Jacarei
S. Jose dos Campos Lins
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-199 the use of fertilizers and to provide technical assistance to farmers. Included in the personnel of these companies are 72 trained agronomists. In 1961, 309, 653.9 tons of mixed fertilizers were sold by the mixers in Sao Paulo with the largest four firms selling 47 percent of the total and the smallest 2Z firms selling only 12.3 percent of the total.
The mixers in Sao Paulo also sold 353,492 tons of simple
fertilizers in 1961.
The largest nine firms sold 81 percent of the
simple fertilizers and the smallest 20 firms only 7 percent of the total. The mixing plant capacity in Sao Paulo in 1961 was 686,000 tons of mixed goods annually.
Considering that the sales of mixed
fertilizers totaled 309, 653 tons, about 45 percent of the total plant capacity was utilized.
This situation probably still holds today,
since at least one new plant with a capacity of 30, 000 tons per year has been constructed in Sao Paulo since 1961. The 39 companies and 686, 000 tons of mixing plant capacity probably underestimates the plant and distribution facilities for Sao Paulo since they do not include firms which manufacture or import simple fertilizers exclusively and some cooperatives and small organizations that mix fertilizers for their own use.
-zoo-
The study of the fertilizer mixing industry in Sao Paulo I also showed that 43 percent of the total assets of the fertilizer mixers were tied up in accounts receivable.
This is caused by the necessity of
extending credit for two- to six-month periods in order to facilitate the purchase of fertilizer by farmers. About half of the fertilizer mixers in Sao Paulo have some mechanized equipment for bagging, loading and unloading and for bulk movement of fertilizers for short distances. To promote increased use of fertilizers by farmers, the fertilizer companies distribute technical bulletins, analyze soil samples free of charge in their own laboratories or through the Agronomic Institute in Campinas, and have contributed fertilizer for research and promotional purposes.
There are only two importers of fertilizers in Parana. two firms imported, through the port of Paranagua, tons of fertilizer materials in 1962. accounted for 99 percent of the total.
These
5, 5Z3.5 metric
The largest of these firms These two firms, both located
in Curitiba, are not the only fertilizer dealers operating in Parana.
A number of the Sao Paulo fertilizer companies and cooperatives also
operate warehouses and distribution facilities in Parana, particularly
in the western and northern areas of the state.
1 Ibid. p. 12.
-201
-
Southern Region
In the southern region, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, 21 firms and individuals imported 100.4 thousand tons of fertilizer materials, including rock phosphate, in 1962.
The two largest firms
handled 46. 7 percent of the imports and the four largest firms handled 68.7 percent of the imports.
The eight smallest importers handled
only 1. 6 percent of the volume.
However, most of these probably
imported only for their own use. The large importers and mixers are located in the port cities of Porto Alegre and Rio Grande with distribution facilities located in central and western Rio Grande do Sul and southern Santa Catarina. Two of these firms also manufacture normal superphosphate and one of these operates a granulating unit.
At least two companies operate
two mixing plants, one each in Rio Grande do Sul and Porto Alegre. According to informed sources in the fertilizer industry in Rio Grande do Sul, the increase in fertilizer consumption has slowed in recent years due to the reduction in wheat acreage and the fact that an increasing number of farmers is going into livestock farming rather than crops. The capacity of mixing plants and distribution facilities in all regions of Brazil appears to be adequate for present consumption of fertilizer.
In the State of Sao Paulo, in 1962, the estimated excess
capacity in the fertilizer mixing industry was 45-50 percent.
A new
mixing plant with a capacity of 30,000 tons per year will be in operation there by mid-1964. CAMIG, in Minas Gerais, is planning to construct three new mixing plants in the near future.
One of these plants, with a one
shift capacity of 20, 000 tons per year, is presently under construction in Belo Horizonte.
In the Northeast, where mixing plant facilities at
present are limited, the increase from 12,000 to 24,000 tons per year by Profertil and the planned construction of a 143, 000 ton-per-year conventional mixed goods plant by Fertilnor will provide adequate facilities for the next few years. Although excess capacity in fertilizer mixing plants is not unusual, because of the seasonality of fertilizer demand, storage of fertilizers in the off-season is usually cheaper than the cost of added mixing facilities.
This is particularly true in Brazil since very little, if
any, custom mixing is done.
Under these conditions the principal
problem is that of determining how much of the standard mixes will be in demand in a particular fertilizer season so plant operations can be begun ahead of the demand period. custom mixes,
As farmers demand more
utilization of plant capacity will become more difficult.
As total demand for fertilizers and lime increases, fertilizer companies will, of course, want to consider increasing mixing plant
-203 facilities, particularly as demand develops farther away from present plant locations.
In most cases it is cheaper, per ton of plant food, to
transport the materials used in fertilizer mixes or bulk blends to the consumption area than it is to ship the mixed product.
Besides the
economics of transportation there is the problem of segregation in most bulk blends or poorly mixed fertilizers.
The more times mixed pro
ducts are handled and the farther they must be shipped, the more they segregate resulting in a poor quality product by the time it reaches the farmer. Fertilizer companies should consider the production of granular mixed fertilizers in the future expansion of the fertilizer industry. Granular mixed fertilizers have several advantages over non-granular mixes.
On the production side, granulation reduces operating costs
by allowing the use of a lower cost nitrogen solution without trouble 1 Also, use of the nitrogen solution gives a condition. physical with product higher in analysis, thereby reducing handling and shipping costs per unit of plant food.
From the farmers' point of view, the
granular material is less dusty, less apt to cake, easier to handle,
and can be applied with more uniformity.
1 Hignett, T.P., "General Considerations on Operating Techniques, Equipment and Practices in Manufacture of Granular Mixed Fertilizers," The Chemistry and Technology of Fertilizers, New York, Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1960.
-204The main disadvantage of granular mix is the cost of equipment compared to that of a batch mixing plant.
However, batch mixing
plants can be converted to the granulation process for from $5,000 to $150,000 depending on the type of granulation unit.
Completely
new granulation plants of large size have cost from $225, 000 to 1 $367,000.
It has been estimated that the cost of manufacturing granular fertilizers is about 90 cents per ton higher than non-granular products. However, this cost may be offset by the possibility of using lower cost raw materials in some grades and by an increase in grade for any particular plant-food ratio. A flow diagram and cost information for the $367, 000 new granulation plant mentioned above can be found in appendix figure C 1 2 This information gives an indication of the type and and table C Z. cost of equipment for a large volume plant presently in operation in the United States.
Lower cost and volume plants can be constructed
to fit the needs of particular markets. Most fertilizer companies in Brazil provide some services to farmers in the form of technical information on fertilizers,
1 Ibid. p. 297.
a
Information in figure C 1 and table C Z was made available by the Missouri. City, Spencer Chemical Company, Kansas
-205 application techniques and in some cases by analyzing soil samples. However, in most instances, services that farmers in the United States have come to expect from fertilizer distributors, and that have helped stimulate fertilizer and limestone sales, such as custom mixing, delivery, bulk spreading and rental of application equipment, do not exist in Brazil. Considering that 44.7 percent of the farms in Brazil are less than 10 hectares in size and that 89.3 percent are less than 100 hectares (Z47 acres) in size, providing services such as delivery and application equipment should help stimulate demand.
Even in
the United States farmers with 200-250 acres cannot afford to own large, efficient bulk application and in some cases, side dressing equipment.
However, because equipment for application is made
available through independent dealers and cooperatives, even small farmers in the United States are able to use reasonably large tonnages of fertilizer and lime. There appear to be several reasons why services such as delivery and providing application equipment do not exist in Brazil: (1) large, efficient application equipment is not readily available in Brazil, (2)the small and medium-size fertilizer distribution firms probably cannot afford the necessary investment, (3) in a growing fertilizer market with a limited number of companies, it has not been necessary
-zo6 to provide extra services in order for an individual firm to maintain or increase its sales.
One company is known to have imported a
number of bulk spreaders several years ago, but found that it was necessary for them to operate a parts department in order to main tain the spreaders so they gave up the service. One means of obtaining the capital necessary for the investment in application and bulk spreading equipment could be through the A fertilizer study conducted in Sao
agricultural credit program.
Paulo in 19621 showed that about 43 percent of the total assets of fertilizer companies was tied up in accounts receivable due to the necessity of selling to farmers on credit. particularly large in the Unfted States,
This is not unusual or
intpared to the experience of fertilizer companies However, since most of the fertilizer companies
in Brazil are rather sfnall,
h
lack of capital and credit resources
makes expansion of facilitie,- and services more difficult.
If credit
to farmers Cbr buyf.mwV fertiliizor could be handled directly by credit agencies,
ot; iU the fertilizer companies could discount loans they
make to farmers through some existing credit agency, money now tied up in accounts receivable could be used to expand production
1 "Importancia Economica e Grau de Desenvolvimento das Empresas Misturadoras de Adubos no Estado de Sao Paulo",
op..cit.,
p. 12.
-207 and services.
Another possibility would be the development of a
special fund which could be used to expand facilities and services. Fertilizer and lime application and spreading equipment could be manufactured in Brazil.
The fertilizer industry and the Ministry
of Agriculture should encourage present agricultural equipment manufacturers to build the necessary equipment. Anhydrous ammonia could be the cheapest source of nitrogen for Brazil and steps should be taken as soon as possible for the import ation and distribution of this material.
It is a cheaper source of
nitrogen, but fully as important, is that by beginning to use the pro duct now, experience in handling and a market for anhydrous ammonia can be developed by the time Petrobras begins production of ammonia at Bahia and expands production at Cubatao.
Adequate receiving,
storage and transportation facilities already exist with which a modest start could be made.
Distribution stations at country points are lack
ing and would have to be constructed and application equipment purchased before anhydrous ammonia could be used.
Specifications and costs for
the stations and equipment are included in the section of this report dealing with nitrogen fertilizers.
-208-
FERTILIZER-CROP YIELD RESPONSE
Profitable crop farming depends on a combination of factors which include suitable land, adequate rainfall or other water supply, proper seed bed preparation, control of weeds, control of insects and plant disease, protection from wandering animals, fertilizer application, and intelligent management. is too alkaline, there will be no crop. harvest does not follow.
For example, if the soil
When rains fail to come a
Weeds uncontrolled smother the crop.
Insects can destroy the living plants as well as damage the quality of the product.
A few stray goats or cows or horses can take the
profit out of farming no matter what quantity of fertilizer is used. Fertilizer will add much to the total income of Brazilian farming and to the profits from farming whenever it is a part of a good management program.
The increased yields from application
of fertilizer shown by the research noted in this report were obtained for most part on farms where management was good.
On the other
hand, profits that should be obtained from the fertilizer may be eaten up by insects if not controlled or used up by weeds if the fields are not kept clean. In like manner the application of fertilizer is not a one -shot process.
It must be preceded bf a determination of the elements
-209 lacking in the soil.
Soil tests will show the amount of lime needed
and will indicate the need for certain other elements.
Laboratory
tests are useful in indicating the adequ-,cy of certain elements. Field experiments show the combination of elements that will give maximum return.
Figures 44 and 45 show striking proof of the
results which can be obtained from fertilization of the "campo cerrado" soils in western Sao Paulo. It is unprofitable to apply nitrogen if there is not enough phosphate in the soil to produce a crop.
Corn is grown without
profit on acid soil even when all elements except lime have been provided.
Sao Paulo soils lacking sulphur but with all other
elements present have been made to increase cotton yields by 30 percent through the application of inexpensive gypsum. Successful farming requires a total effort. is an essential part of this total effort.
Use of fertilizer
When soil fertilizztion is
used in a good management program, the farmer makes greater profits, the society of which he is a part is better fed and clothed, and raw products from the farm provide a larger base for industrial development.
-210-
Kn
7
I-.
-.
. ..
'N
_
.
--
' 'f I ' . /
.
'
Figure 44. Land near Araraquara, Sao Paulo, plowed out of native "campo cerrado" October, 1963. Corn in foreground received no fertilizer; corn in background received limestone, N, P and K.
V-VA
A
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'
01
41
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-212Phosphate in Soil Fertility
The use of phosphate as a plant food began decades ago in Brazil. Today it is applied to the land to a greater extent than the other principal plant food elements, nitrogen and potash.
Deposits of
phosphate rock have been found in several parts of Brazil.
These
and other sources are discussed elsewhere in this report. Thousands of farmers throughout Brazil have tried phosphate. Many farmers and some research workers have been disillusioned in their efforts to get economic returns from the use of phosphate. Some applied phosphate on soils that already have sufficient phosphate and got no measurable results.
Many applied phosphate to acid soils
without first adding lime and sometimes got no important response. Others on heavy soils- first added lime which released phosphate already in the soil so that the addition of more phosphate gave no added response. Financially successful use of fertilizer requires scientific knowledge and skill.
The phosphorus found in phosphates is necessary
to plant growth, but it is only one of the elements essential to vigorous plant growth.
For example, nitrogen, which is in small supply in
most Brazilian soils, is essential to any plant growth.
If phosphate
alone is applied to a soil that lacks nitrogen, little response is shown. As many as seven of these elements are sometimes found to be in
-213 insufficient quantity in a single farm field.
Studies on the Planalto of
Central Brazil, the new lands not depleted by man's activities, show five or six elements to be in inadequate supply. Again it has been noted that on some sugar cane plantations phosphate has been applied for years with good results and then this fertilizer no longer produces response.
This may be due to a
"build-up" of phosphate in the soil, but on the other hand, some other element may have been removed by the continuous cropping, and phosphorous is no longer the element that limits production. In the discussion of experimental results from the use of phosphate
in subsequent paragraphs, phosphate is often considered independently from other plant foods.
However, the true response of phosphate can
be measured only in a soil that is adequately supplied with all other essential elements.
What Research Shows can be Expected from Phosphate in Brazil
The agricultural experiment stations supported by the federal and state governments, and in a very few instances, by private industry, have had many problems to study, including selection and adaptation of seed, control of insects and plant diseases, soil erosion and cultural practices, in addition to soil fertility.
Until very recently,
soil fertility as influenced by commercial fertilizer has ordinarily been
Mk-1
-214 assigned a minor role in the activities of these experiment stations. For this reason, it has been necessary for the staff in this study to search through the records of these experiment stations,
both published
and unpublished reports, to determine just what response is being obtained from the several fertilizer elements.
From this it is possible
to project the amount of each fertilizer element needed to effect any given amount of crop production increase. Table 45 gives examples of trials in which experiment stations have used phosphate on principal crops grown in Brazil.
Sufficient
data are given to indicate how much phosphate was applied and how much response was obtained in terms of percentage and in terms of weight or volume of the product.
References are furnished so that
anyone who wishes to get more details can refer to the sources of information. research.
No attempt has been made to show all results of
Much investigation, especially that carried on prior to the
1960's, did not take into consideration the fact that not only nitrogen, phosphate and potash might be needed, but also that the soil might not respond to any of these because of lack of sulphur, lime or one or more of the minor elements: zinc, boron, etc.
On the other hand, the
listings selected for the tables are considered adequate to indicate the major increase that can be expected from the use of phosphate. A typical application, 75 kg per hectare,
of phosphate on land
growing sugar cane may be expected to result in a 15 to 30 percent
Table 45.
Crop and reference
Beans 111.
Coffee 44. p. 199
Location and year
Inst. Agron. do E. de Minas Gerais 1949-53
Piracicaba, S.P.
Basic treatment of all plots
Crop response to phosphate, Brazil
Amount P 2 0 5 applied per hectare
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Campinas, S.P. 1931-44
Remarks
0
100 kg,
118%
853 kg
NSP
Average of four years. Beans of wet season.
0
100 kg
71%
222 kg
NSP
Beans of dry season.
100 g/tree
11%
9 sacks/
NSP
Average of six harvests.
NK
1956-57 1962-63 44. p. 201
Nature or origin of phosphate
without P 20 5
small application
18%
1000 trees
Fertilizer applied each year.
34 kg/ 50 trees
Average of 14 years, five repetitions each biennial.
Corn
100.
Sete Lagoas
0
80 kg
9%
147 kg
NSP
Est. Esp. M.G.
1951-54 112.
E.E.de Curitiba
0
81%
1,100
hyper
kg/ha
phosphate
50%
806 kg
NSP
22%
450 kg
Parana
1956-59 78.
Campinas, S.P.
NK
35.
Ataliba Lionel Pindamonhangaba Agua Preta
NK
1958-59
50 kg
Mixed red soil. pH 5.9.
Crop response to phosphate, Brazil (continued) page Z of 10
Table 45. Crop and reference 51. p. Z7
Cotton 51. p. Z8
Location and year
Basic treatment of all plots
Amount PZ0 applied per hectare
5
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Average three locations, two years.
Lime + K
90
250
607 kg
Orlandia, Matao and Pirassmnunga, S.P. 1960-61 1961-62
Lime +K
90
24%
Z56 kg
TSP
239 kg
NSP
6 kg
NSP
Cotton with seed.
134%
359 kg
NSP
Cotton with seed.
89%
351 kg
NSP + Chile Nitrate
0
40 kg
21%
100.
Est. Esp. de Sete Lagoas, M.G. 1951-54
0
80 kg
Z%
i00.
Est. Esp. de Sete Lagoas, M.G. 1951-54
0
80 kg P 2 0 5
+ 18,000 kg
ground
limestone
Flax 99.
Remarks
Orlandia, Matao and Pirassununga, S.P. 1961-6Z 1960-61
Sao Paulo State* 1943 -48
6z.
Nature or origin of phosphate
0 Inst. Agron. do Sul Pelotas, R.G. do Sul 1950,1951,1952
120 kg Pz0 + 35 kg N
5
Average three locations, two years.
Thirteen different
locations.
Table 45.
Crop response to phosphate,
Brazil (continued) page 3 of 10
Crop
Location
Basic treat-
Amotut PZ05 Additional produc-
Nature or
and reference
and year
ment of all plots
applied per hectare
origin of phosphate
Grass (Elephant) 55.
60. p. 25
Est. Esp. de Alagoinha, Pe. 1958
Fazenda Jangada Aractuba, S.P.
0
NS
120 kg
100 kg applied only in Ist year
tion per hectare percent quantity
60%
8%
4. 1 T
NSP
Remarks
Factorial 3 x 3 x 3.
48 kg TSP live weight
Average of two years.
1764 kg
NSP
Randomized blocks.
Onion 101.
E.
E.
Pelotas,
0
100 kg
41%
R.G. do Sul 1951
101.
E. E. Pelotas, R.G. do Sul 1952
0
100 kg
55%
NSP
Randomized blocks.
101.
E. E. Pelotas, R.G. do Sul 1953
0
100 kg
35%
NSP
Randomized blocks.
Pelotas Exp. Sta.
0
117 kg
20%
bone meal
Latin square 5 x 5.
Potato 102.
R. G. do Sul
1946-55
Q
I
286 kg
Crop response to phosphate, Brazil (continued) page 4 of 10
Table 45. Crop and reference 103.
Location and year
Basic treatment of all plots
0120 Inst. Agron. do Sul Pelotas, R.G. do Sul 1950-57
Anount P 2 0 applied per hectare kg
5
Additional production per hectare percent quantity 114%
Nature or origin of phosphate
5.02 T
NSP
Z9.
E. E. de Patos Minas, M.G. 1956-57
0
90 kg
71%
1,153 kg
NSP
29.
E. E. de Patos Minas, M. G. 1956-57
0
1500 kg/ha apatite
58%
942 kg
apatite from Araxa
Pelotas, R.G. do Sul
0
60 kg
20%
Z51 kg
NSP
39.
Pelotas, R.G. do Sul
0
60 kg
13%
168 kg
Olinda
13. p. 38
Pindamonhangaba S.P. 1936-37 to 1943-44
Rice
39.
N - 20 K - 22
80 kg
7%
Z36 kg
Remarks The authors drew the following conclusions: The most profitable level of fertilization to phosphorous is equal to 135 kg/ha of P 2 0 5 . The best formula for potato to be grown in planosol is 15-135-40.
Seven years.
Crop response to phosphate, Brazil (continued) page 5 of 10
Table 45. Crop and reference
Location and year
13. p. 37
Limeira, S.P.
13. p. 41
Osorio, R.G. doSul
1961-62
Est. Exp. de Sete Lagoas, M.G. 1951-55
Soybeans 114.
51. p. Z6
Basic treatment of all plots
Orlandia, Matao and Pirassununga,
Amount PZ0 applied per hectare
5
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Five years' average.
97%
965 kg
0
60 kg
27%
757 kg
NSP
One year.
0
100 kg NSP + 9 T lime
34%
388 kg
NSP
The best yield was with the application of lime + NSP in soybeans. Lime only applied gave lower yields. Results are four year ave., with lime applied only once.
90 kg
Z5%
286 kg
80 kg
39%
300 kg beans
Lime + K
1960-61 and
1961-62
Campinas, S.P. E. E. de Theodureto de Camargo
1955-56
1957-58
Remarks
80 kg
N - 20 K - 60
S.P.
104.
Nature or origin of phosphate
0
Average of three locations. Two years.
Table 45. Crop and reference
Location and year
Crop response to phosphate, Brazil (continued) page 6 of 10
Basic treatment of all plots
Amount PzO5 Additional producapplied tion per hectare per hectare percent quantity
Nature or origin of phosphate
100.
E.E. de Sete Lagoas, M.G. 1951-54
0
80 kg
100.
E.E. de Sete Lagoas, M.G. 1951-54
0
80 kg P 2 0 + 900 kg ground
limestone
E.E. de Campos, R. de J. 1952-53
0
Sugarcane 74.
Remarks
7%
95 kg beans
NSP
Z1%
Z64 kg
NSP
400 kg
12%
348 kg
NSP
Variety of sugarcane Co 421
5
5.
Araraquara, S.P. 1952
N 30 kg/ha K 45 kg/ha
120 kg
60%
24.4 T
NSP
Mixed red soil.
pH 5.50.
8. p. 8
S. Antonio da Posse, S.P. 1957-58
N 160 kg/ha 160 kg K 160 kg/ha
169%
77.7 T
NSP
Glacial mixed red soil. pH 5.40.
5. 1 T
NSP
Hydromorphic soil.
10.2 T
NSP
Aluvial of Ururai River
85.
Usina Poco Gordo Fazenda do Veiga R. de J. 1959-60
0
150 kg
5%
86.
Usina Cupim, Fazenda Cupim,
R. de J.
1959-60
0
150 kg
11%
Table 45. Crop and reference Sugarcane
87.
Location and year
Crop response to phosphate, Brazil (continued) page 7 of 10
Basic treatment of all plots
Amount P 2 0 applied per hectare
5
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Nature or origin of phosphate
Remarks
Usina Novo Horizonte, R. de J.
1959-60
0
75 kg
14%
13.3 T
NSP
Yellow latsol soil.
88.
Usina Sao Joao Fazenda Jacaranda,
R. deJ. 1959-60
0
75 kg
12%
9. 2 T
NSP
Yellow regolatosol. (Tabuleiro phase)
89.
Usina Sao Joao 0
Fazenda Sao Gregorio
R. de J. 1959-60
75 kg
27%
27. 1 T
NSP
Yellow regolatosol. (Tabuleiro phase.)
90.
Usina Santa Cruz Fazenda Monbaca,
R. deJ. 1959-60
0
150 kg
2.7 T
NSP
Aluvial of Paraiba River.
91.
Usina Mineiros Fazenda Bella Vista
R. de J. 1959-60
0
75 kg
49%
39.9 T
NSP
Yellow regolatosol.
92.
Usina Barcelos Fazenda de Guandu,
R. de J. 1959-60
0
150 kg
31%
19. 2 T
NSP
Yellow regolatosol.
2%
Table 45. Crop and reference Sugarcane 93.
Location and year
Crop response to phosphate, Brazil (continued) page 8 of 10
Basic treatment of all plots
Amount P 2 0 applied per hectare
5
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Nature or origin of phosphate
Remarks
Usina Barcelos Fazenda de Guandu, R. de J. 1959-60
0
75 kg
63% 30. 1 T
NSP
Yellow regolatosol.
94.
Usina Carapebus Fazenda Boa Sorte, R. de J. 1959-60
0
75 kg
130 11. 6 T
NSP
Yellow regolatosol.
95.
Usina Carapebus Fazenda Boa Sorte, R. deJ. 1959-60
•N 0
75 kg
6% 8. 2 T
NSP
Aluvial soil.
96.
Usina Carapebus Fazenda Boa Sorte, R. de J. 1959-60
0
75 kg
7% 6.4 T
NSP
Yellow regolatosol.
Piracicaba, S.P. E. S. A. "Luiz de Queiroz" 1959-60
0
75 kg
3Z% 91.7 T
NSP + Olinda
Sandy soil of Corumbatai formation. The best result was obtained when fosforita was applied with superphosphate.
2/3 fos-
Sandy soil of Corumbatai
forita
formation.
105.
18.
Piracicaba, S.P.
NK
75 kg
(50 Olinda)
1ZZ% Z01.6 T
Olinda 1/3 NSP
Table 45. Crop response to phosphate, Brazil (continued) page 9 of 10 Crop and reference
Tobacco 107.
Wheat 69.
Location and year
0
80 kg PZO 5 also 300 kg KCl
Estacoes Esp. de Fronteira, Serra
Colomas, Encruzilhada do Sul, Sao Borja, R.G. doSul
1953
0
70 kg
N - 45 kg/ K 2 0-50 kg/ ha
21.
Passo Fundo Est. Esp. R.G. doSul 1952-57
11.
E. E. de Curitiba Parana 1957-58
14. p. 871
Amount P 2 0 applied per hectare
Expt. Substation of Pomba, M. G. 1953
14. p. 871 Municipio de Avre, S.P.
I
Basic treatment of all plots
0
70 kg
120 kg
5
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
170%
33%
Nature or origin of
phosphate
3,513 kg
NSP + KC1
2ZZ kg
NSP
Remarks
This was best fertilizer response in the Pomba region. No nitrogen but P 2 0 5 and KC1 as indicated.
Average of five experiments. 46%
330 kg
NSP
580%
399 kg
NSP
84 kg
NSP
Phosphate after liming
0
50 kg
7%
NK
90 kg
260%
375 kg
NSP
Soil - fine sand of Botucatu
90 kg
137%
374 kg
NSP
Soil - fine sand of Botucatu
Municipio de Avre, L N K S.P.
Crop response to phosphate, Brazil (continued) page 10 of 10
Table 45.
Crop and reference Wheat 23.
43.
106.
Location and year
Basic treatment of all plots
Amount P 2 0 applied per hectare
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Nature or origin of phosphate
Remarks
hyper phosphate
33%
Z50 kg
kg kg kg kg
102% 300% 417% 474%
511 kg 824 kg 6Z8 kg 1518 kg
NSP NSP NSP NSP
(Phosphate applied every year over four-year period)
80 kg
22%
185 kg
NSP
Experiments carried out in 11 counties of Sta. Catarina State.
0
350 kg
Horto Farm
Gravatai Est. Esp.
R.G. doSul 1959 1960 1961 1962
0 0 0 0
60 60 60 60
Sta. Catarina State 1959
0
E. E. Rio Cacador (S.C.) Sta. Catarina State 1957-60
5
increase in production. table 45.
This is illustrated by the results shown in
produced The lands on which the experiments were conducted
without phosphate or twice the about 85 tons of sugar cane per hectare national average.
The increased production per hectare averaged
about Z0 tons. percent or 400 kg per Corn production increased by about 20 of 60 kg P 2 0 hectare in response to the application
5
.
As in the case
the land where experiments were of sugar cane, it should be noted that conducted produced much more,
2000 kg per hectare, without phosphate,
kg. than the national average yield of 1300
Spectacular percentage
but the yield of wheat
increases in yields of wheat were reported, by comparison with major wheat
without phosphate was very low, and with the use of phosphate.
producing countries very low even
that no particular
By way of caution, it should be emphasized alone and get these results. farmer can expect to apply phosphate
His
is applied and he must realize soil should be analyzed before fertilizer is a total effort in which all the that success in the use of fertilizer required elements, amounts.
in adequate and lime if needed, must be applied
must be under control, Also, the other factors of production
such as insects,
erosion, etc.
-ZZ6-
Fertilizer Value of the Several Types of Phosphate Used in Brazil
It cannot be assumed that all phosphates are equally effe "tive in increasing crop yields.
The phosphoric oxide (P 2 0 5 ) in the phosphate
is soluble in varying degrees and in some materials is more quickly available than in others.
Several Brazilian experiment stations have
made comparisons between the principal phosphate materials found on the Brazilian market. In all 27 experiments reported in Table 46, normal superphosphate (sometimes called simple superphosphate) was used in the comparison. Nitrogen and potash were often applied along with the phosphate, both on the check plots and on the plots receiving phosphate.
Normal super
phosphate has been used widely and successfully in Brazil.
It has
special advantages which include water solubility and, consequently, gives quick response on both acid and non-acid soils.
It has another
special advantage in soil with low sulphur content because it does supply this essential element.
Furthermore, farmers like to use it
because it comes in a form that is conveniently applied either by machine or by hand. Eighteen direct comparisons were made with ground phosphate rock from Olinda, Pernambuco.
In 10 of these 18 cases, the response
was about equal from these two sources of PZ05. This ground rock, "Fosforita Olinda," produced in a plant near
Table 46.
Crop response by origin or type of phosphate,
Location
Check plot and basic
and
and
treatment
reference
year
of all plots
Crop
Olinda
NSP phosphate
Bone
meal
TSP
Brazil
Thermo-
Araxa
phosphate
phosphate
Remarks
Production in kilograms per hectare Corn 34.
35.
Pindamonhangaba,
73Z
S.P. 1953-55
NK
Ataliba Lionel 146Z Pindamonhangaba, NK Agua Preta, S.P.
2571
131Z
2309
-
60 kg P 2 0 Z462
Z364
-
1890
1958-59
Z463
2081 NK
3692
Pindamonhangaba,
732
Z744
S.P. 1953-55
NK
Ataliba Lionel,
37.
Eng
Hermilo
Ipanema 1947-51
34.
36.
2764 rama, Tatui, S.P. NK
1941-45
Limeira, Pindo-
2331
-
1890
3299
5
/ha.
Three locations. Mixed red soil. Terciaric aluvio argiloso. pH 4.6.
80 kg PZ0
2013 Pindamonhangaba, NK
Agua Preta, S.P.
1958-59
35.
Solo terciario. pH 5. 10.
5
/ha.
-
Two locations.
Sandy
soil, glacial. 60 kg P 2 0 5 /ha. Z487
2432
Average of production
of two levels of P 2 0 60 and 120 kg/ha.
3355
-
3Z36
Three locations.
Mixed red soil. Arenito Bauru.
5
Table 46.
Crop response by origin or type of phosphate, Brazil (continued) page 2 of 5 Check plot
Crop and
Location and
and basic treatment
reference
year
of all plots
Olinda NSP phosphate
Bone meal
TSP
Thermophosphate
Araxa phosphate
Remarks
Production in kilograms per hectare Corn 80.
2171 NK
3260
Estario de
951
1220
Sao Paulo 1935-42
NK
Campinas, S.P.
806
Botucatu,
Eng Hermilo, Pres. Prudente, S. Simao, S.P.
-
-
Four locations:
3265
1. Red soil, Legitima. pH 5. 2. 2. Glacial soil. 3. Arenito Bauru. 4. Red soil, legitima.
Cotton 63.
58.
-
Average of 71 tests in
1093
S.P. Figured in terms seed cotton.
1447
-
Average two locations:
1462
Campinas, mixed red soils; Mococa, "Massape salmourao."
1925-26, 1937-41 NK 1940-45 Mococa, S.P. 1939-40 2.
1. Mixed red soil.
1. Campinas, S.P. 1941-45
2. Mococa, S.P. 1941-45 3. Piracicaba, S.P.
2. "Massape-salamourao". 1204
NK
1941-44 4. Ribeirao Preto, S.P. 1941-44
5. Limeira, S.P. 1941-42
1566
-
1474
-
3. Red soil, legitima.
4. Red soil, legitima. 5. Mixed red soil. 20 kg/ha N P2O5 80 kg/ha
KZO
30 kg/ha
Table eo.
Crop response by origin or type of phosphate,
Brazil (continued) page 3 of 5
Check plot
Crop and reference
Location and year
and basic
treatment of all plots
Olinda NSP phosphate
Bone meal
TSP
Thermophosphate
Araxa
phosphate
Remarks
Production in kilograms per hectare
Potatoes
29.
Patos, M.G. 1956-57
1624
570 b
Z780a
a.
500 kg PO 18% soluble.
b. 1500 kg apatite 6% souble.
Rice
39. p.1
R.G. do Sul
1250
1501
1418
3964
-
Inst. Agron.
1961-62
39.
R. G. do Sul 1961-62
3494
3897
Z5.
Agua Limpa, M.G.
1557 NK
1630
92 T
-
-
4003
-
P 2 0 5 - 90 kg/ha
4158*
-
-
1717
NSP - ZOO kg/ha Apatita - 600 kg/ha
80 T
Red mixed soil.
1956-60 Sugarcane
3.
9.
Usina Esmeralda,
58 T
S.P.
NK
Porto Feliz, S.P.
58 T
1958
Q
.Ie
R
Hyperphosphate
89 T
99T
Acid 77 T
67 T
67 T*
Red mixed soil. pH 5. 20.
N
30 kg/ha
P2 O K0
40 kg/ha 40 kg/ha
a'
Table 46.
Crop response by origin or type of phosphate, Brazil (continued) page 4 of 5 Check plot
Location and
Crop and
of all plots
year
reference
and basic treatment
Olinda and
Olinda
NSP
NSP phosphate
TSP
Hyper-
Araxa
phosphate
phosphate
Remarks
Production in kilograms per hectare 50% - 50%
Sugarcane 57.9T
Campos, R.de J.
Z7.
-
Campos, R.de J.
27.
89.4T 71.2T
85.5T
-
120 kg PzO 5
40.0 T 37.9 T
39.3 T
-
Second year, no additional
NK
1962
fertilizer. Four replica tions on four farms each in a different sugar mill
1963
area of Rio de Janeiro.!
Wheat Z8.
Gravatai, R.G. do Sul 1959 - 90 kg P 2 O5
NSP
60 kg
-
90Z
643
1011
953
758
813 711
1041 819
1034 783
1059 848
-
Z13Z
2123
Z132
-
Phosphate was applied
5 5
151
1097 888
5
3Z0
1971
1698
Municipio de Avre S.P. 1961
146 NK
521
182
-
698
116
Fine sand of Botucatu.
646
168
-
831
207
Fine sand of Botucatu.
-
90 kg P 2 O 90 kg PZ0
1962 - 90 kg Pz0 871
30 kg
501 274
1960 1961
14. p.
Olinda
Municipio de Avre 272 LNK S.P. 1961
every year.
Table 46.
Crop response by origin or type of phosphate,
Brazil (continued) page 5 of 5
Check plot
Crop and reference
Location and year
and basic treatment of all plots
Olinda NSP phosphate
Tri Thermo- calcium phosphate fundido Metaphos
Dical
Remarks
Proi.action in kilograms per hectare Wheat
43.
Pelotas,
Experiment set up by
R. G. do Sul
1960 1961 1962
Barcellos Fagundes,
956 459 499
1154 6Z6 1750
1084 515 1673
1255 771 1969
1196 654 1482
1066 646 1659
1081 531 1809
replicated five times. Possible response to Mg in thermophosphate. 1960 Ave: application of 40, 80 and 120 kg PZO 5 /ha;
1961-62:
80 kg P.0
P)
Q
5
/ha.
-23Z-
Recife and sold in bagged form, has been used successfully in Brazil not only in the coastal area of the Northeast for sugar cane, but also in other parts of Brazil.
For example, in the year 1961-196Z, Olinda
ground rock phosphate was the principal fertilizer used on rice in the state of Rio Grande do Sul.
The advantage is that it can be produced
at low cost and no foreign capital is required.
In Rio Grande do Sul,
the experiment station at Pelotas, after extensive research, considers the Olinda phosphate equal to any other for rice. Where Olinda phosphate gave less response than normal super phosphate, it is possible that the soil was deficient in sulphur and that the sulphur in the normal superphosphate gave a crop stimulus. Also, it should be noted in table 46,
that when Olinda phosphate was
mixed with normal superphosphate in Rio Grande do Sul and Rio de Janeiro, the mixture equaled in response that of normal superphosphate. At present the small amount of thermophosphate used in Brazil is imported from Japan, which country uses this type extensively. Reports indicate that it is used in Japan and in some other countries as a phosphate that substitutes for normal superphosphate in respect to quick response, although it is not water soluble.
Thermophosphate
has a special advantage for a soil deficient in magnesium because it supplies this plant food.
Thus, if the soil is sour and needs magnesium,
calcite lime can be used with thermophosphate to correct acidity rather
than dolomitic lime.
-233-
In respect to some phosphates the number of tests are few and inconclusive, yet one fact remains clear: production.
Phosphate increases
Whether the phosphate is from normal superphosphate,
Olinda, bone meal, or triple superphosphate and whether the crop be corn, cotton, potatoes,
rice, sugar cane, or wheat, the increase
in yield is so substantial as to indicate opportunity for finanical profit.
-234Nitrogen in Soil Fertility The need for nitrogen in the fertilizer program is second only to that of phosphate.
This has been indicated in discussions with research
workers in the principal agricultural experiment stations of Brazil. An increase in the annual use of nitrogen from 29, 400 tons reported for 1957 (30) to an estimated 65, 000 tons in 1963, representing a 14 percent increase per year, shows the growing interest of farmers in this element. More than two-thirds of the 1963 consumption of nitrogen was
imported but, as discussed elsewhere in this report, moves are under way which should make Brazil self-sufficient in the production of this essential plant food.
The forms in which nitrogen is used include:
ammonium nitrate (calnitro or nitrocalcio), ammonium sulphate, sodium nitrate (Chile saltpetre), and urea.
Ammonia (NH 3 ) is used
only experimentally.
Form of Nitrogen For some crops, experiment stations are interested only in the quantity of nitrogen contained in the fertilizer.
Nitrogen in one form
seems to be equal to the nitrogen in another form. exceptions exist.
On the other hand,
The ammonium form is recommended for irrigated
-Z35 rice.
Specialists at the Gravatia Experiment Station in Rio Grande do
Sul, Dr. Kalckman and Dr. Patella, recommend the use of ammonium sulphate for rice.
In some areas where ammonium sulphate gave
unfavorable effects, urea is recommended. Preliminary tests on coffee in the state of Sao Paulo showed a reaction somewhat more favorable for ammonium sulphate followed by nitrocalcio.
The comparisons were made at the experiment stations
at Campinas, Pindorama, Ribeirao Preto and Mococa, and included in the comparison were urea and Chile saltpetre.
Time of Application
The time and frequency of the application of nitrogen to some crops have much importance because of the solubility of the nitrogen compounds used and the leaching that tends to occur.
Patella at
Gravatai, suggests that nitrogen be applied to rice 60 days after planting at a depth of six centimeters in order to avoid losses.
A
frequent practice is to apply part of the nitrogen at planting time and the remainder a few weeks later.
The Crop Response to Nitrogen
An almost universal response was reported for nitrogen (table 47). This indicates that over wide areas of Brazil and for many crops, the
Table 47.
Location and year
Crop and reference
Basic treatment of all plots
Coconut trees Service Agro108. Industrial do DNOCS Posto Agricola do Rio San Francisco. Ico, Pe. 1956-58 Coffee 38.
31.
0
Crop response to nitrogen, Brazil
Amount N applied per hectare
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Nature or origin of fertilizer
Remarks
20 kg
160%
72.3 kg' tree
ammonium sulphate
Experiment carried out in dry region of North east Brazil. Annual rainfall in the years: 1956, 57 and 58 were, 197, 469 and 169 mm.
ammonium sulphate
P Mixture of Olinda phosphate and NSP K KC1 Arrobas/1000 trees
Campinas, S.P. 1962-63
PK
135 g/tree
300%
53:
Ribeirao Preto, S.P. 1954-58
PK
120 g/tree
43%
29*
kg/plot of new plants. Six harvests. Amount N applied incre-_sed to 400 g/tree as t-ees grew. Four applications yearly.
199
Piracicaba, S.P. 1956-51-62-63
0
400 g/tree
10%
3xxx
Chile saltpetre
xxx sacks/1000 trees
44. p. 199
Piracicaba, S.P. 1956-57-62-63
PK
400 g/tree
62%
35xxx
Chile saltpetre
xxx sacks/1000 trees
44. p. 201
Near Campinas, S.P. 1931-44
Manure
small duse
9%
13
Chile nitrate
Red mixed soil. Ave. of 14 years. Only one application each year.
44. p.
Table 47. Crop and reference Corn 75.
Location and year
Crop response to nitrogen, Brazil (continued) page 2 of 6
Basic treatment of all plots
Amount N applied per hectare
Additional production pe hectare percent quantity
Mococa, S.P. 1941-49
PK
40 kg
30/
71.
Ribeirao Preto, S.P. 1956-57
PK
80 kg
35%
76.
Campinas and Ipanema, S. P.
PK
25 kg
26%
837 kg
400 kg
Nature or origin of fertilizer
Remarks
ammonium sulphate
"Massape Soil."
Chile saltpetre
Red soil.
Chile saltpetre
Two locations: Red soil - mixed;
1946-51
Glacial soil - sandy.
pH 5.7 51. pp. 21, Orlandia, S.P. 27 1961-62 Matao and 1961-62 Pirassununga
L P K S + MN
60 kg
L P K S
60 kg
14%
303 kg
calnitro
L P K S
60 kg
37%
1760 kg
calnitro
calnitro
Limestone was dolomitic. Soil: Dark red catasol 50% clay, pH 4.9. Red-yellow catasol Z5% clay, pH 4.9. Deep sandy loam 20/ clay, pH 4.9.
Cotton Orlandia, 51. pp. 21, Matao, 28 and Pirassununga, S.P. 1961-62
60 kg LPKS + MN
calnitro
60 kg
24%
258 kg
calnitro
120 kg
18%
522 kg
calnitro
Limestone was dolomitic. Soil: Dark red catasol 50% clay, pH 4.9. Red-yellow catasol Z5% clay, pH 4.9. Deep sandy loam 20% clay, pH 4.9.
N
Table 47.
Corn 109.
48. p.
Basic treatment of all plots
Location and year
Crop and reference
Crop response to nitrogen, Brazil (conxiued) page 3 of 6
Amount N applied per hectare
Grass
(Elephant)
55.
Grass
(Colonial Guinea Grass Pastures) (Coloniao) 60. p. Z0 Onion 67.
Soybeans
Z2. p. 9 p. 18
L P KS B Zn Mo
Orlandia to Barretos, S.P. 1959-60
0
E. E. Alagoinha Pe. 1958
Fazenda Jangada Aracatuba, S.P. 1958-60
Pelotas, E. E. R.. G. do Sul 1946-47
Anapolis, State of Goias 1958-59
do
ZOO kg P 0 60 kg S
0
Nature or origin of fertilizer
Remarks
20%
110 kg
Chile nitrate
120 kg
11%c/
143 kg
calnitro
Campo Cerrado soils. Average of eight locations.
Z5 kg
78%
5.5 T
calnitro
Factorial 3 x 3 x 3.
Z807 kg TDN (total digestible nutrients)
ammonium nitrate (calnitro Z0%)
Average of two years. Included pastures with summer applications of N and those with winter applications of N.
84%
1100 kg
Chile nitrate
Latin square
21%1
Z31 kg
Est. Esp. Alagoinha, 0 Paraiba State, Northeast Brazil 1950-57 16
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
ZOO kg ea year
40 kg
200 kg P KS Zn Mo + dolomitic lime
140%
calnitro
Table 47.
Crop and reference
Location and year
Crop response to nitrogen, Brazil (continued) page 4 of 6
Basic treatment of all plots
Sugarcane 26. pp. 64, Fazenda Floresta,
68
72.
Amount N applied per hectare
Additional produc tion per hectare percent quantity
Nature or origin of fertilizer
Remarks
90 kg
14%
17.4 T
calnitro
Soil - aluvial clay.
P 120 kg/ha K 180 kg/ha
120 kg
19%
Zl. 8 T
ammonium sulphate
Red soil. pH 5.70.
Araraquara, S.P.
P 100 kg/ha K 60 kg/ha
75 kg
1Z%
10 T
ammonium sulphate
Mixed red soil. pH 5.65.
50 kg
39%
44-4 T
ammonium
Red soil.
0
Campos, R. de J. 1957-58 Ribeirao Preto, S.P.
1958-59 6.
7.
8.
Ribeirao Preto,
P
S.P. 1957
K 120 kg/ha
80 kg/ha
S. Antonio da
P 160 kg/ha
Posse, S.P.
K 160 kg/ha
pH 5.40.
sulphate
160 kg
42%
36.6 T
ammonium
Glacial red mixed soil.
sulphate
pH 5.30.
1957-58 49. pp. 12- Sao Paulo 15
0
120 kg
14%
14 T
Chile nitrate
Mixed red soil. Factorial 3 x 3 x 3 with one repeti tion of the 27 treatments
49. pp. 18- Sao Paulo 20
0
120 kg
11%
10.5 T
Chile nitrate
Red soil legitima. Factorial 3 x 3 x 3 with one repetition of the 27 treatments.
Crop -esponse to nitrogen, Brazil (continued) page 5 of 6
Table 47. Crop and reference
Location and year
Basic treatment of all plots
Amount N applied per hectare
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Nature or origin of fertilizer
Remarks
Sugarcane
Z6. pp. 73- Fazenda Quissaman, 76 Campos. R. de J. 1959
30 kg
0
9%
4. 5 T
calnitro
Regosolic yellow latosolic podzolic (tabuleiro.)
E.E. Ribeirao Preto S.P. 1957
0
100 kg
11%
18.4 T
ammonium sulphate
Red soil. Factorial 3 x 3 x 3 with two repetitions.
74.
E.E. de Carnpos, Canpos, R. de J. 195Z-53
0
100 kg
ZZ%
577 kg
Chile nitrate
Factorial 3 x 3 x 3.
86.
0 Usina Cupim, Fazenda Cupim, R. J. 1959-60
75 kg
13%
11.4 T
ammonium sulphate
Aluvial of Ururai River.
87.
Usina Novo Horizonte, R. de J. 1959-60
150 kg
IZ%
11.5 T
ammonium sulphate
Yellow latosol.
90.
Usina Santa Cruz Fazenda Mombaca, R. de J. 1959-60
0
75 kg
Z0%
Z1.0 T
ammonium sulphate
Aluvial of Paraiba River
91.
Usina Min-iros Fazenda Bella Vista
0
75 kg
1.4%
1.5 T
ammonium sulphate
Yellow regolatosol. (Tabuleiro phase.)
7.
R.
de J.
1959-60
0
Table 47. Crop and reference Sugarcane
94.
Location and year
Crop response to nitrogen, Brazil (continueu) page 6 of 6
Basic treatment of all plots
Amount N applied per hectare
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
ammonium sulphate
Yellow regolatosol. (Tabuleiro phase.)
1. 9 T
ammonium sulphate
Aluvial.
4.8 T
ammonium sulphate
Yellow regolatosol. (Tabuleiro phase.)
35%
Z50 kg
Chile nitrate
11%
80 kg
Chile nitrate
0
150 kg
95.
Usina Carapebus Fazenda Boa Sorte, R. de J. 1959-60
0
150 kg
96.
Usina Carapebus Fazenda Boa Sorte, R. de J. 1959-60
0
75 kg
5%
E. E. Curitiba, Parana 1956-59
0
35 kg
2. E. Curitiba, Parana
1957-58
0
50 kg
11.
Remarks
5.0 T
5%
Usina Carapebus Fazenda Boa Sorte, R. de J. 1959-60
Wheat 12.
Nature or origin of fertilizer
1.4%
-242 application of nitrogen increases production.
Research workers have
found that for a specific crop on a certain soil there is no response. Often some element other than nitrogen is the limiting factor and, therefore, the farmer or the research worker gets no added production from nitrogen.
For some crops the application of nitrogen tends to
encourage vegetative growth, delaying or diminishing the amount of seed or grain development. In respect to a part of the research reported in table 47, tech nicians comment that there have not been enough replications to prove whether the response is significant.
To answer this, it may be said
that the growing body of information from research and farmer practice in various parts of Brazil demonstrates the usefulness of nitrogen in stimulating production.
This is corroborated by much experience in
other countries throughout the world. does it pay to apply nitrogen?
Of course, another question is,
The matter of the economy of fertilizer
use is discussed elsewhere in this report.
-243Potash in the Fertilizer Program
Most Brazilian soils contain a supply of potash in a form available to plants.
For this reason in the early use of lands in Brazil as well
as in the early research in plant nutrition, little attention was given to potash and no response, or very little response, was obtained from the application of this fertilizer. When soils have been cropped for a period of years, and especially when conditions of production including the application of nitrogen and potash have brought about heavy production, then potassium deficiency frequently becomes evident.
More potash is being used each year.
An estimated 84, 000 tons of potash (K2 0) were used in Brazil in 1963 compared with 59, 246 tons reported for the year 1957.
Crop Response to Potash as Shown by Research
A 1957 study by Cardosa and others points out that sugar cane uses much more potash (K2 0) than phosphate (PZO 5 ) and nitrogen (N) combined.
This study shows definite response in two successive
experiments carried out in soils that had been cropped to sugar cane for many years.
During the years the fertilizer applied was chiefly
phosphate which, incidentally, had given little added production in the more recent years.
In these two experiments there was an increase
in production with each increase in the amount of potash applied with
-244 amounts ranging from 10 kg per hectare to 120 kg per hectare, the greatest response per unit coming from the first 30 kg per hectare.
The amount of response is shown in table 48.
As indicated in the table,
an even greater response was obtained in the area served by Usina Ester in the Municipio of Cosmopolis, Sao Paulo. In Rio Grande do Sul, the experiment station at Gravatai does not include potash in its recommendationb, for rice or corn but does recommend its use fcr soybeans "in axeas where the potassium con tent of the soil is low".
At the research station, Julio Gastilhoa de
Rio Grande do Sul, the research sta.ff did include a small amount of potash (21 to 36 kg K 2 0/ha.) in its recommendations for wheat. Carlos Alberto Sa Leite, Engeneiro Agronomo, Secretaria de Agri cultura, P.
Alegre,
recommends 45 kg K 2 0/ha. along with nitrogen
and phosphate for wheat in the northern part of the State of Rio Grande
do Sul. On the cerrado soils of the central plateau the application of potash when added to a complete fertilization of lime, nitrogen, phosphate, sulphur and micronutrients produced a marked effect on the growth and yields of cotton and corn in the years 1960-1961 and 1961-1962 (51).
Soybeans did not show a significant response.
The foregoing study made in three locations on campo cerrado soils indicates that as this great area of Bra.il is opened up for
Table 48.
Basic treatment of all plots
Crop response to potash, Brazil
Amount K2O applied per hectare
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Nature or crigin of potash
Crop and reference
Location and year
Coffee 44. p. Z20
Ribeirao Preto,
N
40 g/tree
S.P. 1952-54
PZ0
60 g/tree
Near Campinas, S.P. 1931-32 1943-44
manure
105 g KCI/ tree/year
19%
9 sacks! 1000 trees
L N P S + MN
90 kg
47%
1690 kg
64% 11%
389 kg 66 kg
KCI leucite
Mixed red soil. Two sources of potassium. pH 5. 2.
1690 kg
KCl
One year.
170 kg
KCI
One year.
1600 kg
KCI
One year.
44. p. Z0Z
Corn
51. pp. 14, Orlandia, S.P. 1960-62 17 Cotton 57.
Campinas, S.P. 1952-55
N P20
5
5
40 kg/ha 80 kg/ha
100 kg K 0 100 kg K 2 0
potassium
Z0%
chloride
600%
51. pp. 16, Pirassununga 18 S.P. 1960-61
L N P S + MN
90 kg
51. pp. 16, Matao, S.P. 1960-61
18
L N P S
90 kg
120/
51. pp. 16, Orlandia, S.P. 1960-61
18
L N P S
90kg
230%
KCI
KCl
Remarks
Land cropped for many years.
Red soil.
Mixed red soil. Fourteen harvests.
Two years.
Table 48.
Location and year
Crop and reference Cotton 48. p.
16
Crop response to potash. Brazil (continued) page Z of 6
Basic treatment of all plots
Orlandia to Barretos, S.P.
L N P S B Zn Mo
Amount K 2 0 applied per hectare
120 kg
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
92%
777 kg
Nature or origin of potash
KCl
Remarks
Campo Cerrado soils. Ave. of four locations
where response was shown. On four other
1959-60
locations, no significant response was shown. Grass
(Elephant) 83.
NP
80 kg
10%
KCl
Four cuttings of hay in one year.
Itamaraca
NP
80 kg
16%
KCI
Three cuttings of hay in one year.
E.E. de Tambe, Recife, Pe. 196Z
0
15 T/ gneiss
11%
ground biotitic
Gneiss gave better results than KCI. It possibly contained some minor elements that stimulated growth.
I.E.E.A. (Km 47Rio S.P. Highway) 1945
0
amount not
31%
KC1
Randomized blocks.
Est. Esp. de Tambe Recife, Pe.
1962
83.
(Pastures) 84.
Potato
110.
982 kg
Table 48. Crop and reference Sugarcane
16. p. 6
Location and year
Crop response to potash,
Basic treatment of all plots
Amount K 2 0 applied per hectare
Brazil (continued) page 3 of 6 Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Nature or origin of potash
Remarks
Usina Monte Alegre, Piracicaba, S.P.
N = 120 60 kg P205 = 240 lime = 2 T
16%
11. 3 T
KC1
16. p. 8
Usina Monte Alegre, Piracicaba, S.P.
N = 120 120 kg P205 = 240 lime = 2 T
28%
18.8 T
KC1
82. p. 679
Usina Ester Municipio Cosmopolis, S.P.
Green manure 90 kg + ammonium sulphate + NSP
72%
41.8 T
KCI
Glacial soil - 37% clay;
54% sand. pH 4.65.
120 kg
45%
48.8 T
KC1
Red soil. pH 5.40.
16%
13.5 T
1/3 NSP
Red soil.
Red Soil. In the two
experiements there was
an increase in production
with each increase in
amount of K applied from
10 to 120 kg, with greatest
response per unit from the
first 30 kg/ha.
1957-58
7.
16.
Ribeirao Preto, S.P. 1956-57
N = 50 kg/ha P = 80 kg/ha
Piracicaba, S.P.
N
PZ0
5
= 120 kg/ha
50 kg
= 240 kg/ha
K 0
2/3 bone meal
7.
Est. Esp. de 0 Ribeirao Preto, S.P. 1957
120 kg
12%
24.3 T
KC1
Red soil.
Factorial 3 x 3 x 3.
Table 48.
Crop and reference Sugarcane 49.
Location and year
Crop response to potash, Brazil (continued) page 4 of 6
Basic treatment of all plots
Piracicaba, S.P. E. Sup. de Agric. 1959
74.
Est. Esp. de Campos R. de J. 1952-53
87.
Usina Novo Horizonte, R. de J.
1959-60
88.
Usina Sao Joao Fazenda Jacaranda
R. de J. 1959-60
91.
97.
Usina do Outeiro
Amount K 2 0 applied per hectare
120 kg
0
0
100 kg KCI
Additional produc tion per hectare percent quantity
313%
58.8 T
7%
Nature or origin of potash
Remarks
KCI
Soils from sandstone of Corumbatai. Factorial 3 x 3 x 3.
KC1
Sugarcane variety Co Factorial 3 x 3 x 3.
4
21.
150 kg
73%
51.2 T
KC1
Yellow latosol. Never fertilized. Soil of weak productivity.I
75 kg
28%
19.4 T
KG1
Yellow regolatosol. (Tabuleiro phase.)
0 Usina Mineiros Fazenda Bella Vista
R. de J. 1959-60
150 kg
22%
20.6 T
KG1
Yellow regolatosol. (Tabuleiro phase.)
0
150 kg
0.1 T
KGI
Aluvial of Muriae River.
Fazenda Taguarassu,
R. de J. 1959-60
0
0
0.1%
Table 48.
Crop response to potash, Brazil (continued) page 5 of 6
Crop
Location
Basic treat-
Amount KzO
Additional produc-
Nature or
and reference
and year
ment of all plots
applied per hectare
tion per hectare percent quantity
origin of potash
98.
Usina Paraiso 0 Fazenda Concha, R.J. Municipio de Campos 1959-60
75 kg
0. 1%
85.
Usina Poco Grande Fazenda do Veiga, R. de J. 1959-60
75 kg
86.
Usina Cupim, Fazenda 0 Cupim, R. de J. 1959-60
92.
Usina Barcelos, Fazenda Guandu, R. de J. 1959-60
93.
94.
Remarks
0. 1 T
KCI
Factorial 3 x 3 x 3. Hydromorphic group of soils.
13%
12.5 T
KC1
Hydromorphic soil.
75 kg
3%
Z.4 T
KC1
Aluvial of Ururai River
0
75 kg
23%
14.8 T
KCI
Yellow regolatosol. (Tabuleiro phase.)
Usina Barcelos, Fazenda Guandu, R. de J. 1959-60
0
150 kg
25%
14.5 T
KC1
Yellow regolatosol.
Usina Carapebus Fazenda Boa Sorte, R. de J. 1959-60
0
150 kg
19%
15.8 T
KCI
Yellow regolatosol.
0
Table 48.
Crop and reference Sugarcane
95.
96.
Wheat 20.
11.
Location and year
Crop response to potash, Brazil (continued) page 6 of 6
Basic treatment of all plots
Amount KZO applied per hectare
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Nature or origin of potash
Remarks
9. 1 T
KC1
Aluvial.
29%
Z3.4 T
KC1
Yellow regolatosol.
65%
550 kg
KC1 + Chile nitrate
All treatments had good responses over check plot.
1%
100 kg
KC1
Usina Carapebus Fazenda Boa Sorte, R. de J. 1959-60
0
150 kg
7%
Usina Carapebus Fazenda Boa Sorte R. deJ. 1959-60
0
150 kg
Est. Esp. de Passo Fundo, R.G. do Sul 1954-58
0
100 kg KC1 + 30 kg Chile nitrate
E. E. Curitiba, Parana 1957-58
0
100 kg KCI
n
,
-251 harvested crops, a large demand will build up for potash. Research workers in Brazil, as a group, rate potash as a poor third among the principal nutrients.
The 34 experiments reported in
this table on potash give the indication that the importance of potash may have been underestimated.
It appears that as old lands are
depleted, as more nitrogen and phosphate are applied thc- more potash will be required.
-252Sulphur in Soil Fertility
Sulphur is an important plant food, but relatively little attention has been given to its supply and replacement on Brazilian farms. Enough experimental work has been done in the last five years, however, to indicate that there are areas of sulphur deficiency, possibly large areas, in the older farming lands of Brazil as well as in the new lands of the planalto of Central Brazil. Sulphur is being supplied to the soil on farms using fertilizer in four different ways.
The farmer who applies 200 kg of normal super
phosphate per hectare is supplying the soil with approximately 24 kg of sulphur. sulphur.
Other commonly-used phosphate fertilizers do not contain
Likewise, a farmer who is using ammonium sulphate as a
nitrogen fertilizer is at the same time applying sulphur.
One hundred
kilos of ammonium sulphate contain 24 kilos of sulphur.
In the third
place,
sulphur is being applied in elemental form, with good response,
as indicated in table 49. to the land.
The fourth method is the application of gypsum
Where gypsum is readily available,
and it is to be found
in many parts of Brazil, it may be the cheapest source of sulphur. Gypsum contains 18 percent of elemental sulphur. In addition to the use of sulphur on cropland, some experiments have indicated that large response may be obtained from the application of sulphur to grasslands.
One of these (47) is Sao Paulo state on sandy
Table 49. Crop and reference Grass (Batatais) 47. p. 9
(Colonial ("C oloniao") pasture) 60. p. 26
Cotton 48. p. 18
Location and year
Basic treatment of all plots
Crop response to sulfur, Brazil Amount of 3 applied per hectare
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Sao Paulo State 1958
NP
40 kg
157%
Fazenda Jangada Aracatuba, S.P. 1957-59
Z00 kg/ha N
60 kg
8%
Orlandia to Barretos, S.P. 1959-60 1960-61
L N P K B Zn Mo
Nature or origin of sulfur
Remarks
668 gr/ plot
Average of Soil - Bauru inferior. CaSO 4 , Total of thice harvests. NaSO 4 and S
50 kg/ha TDN
gypsum
Average of two years. Uj
30 kg
30%
470 kg gypsum seed cotton
Campo cerrado soils. Yearly average of tests in seven locations, four of them running for two years.
-254 loam soil "Bauru inferior", indicated the results from the application of sulphur on batatais grass (paspalum notaturn). tained from CaSe
4
Large response was ob
, from NaZSO 4 or elemental S, all giving about the
same response when the same amount of sulphur was used, except that the full response of elemental S did not show up until the third harvest. In another study (45) of the effect of sulphur on coffee plantations, the author states: The data.
indicated that sulphur deficiency in coffee trees
of Sao Paulo and Parana may be expected to occur with increasing frequency as the use of low sulphur sources of N, P and K increase. This is in line with the general prediction of Malavolta in 195Z. The results of chemical analysis of coffee leaves for Isulphate -sulphur' evidently can be used effectively as a means for diagnosing sulphur deficiency. The areas of sulphur deficiency will probably become more pro nounced as the lands get older unless sulphur is added in some form. The very few experiments carried out on the pastures of the planalto of Ceutral Brazil, while riot conclusive, do set up a warning signal that sulphur requirements must be given definite consideration in the years ahead.
The preference that many farmers express for normal super
sulphate over other forms of phosphate may be due to the response ob tained from the sulphur in the NSP.
In supplying sulphur for any farming
area, economy dictates that there must be a determination as to the rel ative costs of applying a phosphate or nitrogen fertilizer that contains
sulphur against the possibility of smaller cost of nitrogen and phosphate
fertilizer that do not contain sulphur plus the cost of gypsum applied
separately.
-255Micronutrients in Soil Fertility
In the foregoing discussions the six plant food elements used in greatest quantity have been discussed: the primary plant food elements nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and the secondary plant food elements calcium I , magnesium and sulphur.
In this section are discussed six
plant food elements used in smaller quantities: boron, copper, iron manganese, molybdenum and zinc. under the term, micronutrients,
These elements are often grouped
or tracc elements.
Commercial
agricultural crops use very small amounts of micronutrients, but often are complete failures when the soil does not contain an adequate, though small amount, of any one of them.
The determination of deficiency of
these elements requires soil analysis, leaf analysis, and experimentation. Until now the analyses that indicate deficiencies of these elements and experimentation with them have been ve y limited.
Consequently, re
search scientists hesitate to make any recommendation as to specific use within any broad area of farmland. Nevertheless, the relatively few experiments have indicated spots of marked deficiency, and point to the likelihood that as the number of tests increases the small, known spots of deficiency may grow into large areas.
Developing out of such steps will be maps locating the areas of
zinc deficiency, areas of boron deficiency, and so forth.
A study of
the importance of micronutrients in the coffee plant resulted in this
1 Calcium is discussed in a subsequent section of this report which deals with limestone and begins on page
-256 comment (42, P. 161): The relative influence of micronutrients in growth measured by the fresh weight of the entire coffee plant was as follows: iron, zinc, copper, molybdenum and manganese, that is: the omission of iron from the nutrient solution caused the severest reduction in growth; lack of B and Cl had no effect. The results of a few trials given in table 50 indicate the probable importance that will be attached to trace elements in the immediate years ahead.
In the experiments noted in this table, simple and usually
inexpensive inorganic compounds have been used to furnish the micro nutrients except as otherwise noted.
Organic compounds of micro
nutrients (metal chelates) have been tried.
One report of an experimental
trial on typical coffee lands in Central Sao Paulo contains the following (50, p. 15): Based on two years of harvest data, moderate applications of various metal chelates increased yields in young coffee by 240 percent. Gains of this order of magnitude indicated that minor elements may play an important part in the nutritional deficiencies of Brazilian coffee and may be one of the factors responsible for the decline of coffee production on the older soils. Mixed fertilizers containing the trace elements are not processed and available for sale anywhere in Brazil, although at least one company in Sao Paulo state is prepared to add some of these elements to any sizable special order.
Farmers cannot readily obtain the
chemicals containing trace elements and are not equipped to mix such small quantities of the trace elements with the much larger
Table 50. Crop and reference Zn on Cotton 48. p. 18
Location and year
Basic treatment of all plots
Orlandia to Barretos, S.P. 1959-60, 1960-61
Zn on Soybeans ZZ. p. 18 Anapolis,
Goias
Fe, Cu, B and Mo on Sugarcane 4. Usina Itaiquara,
S.P.
Crop response to micronutrients, Amount Mn applied per hectare
L N P KS B Mo
10 kg ZnSO 4
N P K S Mo + dolomitic lime
6 kg Zn
150 kg N/ha
10 kg iron
Brazil
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
11%
ZOO kg ZnSO4 seed cotton
631 kg
9%
Nature or origin of fertilizer
ZnSO 4
Remarks
',Zampo ce'-rado soils. Yearly average of tests in seven locations, four running for two years. Dolomitic lime used.
Pest yield in experiment was 1300 kg/ha, a low yield with all elements provided.
11. 6 T
sulphate 100 kg P 0 5/ ha 20 kg copper 7% 8.3 T sulphate 150 kg Kz0/ ha 0.5 kg ammonium 10/o 12. 0 T molybdate 10 kg boraz 17% Z1.6 T
Soil - "Massape Salmourao." pH 6.05.
! Ln
Table 50. Crop and reference
Location and year
Zn on Corn 33. p. 9
Matao, S. P. 1958
Zn on Corn 22. p. 19
Crop response to micronutrients,
Brazil (continued) page 2 of 2
Additional production per hectare percent quantity
Basic treatment of all plots
Amount MN applied per hectare
N P K S
25 kg ZnSO 4
1150%
N P K S + dolomitic lime
50 kg ZnSO 4
300%
Nature or origin of fertilizer
Remarks
(Bauru inferior soil, which had shown zinc deficiency on previous crops. The succeeding year on a soil with less zinc deficiency, 10 kg ZnSO 4 gave equal response to that of greater quantity of ZnSO4)
M Acid soil - Best yield in experiment was 1150 kg/ha
Anapolis, Goias 1958-59
N P K S + dolomitic lime
6 kg Zn
Orlandia to Barretos, S.P. 1959-60 1960-61
L N P K S Zn Mo
ZO kg borax
21%
boraz 364 kg seed cotton
Campo cerrado soils. Yearly average of tests in seven locations, four running for two years. Dolomitic lime.
Orlandia to Barretos, S.P. 1959-60
N P K S Zn
I kg sodium molybdate
14%
sodium 139 kg seed cotton molybdate
Average of seven locations without lime. When dolo mitic lime was part of basic treatment no response was indicated.
483 kg
ZnSO4
B on Cotton 48. p. 8
Mo on Cotton 48. p. 14
-259 to amounts of phosphate and other micronutrients before application the land.
a small The added cost of trace elements when prepared on
scale is a deterrent to their use.
In a program of large use of micro
small. nutrients, however, the added cost would be normally for experimental Professor E. Malavolta, Piracicaba, suggests that a complete purposes in an area where the soil has not been tested, limestone as treatment might consist of first applying dolomitic by applications required depending on the acidity of the soil, followed 50 kg S as sulphur, per hectare: 200 kg N, 100 kg P 2 0 5 , 200 kg K2 O, 10 kg Fe -3 iron 10 kg B as borax, 5 kg Cu as copper chloride, Mo as sodium chloride, 5 kg Mn as manganese chloride, 0.5 kg molybdate and 10 kg Zn as zinc chloride.
In the relatively new type
need for each of experimentation encouraged by Malavolta, the on plots given element is determined by comparing the production
has oeen given
the complete treatment with plots each of which complete treatment less one element.
no doubt be
While such a formula as mentioned above can be high. justified for research purposes, the cost would
In one study
reduced. (51. p. 10) the cost of minor elements was greatly tests were made and also leaf analyses.
Soil
It was determined for the
copper chloride were soils being studied that iron, manganese, and be obtained through use
not needed and that excellent results could
-260 of 3 kg zinc, 2 kg boron and 0.4 kg sodium molybdate per hectare. The cost of micronutrients in the latter formula is about one eighth that of the micronutrients in Malavolta's complete formula. Or in another comparison these three needed micronutrients cost about 10 percent of the total cost of an application per hectare of 60 kg N, 60 kg P 2 0
5
and 60 kg K 2 0.
expensive than lime and fertilizers.
Soil tests in the end are less Economy demands that the
exact needs be determined before the farmer orders his mixed fertilizer.
-z61 -
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Campos de Serra. Vol. V. No. 1.
2. Aguiar, Heitor de C. 1960. Ensaios corn Diversos Adubos
Fosfatados. Brag. Vol. 19:35-56.
3. Alvarez, Rafael. (Nao publicado.) Adubacao Mineral da
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Adubacao
Fertilizantes
7. Alvarez, R. , H. Vaz de Arruda and H. Gargantini. 1960. Ensaio Preliminar de adubacao N-P-K em Terra-roxa. Brag. Vol. 19:361 -368. 8. Alvarez, R., A. Zingra do Amaral, and H. Vaz de Arruda. 1960. Ensaio de Adubacao em Cana-de-Acucar. Brag. Vol. 19:1061 1069.
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12. Baldanzi, G.
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Curitiba Expt. Sta., Parana. Parana.
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agri
14. Blanco, H. Garcia, et al. 1962. Competicao de Fertilizantes Fosfatados Para o Trigo. Brag. Vol. 21(51):867-874. 15. Borges, Waldemar Dantas. 1963. Report of Brazilian Work Group on the Fertilizer Situation in Brazil. Unpubl. Transl. 16. Cardoso, Eno M. et al na Cana-de-Acucar.
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CAMvIIG.
Fosfato de
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20.
Da Fonsica, C. L. A. S.E.E. 1910.
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Da Fonsica, C. L. A. 1954-58. S.E.E. 1915, 1952-1957.
22.
De Freitas, L. M. M., A. C. McClung and W. L. Lott. 1960. Field studies on Fertility Problems of Two Brazilian Campos Cerrados 1958-59. IBEC Res. Inst. Bull. No. 21:31.
Expt. Sta., Passo Fundo, R.S.
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Estacao Experimental de Campos, R. de J.
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Estacao Experimental de Campos, R. de J.
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34. Instituto Agronomico de Campinas, S. P. Unpublished Report.
No. 990.
35. Instituto Agronomico de Campinas, S. P. Unpublished Report. No. 2223. 36. Instituto Agronomico de Campinas, S. P. Unpublished Report. No. 2225. 37. Instituto Agronomico de Camp.nas, S. P. Unpublished Report. No. 2235. 38. Instituto Agronomico de Campinas, S. P. (Ainda Nao Publicados). Efeito do Nitrogenio em Cafe. Dados da Secao de Cafe. 39. Instituto Agronomico do Su]. 1961-62. Fosfatada em Arroz Irrigado.
SS-203.
Adubacao
40. Instituto de Pesquisas e Experimentacao Agropecuraias do Sul. 1963. November. Agrisal. 41. Instituto Rio Grandense do Arroz, P. Alegre. Estatistico do Arroz, 1963.
1963.
Anuario
-264 42. Johnson, C. M., E. Malavolta and H. P. Haag. 1961. Estudos Sobre a Alimentacao Mineral do Cafeeiro. VI Efeitos Das Deficiencias de Micronutrientes em Coffea Arabica L. Var. Mundo Novo Cultivado em Solucao Nutritiva (1) (2) Vol. XVIII, Pp. 147-168. No. 307. Anais da Escola Superior de Agricultura Univ. de S. P., Sao Paulo, Brasil. "Luiz de Queiroz. 43. Kalckman, Elgard. Unpublished data furnished from Expt. Sta. Rio Grande do Sul. 44. Krug, C. A. et al. 1963. Cultura e Adubacao do cafeeiro. Inst. Brasileiro de Potassa Esperimentacoes e Pesquisas, S. P., Brasil. 45. Lott, W. L., A. C. McClung and J. C. Medcalf. 1960. Sulphur Deficiency in Coffee. IBEC Res. Inst. Bull. No. 22:24. 46.
McClung, A. C., L. M. M. de Freitas and W. L. Lott. 1959. Analyses of Several Brazilian Soils in Relation to Plant Responses to Sulfur. Reprint from Soil Sci. Soc. of Am. Proc. Vol. 23(3): 221-2Z4. IBEC Res. Inst. Publ. 17.
47.
McClung, A. C. and L. R. Quinn. 1959. Sulphur and Phosporus Responses of Batatais Grass (Paspalum notatum. ) IBEC Res. Inst. Bull. No. 18:16.
48.
McClung, A. C., de Freitas, L. M. M., D. S. Mikkelsen and W. L. Lott. 1962. Cotton Fertilization on Camp Cerrado Soils, State of Sao P:'aulo, Brazil. IBEC Res. Inst. Bull. No. 27:31. (English Edition).
49. Malavolta, E., et al 1963. Diagnose Foliar in Cana de Acucar IV-Resultados de 40 Ensaios Factoriais NKP. 50. Medcalf, J. C. and 'W. L. Lott. 1956. Coffee. IBEC InEt. Bull. No. 11:19.
Metal Chelates in
51. Mikkelsen, D. S., L. M. M. de Freitas and A. C. McClung. 1963. Effects of Liming and Fertilizing Cotton, Corn and Soybeans on Camp Cerrado Soils--State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. IRI Res. Inst. Inc. Bull. No. 29:40. 52. Ministerio da Agricultura, Rio de Janeiro, 1960. Levantamento de Reconhecimento dos Solos do Estado de Sao Paulo. Pp. 75-605.
-265 53.
Mohr, Wilhelm. 1949. 0 Teor de Calcio e A Acidez dos Solos do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul. P. Alegre Sec. Agr. Ind. Com. Circ. No. 73.
54.
Mohr, Wilhelm.
dos Solos.
1960.
A Influencia da Acidez Sobre a Fertilidade
Pp. 23.
55. Nascimento, F. M. and C. A. Fernandes. Unpublished Report.
S. E. E. 1314.
56. National Bank for Economic Development. 1963. Fertilizer Market. Unpubl. Report. Transl. 57. Neves, 0. S. et al. 1960. Brag. Vol. 19:183-200.
The Brazilian
Ensaio corn Diversos Adubos Potassicos.
58. Neves, 0. S. and E. S. Freire. Brag. Vol. 18:295-318.
1959.
Adubacao do Algodoeiro.
59. Pereira, H. and J. R. de Oliveira. 1960-61. Grossa, Parana S. E. E. No. 58.
Espt. Sta. Punta
60. Quinn, L. R., G. 0. Mott and W. V. A. Bisschoff. 1961 Fertilization of Colonial Guinea Grass Pastures and Beef Production with Zebu Steers. IBEC Res. Inst. Bull. No. 24:30. 61.
Quinn, L. R. et al. 1962. Beef Production of Six Tropical Grasses. Reprint Bol. da Ind. Animal DPA. Vol. XX Sao Paulo, Brazil. IBEC Bull. No. 28.
corn 62. Ramos, I., 0. S. Neves, and E. S. Freire. 1959. Ensaio Doses Crescentes de Fosforo. Brag. Vol. 18:199-223. 63. Schmidt, W. andE. S. Freire. 1958. Ensaios corn Azoto, Fosforo e Potassio em Campos de Cooperacao. Brag. Vol. 17:363-409. do Sul. 1959. 64. Secretaria da Agricultura Porto Alegre, Rio Grande Cultura do Arroz. Palestras Proferidas na Reunaio Realizada
1959.
na Estacao Expt. de Arroz, de Gravatai, 14 de Marco, do Sul. 65. Secretaria da Agricultura de Estado do Rio Grande
Milho. May, 1959.
1959.
-266 66. Secretaria de Agricultura, Sao Paulo. 1963. ou Dolomitico para Corretivo de solos.
Consumo de Calcario
67. Silveira, F. T. da Mota. Secao de Estatistica Exp. de IPEA do Centro Sul. S. E. E. 491. 68. Thompson, Filho Oscar. 1963. Report of Work Group on Fertilizers. Sec. of Agr. State of Sao Paulo. Unpubl. Transl. 69. Torres, C. Barbosa. 1958. Agronomia SuIriograndense. Tec. da Dir. de Prod. Veg. Vol. III. No. 1:89.
Bol.
70. Torres, Claudio Barbosa. 1962. Estudo Sobre a Pratica da Calagem in Rev. Fac. Agron. & Veter. Porto Alegre 5:101-116. July. 71. Vaz de Arruda, H. 1959. Vol. 18:161-167.
Adubacao Nitrogenada.
Brag.
72. Vaz de Arruda, Hermano. 1960. Adubacao Nitrogenada na Cana-de -Acucar. Brag. Vol. 19:1105-1110. 73. Veiga, Frederico Menezes. Experiencias de Adubacao em Cana-de-Acucar. Companhia Brasileira de Potassa e Adubos. Bol. Agr. No. 4. 74. Veiga, F. M. No. 945.
1952-53.
Est. Exp. de Campinas, S. P., S. E. E.
75. Viegas, G. P. 1951. Adubacao Mineral do Milho ern Terra "'Massape." Archive Fitotensnico, Uruguai (4):407-418. 76. Viegas, C. P. 1955. Vol. 34:149-170.
Adubacao Mineral Quantitativa.
77. Viegas, G. P. E. S. Freire and W. R. Venturini. Diversos Fosfatados. Brag. 19:997-1009.
Brag.
Ensaios corn
78. Viegas, G. P. and R. A. Catani. 1955. Adubacao Mineral Quantitativa. Brag. 14:171-178. 79. Viegas, G. P., E. S. Freire and W. Schmidt. Diversos Fosfatados. Brag. 20:537-546.
1961.
Ensaios corn
-267 Viegas, G. P., E. S. Freire and W. R. Venturini. Fosfatados. Brag. 20:461-470.
80.
81. Viegas, G. P., Erik Smith and E. S. Freire. corn Diversos Fosfatados. Brag. 20:1-13.
1961.
1961.
Ensaios
82. Wutke, Antonio Carlos Pimental, R. Alvarez, H. Gargantini and H. Vaz de Arruda. 1960. Restauracao de Solo para a Cultura da Cana-da-Acucar. II Periodo 1956-58. Brag. Vol. 19(43):675-687. Inst. Agron. Sec. da Agr. do Estado de Sao Paulo. Supplementary List
83. Coehlo, Mario and James Haynes (Notes.) Estacao Experimental de Tambe.
84. Coehlo, Mario (Notes.) Experimento de Adubacao Potassica corn Rochas do Nordeste. 85. *:'IPEAMAE E C No. 59/
3 S E E1 2
3 9.
86.
IPEA MAE E C No. 59/ 4 S E E1240.
87.
4 IPEAMA E E C No. 59/ 7 S E E iZ 1.
88.
IPEA MA E E C No. 59/13 S E E 1243.
89.
IPEAMA E E C No. 59/14 S E E 1244.
90.
IPEAMAE E C No. 59/17 S E E1245.
91.
IPEA MA E E C No. 59/18 S EE 1246.
92.
IPEAMAE E C No. 59/ZOS EE 1248.
93.
IPEA MAE E C No. 59/21S EE 1249.
94.
IPEA MAE E C No. 59/26 S E E 1250.
*
Instituto de Pesquiras e Experimentacao Agropecuarias.
-268 95.
IPEAMAE E C No. 59/27 S E E 1Z51.
96.
IPEA MAE E C No. 59/Z8S E E 1252.
97.
IPEAMA E E C No. 59/19 S EE 1247.
98.
IPEAMAE E C No. 59/ 2 S E E
99.
Poetsch, Ernest.
Z38.
IPEA S E E 1058.
Unpublished report.
100. Coimbra, R. de 0. 1963. Agricultura no Cerrado. Inst. Agron. do Oeste, "Simposio Sobre o Cerrado." Publ. by Ed. Univ. de Sao Paulo. 101. IPEA MA 46/EEP (R. S.) S E E 463. of IPEA MA.
Unpubl. Report of S E E
102. Mota, Silveira. IPEA MA S E E 298. Sec. IPEA MA.
Unpubl. Report of Stat.
103. Pilczer, M. et al. Experiment on Fertilization of Potato (solarium tuberosium). Presented and discussed in 7th Nat. Soil Congress, Piracicaba, S. P. 104. Miyasaka, Shiro et al. Fertilizing Soybeans. Nat. Soil Congress, Piracicaba, S. P.
Presented at 7th
105. Brazil Sobrinho, M. 0. C., et al. Efeito residual da Fosforita de Olinda na Cana-de-Acucar. Presented to 2nd Argentina Soil Meeting and to ist Latin American Soil Congress in Mendoza, Argentina. 106.
Pilczer, Mauricio et al. Experimento de adubacao de Trigo en Santa Catarina. Thesis presented at 7th Nat. Soil Congress in Piracicaba, Sao Paulo.
107.
IPEA MA S E E 575. Unpubl. report.
108. Mello, F. E. de Souza. Adubacao em Pomares Irrigados. Work presented at 8th Nat. Soil Congress.
-269 109. Alneida, L. Marques de e Clovis B. Pires. 1963. Contribucao para o Estudo da Necessidade dos 3 (NPK) Nutrientes na Caatinga Paraibana na Cultura do Algodao herbacuo. Presented at IX Soil Meeting in Fortaleza (Ce) in 1963. Unpublished Report of Stat. Sec.
110.
IPEA S E E 200,
111.
Inst. Agron do E. E. de Minas Gerias.
112.
Baldanzi, G.
113.
IPEA do Centro Sul.
114.
Coimbra, Renato 0. and Waldemar Cardoso.
Espt. No.
1073, S.
E. E.
S E E 2028.
S E E 748.
Report of Stat. Sec. S E E 1473. MA.
-270-
ECONOMIC FACTORS INFLUENCING FERTILIZER USE Economic levels at which farmers can apply N, P 2 0
5
and K 2 0
are dependent upon the relationship between the following three factors: 1. yield increases, 2.
value per unit of product,
3.
cost of the fertilizer element and application.
These factors may vary considerably between individual farmers since over-all managerial ability and techniques will affect yield, and proximity to the market will affect the price of both the product and the fertilizer used. The fact that the use of fertilizer may be profitable does not necessarily mean that all farmers will use the amount that will return the greatest profit, if any at all.
The capital resources and the risk
and uncertainty facing a particular farmer will determine how profit able the returns from fertilizer must be before he will use it.
One
farmer may feel that the gross return from the use of fertilizer should be twice the cost of the fertilizer applied on his field while another farmer may consider a gross return of 10 percent sufficient. In recent years the increase in the aggregate price index for crops has lagged behind the increase in the price index for fertilizer (figure 46).
If this trend should continue, the profitability of using
fertilizer, except possibly on some crops, will decrease unless yield
-271 2200
-
Agricultural products
/
Fertilizers
2000 1800 1600
1400
l3O0 1200
1000
/
800 600 400 .00
200
1948
50
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
Years Figure 46. Relationship between price indexes for agricultural products (24 products) and fertilizers 1948-1963* Source: Divisao de Economia Rural - Sec. Agriculture Sao Paulo *For 1963 only preliminary data.
Base 1948/52 = 100
62
63
-272 increases from the use of fertilizer increase enough to offset the difference.
Table 51 shows how many kilograms of a particular crop ittook
to purchase one kilogram of fertilizer between 1954 and 1963.
The
figures indicate that price increases for the crops shown have generally kept pace with price increases for fertilizer since 1954. However, the average number of kilograms needed to purchase fertilizer, except for beans and potatoes, during the 1959 to 1963
period was larger than for the 1954 to 1958 period. This trend
can also be observed in figure 46.
The use of fertilizer in Brazil, based on the limited data available,
appears to be profitable.
How much fertilizer and what combinations
are most profitable for a particular crop can not be determined with
any degree of accuracy with the data available.
Information and data
necessary for the development of yield response functions for various quantities of fertilizer under similar conditions are not available. The economic returns from the use of fertilizer as developed
in this report are based on the results of experiments and field trials
described in the section of this report dealing with crop response to
fertilizer. The increased yields from the use of nitrogen (N), phos phate (P2 0)
and potassium (K2 0) for the various crops were
multiplied by the price of the crop to determine the increase in gross
value of the crop from the use of a given quantity of fertilizer.
Table 51.
Kilograms of crop required to purchase one kilogram of fertilizer (C-F Ratio),
Sao Paulo.
Year
N
Beans P20 5
KZO
N
Coffee P 20 5
K 20
N
Corn P20 5
KZO
N
Cotton PZO5
KzO
N
Potatoes P20 5
KzO
N
Rice PzO5
K 20
1954
3.06
1.78
0.98
-
-
-
8.62
5.00
2.75
2.23
1.30
0.71
2.93
1.70
0.94
Z.50
1.45
0.80
1955
2.55
1.50
0.8Z
-
-
-
6.15
3.61
1.97
2.40
1.40
0.76
5.50
3.22
1.75
3.52
2.06
1.12
1956
2.07
1.Z7
0.70
-
-
-
6.35
3.91
2.14
2.43
1.50
0.8Z
3.57
Z.20
1.20
Z.86
1.76
0.96
1957
2.78
1.90
0.91
-
-
-
6.2Z
4.26
Z.04
1.96
1.34
0.b4
3.83
2.62
1.25
2.44
1.67
0.80
1958
3.84
2.50
1.14
1.73
1.12
0.51
5.96
3.87
1.77
2.10
1.37
0.62
4.66
3.03
1.38
2.31
1.50
0.68
Average 1954-58
2.86
1.79
0.91
-
-
-
6.66
4.13
Z.13
2.22
1.38
0.71
4.10
2.55
1.30
2.72
1.69
0.87
1959
1.13
0.62
0.24
2.78
1.52
0.59
5.86
3.20
1.25
2.38
1.30
0.51
3.1Z
1.70
0.66
3.10
1.70
0.66
1960
1.60
0.93
0.55
2.07
1.20
0.71
6.57
3.81
z.z6
1.50
0.88
0.52
3.97
2.30
1.36
2.80
1.62
0.96
1961
2.39
2.14
0.96
2.64
2.37
1.07
5.57
5.00
2.25
1.70
1.53
0.69
3.26
2.9Z
1.32
3.89
3.50
1.57
1962
0.98
0.69
0.39
2.02
1.42
0.81
7. b
5.30
3.05
Z.53
1.77
1.02
3.15
2.21
1.27
2.58
1.81
1.04
1963
1.99
1.43
0.75
3.31
Z.38
1.26
ll.25
8.01
4.28
2.79
Z.00
1.06
3.75
2.70
1.43
2.54
1.83
0.97
1.62
1.16
0.58
Z.56
1.78
0.89
7.36
5.06
2.62
2.18
1.50
0.76
3.45
Z.36
1.21
Z.98
2.09
1.04
3.49
Z.21
1.28
1.89
1.20
0.70
8.ZZ
5.21
3.01
2.05
1.30
0.75
6.06
3.84
Z.Zl
3.00
1.90
1.10
Average
1959-63 March
1964 1
In computing these ratios ammonium sulfate was the source of N used, normal superphosphate the source of P 2 0 5 and potassium chloride the source K 2 0. Price series data were not available on wheat and sugar cane except for March 1964. At the time the kilograms of wheat required to purchase one kilogram of fertilizer was N, 4.76, P 2 0 5 , 3.02, KZO, 1.74 and the kilograms of sugar cane was N, 104.74, P 2 0 5 , 66.32, K 2 O, 38.34.
-274-
Table 52 shows the average annual price for major Brazilian crops from 1948 to 1964.
The prices for March 1964 were used in cal
culating the value of increased yields per hectare from the use of fertilizers. Average prices paid by Brazilian farmers for selected fertilizers between 1948 and 1964 are shown in table 53.
The prices for March
1964 plus a charge for transportation from the dealer or agent to the farm and a charge for application were used in calculating the cost per hectare for the quantity of fertilizer used.
Interest on the money
needed to purchase fertilizer and cost of harvesting and marketing the increased production were not included in the cost.
The cost
figures shown are for simple fertilizers and no allowance was made for mixing charges.
Since about one-half of the fertilizer used in
Brazil is in mixed form the cost figures shown in tables 54, 55, and 56 will be somewhat less than if the source of plant nutrient was a mixed fertilizer.
Nitrogen
Table 54 shows the net return per hectare from the application of various quantities of N on various crops. considerable variation in net returns,
Inspection of the table shows
ranging from large negative
returns to substantial positive returns. Although the value of the table is restricted because of the lack of
-275Table 52.
C otton Coffee (beneficiado) (em caroo)
Year 1948
Average annual price of major Brazilian crops, cruzeiros per ton, 1948-19641, 2
Cr$
7,416
Cr$
Corn
Potatoes Beans Rice (em casca) (safra seca) (safra seca)
4,133
Cr$ 1,250 Cr$
2,416
Cr$
3,566
Cr$ 2,216
1949
9,600
4,133
1,300
2,800
1,333
2,1 00
1950
18, 166
4,600
950
1,850
2,266
3,366
1951
17,000
7,533
1,283
1,733
2,600
2,200
1952
17,666
5,666
1,866
3,416
3,433
3,150
1953
22,000
5,266
2,233
6,400
4,116
4,033
1954
36,666
7,066
1,833
6,316
5,166
5,383
1955
35,500
9,066
3,533
6,183
8,516
3,950
1956
38,000
9,800
3,750
8,316
11,483
6,666
1957
39,333
11,800
3,716
9,483
8,316
6,033
1958
28,666
12,933
4,566
11,783
7,083
5,833
1959
32,166
16,733
6,800
12,833
35,333
12,783
1960
43,166
26,000
6,016
14,083
24,666
9,966
1961
59,500
39,200
12,000
17,166
28,000
20,500
1962
103,166
49,600
16,583
48,500
128,166
39,750
19633
175,000
80,000
19,833
87,833
112,333
59,500
19643 Jan.
380,500
-
42,666
143,000
99,166
51,333
Feb.
398,333
-
40,166
121,166
97,833
54,500
March
441,666
166,000
41,500
113,500
97,833
56,333
I Source: Divisao de Economia Rural, Sao Paulo 2 The price of wheat (Cr$71,660 per ton) and sugar cane (Cr$3,260 per ton) were obtained from the office of the U.S.A. Agricultural Attache and were effective as of March 1964. 3 Preliminary data.
-276Table 53.
Average prices paid by farmers for selected fertilizers, cruzeiros per ton of material and per ton of nutrient, Sao Paulo, 1948-1964 1,2
Nutrient (Cr$/toft)
Material (Cr$/ton)
Normal Year
Ammonium sulphate (20. 5%)
superphosphate (Z0. 0%)
Rock phosphate (30.0%)
Potassium chloride (60.0%)
N
P2O5
PZ05
(NSP)
(Rock)
K2 0
1948
Z,510
1, 380
1, Z40
2,000
12, ZOO
6,900
4,133
3, 333
1.949
Z,510
1,Z20
1,240
2,300
12,200
6,100
4, 133
3,833
1950
2,680
1,340
1,130
2, 180
13,100
6,700
3,766
3,633
1951
2,720
1,650
1,380
2,480
13,268
8, Z50
4,600
4,133
1952
2,810
1,760
1,310
2,480
13,707
8,800
4,366
4, 133
1953
2,610
1,570
1,280
2,290
12, 732
7,850
4,266
3, 816
1954
3,240
1,840
1,400
3,030
15,805
9, 200
4,666
5, 050
1955
4,460
2,550
2,000
4, 170
21,756
12,750
6,666
6,950
1956
4, 880
2, 930
2,600
4, 820
23, 805
14, 650
8, 666
8, 033
1957
4,740
3, 170
2,720
4, 560
23,122
15,850
9,066
7,600
1958
5, 580
3, 540
1,940
4, 850
27, 219
17,700
6,466
8,083
1959
8,180
4,360
3,380
5,100
39, 90Z
21,800
11,266
8,500
1960
8,110
4,580
3, 4Z0
8,160
39,561
2Z, 900
11,400
13,600
1961
13, 700
12, 000
10, 300
16, 200
66, 8Z9
60,000
34, 333
27, 000
1962
25,700
17,600
15,300
30,400
125, 366
88,000
51,000
50,666
1963
45,750
32, 125
29,330
51, 000
ZZ3, 171
160,625
97,766
85,000
1964 January
50,000
35,000
34,000
55,000
243,90Z
175,000
113,333
91,666
February 50,000
40,000
34,000
55,000
243,902
Z00,000
113,333
91,666
70,000
43,240
34,000
75,000
341,463
Z16,200
113,333
125,000
March 1 Source:
Secretaria La Agricultura, Sao Paulo.
Divisao de Economia Rural,
Z Prices indicated do not include credit charges, transport to the farm or application costs. 3
Includes soluble and non-soluble P 2 0
5
.
277
Calculation of net income change. per hectore from applcutton of nitrogen IN),
Table S4.
Fertilizer product used
Kg. N per ha.
Increoted yield per ho. from N
Value of increase yteld per ho.
(kg.f
(Cr$
lb4
Net return per ho. tro N
Cost of N per he. 0
Comments
(C r$l
C r$ t
Coffee
Ammonium
slphate
Sao P 4 0 1 0
T371000 frees
4
Sodium nitrate
400/1000trees
Sodium nitrate
4/
100f0frees
793 kg., 000 Ires IOU kg.' 1000 frees
143.100
,400k, 1000 Irees
Z32.000
9o 2ff
4'..f9
15Z44.9b0
Zbo.Sf5
01,000
1- 14.S68)
Zeo. Sbf
ond KZO in basictreatment of
Undefined amounts of PZO plot.. off1
Nitrogenonly. Undefined amount, l plots.
of PZO
of
in basiceteen
and Kf0
SanoPolf Potasium oirate
01
Ammonium sulphate
40
Calcium nte.ate
O0
Calcium nitrate
n0
3
400
10,b00
937
34,715
13.97
303
1,74
l..80
7J,040
Ia.
.70
IIt
I
?1.70
20,087 1.4.tbl
10
So.
0
Undefined anounts of PZOS and KZO in basic treatment of all plots. Undefined amiunit plots all
ef P 0 0
5
infisic treatmentof tO
and K
lime,.
P. K.
ianid Mn inbast
trotment of allplots. Undefined moiunt of lim,
P. K.
sulfur and htn in bic
Undefined amounts o
tratmenl of off plOis Wheat
Pars. Sodium nitrete SodiuI nitrate
15
010
17,Sf
30
A.
S,73
Clci turnnitrate Ammonium sulphate
, neiro. R. dr J 10 79
Ammoniom sulphite Ammonium olphaie Cal -m sateo Sodiutonitrate
73 05 90 100
10 Ammonim :uphaie Amminium sulphoie 150
Nit rigee only Nitrogen only.
00.001 25.I o.-le
Nitrogen only. Nitrogen onl Nitrogen only Nitrogen ob.
17.490 10.042 o ,OU
12.04
I. 14. 9.21 9,742) 5-
Niircge only. Nitrogen nly.
90,994
1dnn
40,040
79,041
II, S00 0.000
So Poulo 100
19.400
:10
14.000
t4,l0 144,744
10.00 44,400
Nitrogen only.
58d)
40.419 1-10, tff 1 :f12 d.17f 7
a i.001 I i,040 . .. 724 l.9It
Sodium nIrte
Nitrogen onl.
.7.
, loS 47.1a4 II. 141
01.000 4.900 17,400 577
Ammnnium sulphate
1.04091
1 11
9.409n All
14. 070
4,00 1,400
1, 1t4
00,040 .14.10ff
7'1,941 I .4n
f-40.711i 107. fin
Nitengennly. Nitrngen only Nitrogenonly COkg. P'0 and 120 kg. ofallplots
Sodium nitrate Ammnniomsl phote
30
Ammonim solphate
73
10.000
)zo.On
ZoOZI
n.574
100 kg. P2O5 and nOkg. K20 per ho. of allplots.
.. ilphate
IZ0
Z1.800
71,D68
41..,S
M,4ff
Z0 kg. P 0 , ond 100 kgA.KZO per ha. inbasictrinon of all plots.
i-lpafe
n0
3.1914
of, n00
I. kg. P 0 of offpit
Z6010h
s oflime, P20 5. KZO, sulfurand Mn in Undehted artounm basicfrete lof affplot.. KZO, sIlfur and Mn in Undefined munts of limo. PO, basic Ie-eoIonf ofallpio.s P0 . K 2 0, sulfor. 0. Zn anJ iime, Undefined ato,,)i 5 of off plots. M in baiirainn
Atmoniu
10
K
0
per ha. inbasic treatment in bast
treatment
0
Ammonium
119,tIn
3b.600
5
and lo
kg. KZO per ha.
in basc ireatment
Cotton sau Paulo sto Calt tum nitrate
o
Calcium nitrate
120
Calcium nitrat
Malrch. 2
h hfrnh,
zo
lo.00
50
8to.b5
)11.20
143
00.739
tO
5,01z 1
.-99.d-zf
1904 proidoot petbes oere used (bitle 9od lertth-r prices
ere used ltable
natetal foe Iransportation to the form.
The price of coffee •io co:oo In Mbarh. Cost at sodium nitrate in San Paulo in h 5
40.0.
Cot ot calcium nitrateinSan Pa.lo
Added in the ba.to cost of lertilier
f164 w- Cr$190,000 per ton
rh,. 19.4 mat CrSho9. In per k. of N.
CrZ 1 ao per kg. ofN.
in March. 19b4 oa
and Cr17/00 per ton one a chahrgeoeCr0400 per ion of efaeriof foe applriolion
1
-278 uniform check plots, different sources of N, small numbers of experiments per crop and the wide variation in yields from a given quantity of N; a number of general observations can be made.
In
the cases showing negative net returns three factors are apparent: (1) the source of N used (sodium and potassium nitrate) was expensive, (2) the amount of N applied in some cases was quite high, and (3) N was the only plant nutrient applied.
In every case where a relatively
cheap source of N (ammonium sulphate) was applied to crops where P2 0
5
and KzO were also available, positive net returns resulted.
Without more data it is difficult to say how much nitrogen should be used on a particular crop or in what ratio to PZ0
5
and KZO.
However, it appears that nitrogen applications at moderate levels with P 2 0
5
and K 2 0 are profitable for all the crops shown.
If the
profit margins from the use of N are as narrow as the data would indicate, particularly for corn and wheat, then the cheapest source of N possible should be used.
This is one more reason for developing
the use of anhydrous and/or aqua amnionia. Phosphate
The application of phosphate, as is shown in table 55, is generally profitable.
Indications are that phosphate was profitable when used in
moderate amounts as the only source of plant nutrient or in combination with other elements.
Nearly all of the experiments shown used normal
279
Table 55. onrtl.r product -ad
PZ0
K.
5
Calclation of not incomo chaooes par hot.r, from applicatlon of phosphate tP2Os). 1964
Increasedyield Val. of icreasey per he. per he. from P 2 0 5 yieldper ho. (th.)
(Cr$)
757 16 t~t
91.748 10,361 30,421
Coot of P2 05 por ha
Not returnper
ha. from P 2 OS
(Cr$)
Commet.
(Cr5$
Ric. R.G. doSot o' 60 60
Normal suprphosphatoa Olind, rock Nlorml toperphoophata
13,300 7,130 13 302
78.446 13.231 17 119
Phosphate only.
Phosphot. only.
Phosphato only.
17,763 17,763
10 630 99156
00 kg. N aod Zi ka. K20 in basictreatmentof all plots. 00 0 N ood 60 h. K10 inbasictreatmentof all plot..
30.696 33.200 2,943
Phosphato only. 18 boo lime per he. in basic treatment of allplots. Undefinedamounts of lime and K20 Inbasic treatmentof a11plot..
Undefinedamount. ofN and K20 in basictreatmentof
alt plot..
Phosphateonly.
Sao Paulo
Normal ouporphosphate Normal ouporuhoophoto
00 00
236 963
28:93 116,919
Normal ouporphosphoto Normal oupotphosphato Normal ouporphoophato
Oao Pouln
4 -0 80 90
139 359 036
39,674 59,594 40,496
Normal auperphoaphato
San Paulo
50
606
30,449
11.005
2 364
Normal ouporphoophato
90
607
25,190
19,9S3
5,237
Normal ouorphoophoto
o
6,100
17,736
- 1.636)
Phosphate only.
00. 170/ 1000 tree.
4Z.630/ 1000 trooo
Undefined amount, of N and KZ0 In basictreatment of
all plots.
Coltoo
8.978 17763 19,953 Cot,,
147
Sao Paulo
1uparphophato 000 te 360/
Normal
1000 treo
64,800 1000 t..
64.914
19.953
44.961
Phosphateonly.
16,100 260.606
7.394 06,604
8,706 256.020
Phosphateonly. Phosphateonly.
Potatoes
Normal ouporphoophato
M,,rial.t 90
1,153
Noro moal Normal auparphoophato
R.0. do Sul 117 100
26 sOZO
Whol
SOl R.0. do Normal ouporphoophlo Normal *uporphoophate Normal ouporphoopholo Normal ouparphoophoto
i
70 70
870 000 330
62,344 18.908 23.647
13. 300 15,134 iS.134
49,042 774 10511
120
400
28.664
26.604
Z,060
Phosphateonly.
UndefinedAmounts of N and X20 In basictroatmont of all plot..
Phoophato only. Phoophat. only. 4
5 kg. N and 50 kg. KZO par ha. in basictreatmentof all plot.
Sao Paulo Normal ouporphoophate
90
375
26,872
19.953
6.919
Normal ouporphoophato Rock phoaphate
Santa Catarta. 80 350
185 250
13,257 17,915
17.736 39.655
t- 21.740)
Phoophateonly. Phoophato only.
Normal ouperphosphte phat: Norml oupor Normal up.rpho p tt Normal uprphosphate Norm al up rpho ph ob
R. do Janero 75 75 75 75 75
13,300 9,200 7,100
39,900 30,100
43,358 09.990 8.1346 12:074 9 ,126
up rpho ph t o Nor ml Norm l up6rpho pho: r Normal up rpho ph ato Norm al u p rpho ph ato at n Nor mal up orp h Norm al super phosphate Normal up rpho ph to
73 75 75 50 IS0 I SO SO
11,600 00 60, 6,400 9, 00 2 ,7 00 1 0, 00 ,100
16,627 16.607 16:627 16627 16,62 3 16.62 ? 16.627 16.627 8 33 3 3 .5 5 3, 25 5
26,731 13365 71,719 112,437 S1499 1,189 10.096 4, 37 Z5 0. 3 7 - 4,4 3) 0) (43.5 (- 16,6297
Phosphate only. Phosphateonly. 0phato only. Pho Phophatoonly. Phosphateonly. Pho phate only. Pho phate only. Ph o ph t oonly P o spha t ronly . Pho sphateonly. P . o pha t oon y . Phosphat. only.
Son Paulo
75
91,700
298,940
16,627
4 ,400
79, 54 4
26,604
Z8. 315 2 940
Phosphateonly. 30k . N od 45 k .
1 00
I0
21.776
Plato. alt . N and 160 160k
g. K
Normal Nor m al Normal
up orphoph aor up r pho. phabo up rpho phat o
160
77,700
37816 26.9 73 0 ,864 6 , 92 8 802 33. 50 16,676
03,302
35 . 26
(-3,479)
p ot ha .
ha hool otreatm ont of
0 per ha. in be l et reatment of
all plots. March, 1964 product priceswooe used fAfl1 te (tabl Z March. 1964 fertiti.., price. we fars.coa to the maerialfor oftanspotatio 3 The priceof cotee
oa coco" in MIrch.
1964 was Cr$So,000 par ton.
4Of fertilizer we@ a charge
Of Cr$400
Per ton of material to,Application and Cr$T00 Per ton
-Z80 superphosphate as the source of PZ0 5 • Normal superphosphate, as well as being a relatively inexpensive source of PZO5, contains sulfur, a needed plant nutrient.
Whether applications of Pz0
5
as the
only plant nutrient would be profitable if some other non-sulfur bearing product such as triple superphosphate were used, will have to be determined by further agronomic research.
Potas sium
Table 56 shows the net return per hectare from the application of KZO to various crops.
As in the case of nitrogen and phosphate
the amount of data was limited, except for sugar cane.
It appeared
though, that the application of KZO with or without other elements being added, was generally profitable.
Physical increases in yield
are high and the cost of KZO in the form of potassium chloride is relatively low.
Again, more agronomic research is needed to
determine the most profitable level of application for a particular crop and in what ratio to N and PZ0
5
.
Table 56.
Fertilizer product used
Kg. KZ0 per ha.
Calculation of net income changes per hectare from application of potassium (K
Increased yield per ha. from KO
Value of increase yield per ha.
Cost of K20 per ha. 2
(kg.)
(Cr$)
(Cr$) Coffee
Net return per ha. from K20
3
Potassium chloride
Potassium chloride
R.G. do Sul 60
550
39.413
7.610
Potassium chloride
Paeana 60
100
7,166
7.610
Potassium chloride
Sao Paulo 90
1,690
280,540
11,460
269.080
28,2Z0
11,460
16.760
64.800/ 1000 trees
Comments
(Cr$)
Sa. Paulo 63/1000 trees
360
0). 1964
2
7.990/ 1000 trees
56,810
Manure added to all plots.
31,803
Potassium chloride only.
Wheat
1
-444)
Potassium chloride only.
Cotton
Potassium chloride
90
170
Potassium chloride
90
1.600
265,600
11.460
254.140
777
128. 982
15. 280
113.702
1,690
70,135
Undefined amounts cf lime, N. P 2 0 5. basic treatment of all plots.
Undefined amounts of lime, N. P 2 0 5. basic treatment of all plots.
Undefined amounts of lime, N, P 2 0 5. basic treatment of all plots.
Undefined amounts of lime. N. P 2 0 5 . Mo in basic treatment of all olots.
sulfur and Mn in
sulfur and Mn in
sulfur and Mn in
sulfur. B. Zn and
Potassium chloride
120
Potassium chloride
Sao Paulo
90
Potassium Potassium Potassium Potassium Potassium Potassium Potassium Potassium Potassium
chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride
R. de Janeiro
75 75 75 75 150 150 150 150 150
19,400 14.800 12 ,500 2,400 51,200 Z3,400 20,600 15,800 9,100
63,244 48.248 40,750 7,824 166.912 76,284 67,156 ;1.508 29,666
9,523 9.523 9.523 9,523 19.046 19,046 19,046 19.046 19,046
53.721
38.725
31,227
(- .699)
147. 866
57,238
48,110
32.462
10,620
Potassium Potassium Potassium Potassium Putassium Potassium Potassium Potassium Potassium
Potassium Potassium Potassium Potassium Potassium Potassium
chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride
Sao Paulo
120 120 50 60 90 IZ0
58,800 24,300 13,500 11.300 41,800 48,800
191.688 79,218 44.010 36,838 136.268 159,088
15,280 15.280 6,142 7,610 11,460 15.280
176,408
63.938
17.768
29,228
124.808
143.808
Potassium chloridc only. Pot.ssium chloridc only.
120 kg. N, 240 kg. P 2 05 tn basic treatment. i20 kg. N. 240 kg. P2Oiand 2,000 kg. lime in basic treatment Undefined amounts manure. AS and NSP in basic treatment. 0 kg. N. 80 kg. P 2 0 5 , in basic treatment.
18,800
61,288
15,280
Corn
11.460
58,675
Undefined amounts of lime, N. P 2 0 basic treatment of all plots.
. sulfur and Mn in
5
Sugar Cane
Potassium chloride
120
I
March,
1964 product prices were used (table
2
March,
1964 fertilizer prices were used (table
I-f 4
120 kg. N, treatment.
240 kg.
only.
only.
only.
only.
only.
only.
only.
only.
only.
P2 0
5
, 2,000 kg. lime in basic
Added to the basic cost of fertilizer was a charge of Cr$400 per ton of material for application and Cr$700 per ton
of materials for transportation to the farm. coco' in March, 3 The price of coffee "em
46.000
chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride chloride
ton. 1964 was CrSI80.000 per
-282-
AGRICULTURAL LIMESTONE
A program to improve the productivity of Brazilian agriculture must include steps to increase the production and use of agricultural limestone. The degree of acidity in soils is measured by the pH scale. soil with a pH of 7 is neutral.
Soils with pH below 7 are acid and
those with values above 7 are alkaline.
The pH value of most soils
ranges between 4. 0 and 8. 0, with most crops producing best in soils in the pH 6.0 - 7.0 range.
Figure 47
shows the optimum
pH range for important Brazilian crops. Except for the arid zone of the Northeast, presently cropped soils in Brazil are so acid (pH 5.5 or less) as to seriously inhibit yields of such major crops as cotton, corn and sugarcane. More than 90 percent of the Sao Paulo state soils fall in the category of soils of marked acidity with pH usually from 4.5 to 5.9.
A
In fact, one-third of the soils of the state have a pH of 5.1
-283 -Z83
Alkalinity Rane
Acidity Rane
Neutral
MediVery Strong Strong un Crop
Mild
Slight 7
6
5 I Ilea,
Alfalfa Cotton Rice Potatoes Coffe e Sugar Cahe Beans Tobacco Corn Soybeans Wheat 5 Figure 47.
4
p
p H requirements of major Brazilian crops
8
pH valve
-284 or less1 (52)2. In Rio Grande do Sul, an analysis of about 100 samples of soil indicated that 78 percent of the soils were acid with pH less than 5. 5, and of these 35 percent are extremely acid with pH less than 5.0 (53). Another sampling in the State of Sao Paulo indicated that 75 percent of the lands growing sugar cane were too sour for high productivity (49). A study (44) of the productivity of coffee plantations in Parana indicated that 75 percent of the highly-productive plantations were on soils with pH 6.0 to 7. 1; plantations of average productivity were on soils with pH 5. 1 to 6. 0; and plantations of low productivity were on acid soils of 4.6 - 5.1. Brazil's extensive "planalto central," the central plateau of Brazil, the land of great promise as a source of food and fiber for 1 Calculation obtained by tabulating the Sao Paulo area by soil groups as follows: 1. Fortenmente acido 2. Fortemente acido a acido 3. Fortemente acido a ligeiramente acido
pH 4.5 - 5. 1 pH 4.7 - 6. 2
16. 875 km 2 85.037 km 2
4. Acido
pH 4.9 - 5.9
5. Acido a ligeiramente acido
pH 4.9 - 5.9
k 2 2. 479 km2 28. 054 km 2 69. 974 km 2
pH 4.95 - 5.6 pH 6. 3 - 6. 9
188 26 20.752 2.752
6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Ligeiramente acido Fracamente acido Acido a neutro Ligeiramente acido a neutro Ligeiramente acido a ligeiramente alcalino
km 2 km 2 km 2 km 2
582 kiu
226.719 knm" 2 Footnotes shown in parentheses refer to bibliography on pagvs 2oI to 269 of this report.
-295-
Figure 49. One type of limestone spreader used in the United States.
Can also be used for broadcasting dry fertilizer materials.
-296-
Eventually the company that crushes the limestone will have trucks with spreader devices to haul it to the farm and spread it on the land.
Limestone Demand Requirements and Resources Available
Requirements Production of agricultural limestone in Brazil is far short of the amount required.
Production during the 1961-1963 period was reported
by the Syndicate of Fertilizer Manufacturers in Sao Paulo to be as follows: 1961 - 155,000 tons,
1962 - 228,000 tons, estimated 1963
250,000 tons. To raise the pH by 1.0, for example from 4.5 to 5.5, on the acid soils of Brazil, would require approximately three tons of limestone per hectare.
On ten million hectares this would require 30 million tons.
If
this amount were applied every 8 years, it would require 3,750,000 tons per year.
Although this amount is 15 times the current production of
agricultural limestone in Brazil, yet it is in line with current per hectare use in the United States which during recent years has averaged near 23 million tons annually.
In view of the importance attached to the correction
of acid soils in Brazil, the production of at least 3,750, 000 tons of agricultural limestone per year should be adopted as a goal to be reached through a 25 percent increase per year for 1Z years.
-297-
Resources
Deposits of both calcareous and dolomitic limestone are well distributed throughout eastern and central Brazil and in Southern Goias and Mato Grosso.
Detailed information on lime resources
of Brazil is given in appendix D.
However, the western half of
Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul lack known deposits of limestone.
Under these circumstances lime
stone for these areas would have to be hauled by Iruck or by rail. Rates for truck hauls will average approximately 30 cruzeiros per ton/km.
Rail rates decrease from 11.0 cruzeiros per ton/km.
for a distance of 200 km. to 9. 3 cruzeiros per ton/km. for hauls of 500 km.
Rail service is available and could be used to haul ground,.
limestone from points in central Sao Paulo and southern Minas For
Gerais to agricultural areas where limestone is less available.
example, from Piracicaba, where there is a substantial limestone industry, to Sao Jose do Rio Preto in western Sao Paulo is 300 kilometers,
or from Piracicaba to Marilia is 295 kilometers.
The
estimated cost of hauling ground limestone from Piracicaba to these cities is approximately Cr$3,500 per ton, including trucking from the crusher to the railroad plus rail charges.
This, added to the
current price of Cr$3, 000 per ton for limestone at the crusher, would equal Cr$6, 500 to Cr$7,000 delivered to the farmer.
-298-
AMAPA
RI
0 PONORT£
BRAV.-O4IO
..
JS
.. ..
?
k. ,,, ... ,AUI I
;-;
l
*
210,00 NORTE
PWsAA
' s
°
'
*
ROO ALR PiWIMLC
KIil-.O 50.S FigureT
oain
. .SA flietn
{dpst
. iii....
!n4ae nBa{ AgesG5-9S
r~si", Sourc:no"Frtilzants
Fiur
Sore ietlzne
of lmstoe
5.ndcaedloatonofdeost
oBai"
pgso
5-97-.
in
Brzil
-
-299-
The goal of 3,750,000 tons of agricultural limestone annually can be met by increasing crushing capacity and by the utilization of calcite tailings from the fertilizer industry. Quimbrasil has plans for the eventual production of 300, 000 tons per year of phosphate rock at Jacupiranga, with present plans If this project materializes,
to start with 100,000 tons capacity.
there will be produced approximately 600, 000 tons of calcite tailings per 100,000 tons of phosphate rock.
This material, when dried (at
an estimated cost of $1. 50 per ton for drying), would contain approximately 85 percent calcium carbonate and would be in a form suitable for use as agricultural limestone.
If completely utilized,
these tailings could provide a total supply of 1,800,000 tons usable for the correction of soil acidity.
Although market preference is
for dolomitic limestone, the magnitude of the supply needed is such that calcareous material must be utilized to the extent that its location permits its use. Rock Crushing Equipment Required Expansion of production of agricultural limestone will require added investment in stationary or mobile rock crushing plants. Existing plants in Drazil are stationary installations, whereas in the United States, mobile plants are commonly used.
-300Mobile plants with a daily capacity of 550 metric tons, similar to those in operation in the United States, would require a capital investment equal to approximately $4.40 per ton of annual capacity based on 150 operating days per year, including all quarry equip ment, bulldozers, power shovels, crushers, hanmermills, ing units, loaders, trucks and other equipment.
screen
Stationary units
operated in pairs, including combinations of Brazilian and U. S. equipment, having an estimated capacity 300 tons per day per pair, would require a capital investment of approximately $7. 86 per ton of annual production.
Stationary Plant
Stationary limestone crushing plants operating in Brazil vary from small, relatively primitive installations such as that shown in figure 51 to more modern plants as shown in figure 52. However, both of these plants use a large amount of manual labor. The stationary plant described in this report combines the operation as observed at Piracicaba with certain labor-saving pieces of equipment which would add to the efficiency of the plant.
In talking
with the manager of the Piracicaba plant, he indicated that he would like to add such equipment but lacked the capital necessary for the investment.
-301
, ,4 y
:
-
,"
v~4
Building and limestone stockpile
J --
*-
.
Rock crusher and elevator
(hamrnermill in pit not visible)
A small agricultural limestone mill Figure 51. near Piracicaba, capacity 50 tons per day
-302
~P
KABI dumpster & truck (this mill had only one of these)
Limestone Quarry (note sledges and other hand t.ools)
7 7777
Pushing quarried rock to the crusher
Ll ; Hand-feediag the primary crusher
Figure 52. Operations at an agricultural limestone plant near Piracicaba, cperating capacity, 200 tons per day 2 units
Loading finished agricultural limestone
-303-
The operation described begins with the stripping of the overburden from the limestone deposit using a D-7 Caterpillar bulldozer or the equivalent.
Hand rock drills are used to set the explosive charges to Large pieces of limestone are broken with
blast the exposed ledge.
sledges or by the bulldozer and are loaded by a 1 1/2 cubic yard front-end loader into a KABI dumpster (figure 52 ) which transports the quarried limestone to the mill.
At the mill the limestone is
dumped at the feeder and loaded onto the feeder by a second front-end loader and by hand.
The front-end loader is also used to clean up
around the mill and to load trucks from the stockpile of crushed rock. Figure 53 presents a flow sheet showing the major components of the stationary rock mill.
The rock is crushed by a jaw crusher.
The
crushed rock moves on a conveyor to a hammermill where it is ground and then elevated to an overhead triple screen.
Material of sufficient
fineness moves directly to surge bins for loading into trucks or sacks. Coarser material is returned to the hammermill and reground.
Investment Cost
Estimated investment cost of such a plant, located in the State of Sao Paulo, and using combinations of Brazilian and United States' equipment is $235, 750 as shown in Table 62 .
Costs shown are based
on prices obtained from equipment manufacturers in Brazil.
Based
aari'
4U
00
Figure 53. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Flow diagram stationary limestone crusher
feeder primary crusher conveyor hammermill
5. 6. 7.
elevator screening unit surge bins
-305-
Table 62. Estimated investment stationary plant for producing agricultural limestone - Brazil (1 Cost - U. S. dollars
Cost item
Quarry equipment Bulldozer (Caterpillar D-7 or equivalent) Blasting equipment Front end loader (I I/2 cu. yd.) KABI dumpster (2) with 2 extra bucket units Other quarry equipment
)
$35,000 250 25,000 5,500 500 66,250
Total quarry equipment Mill Feeder
Primary crusher Conveyor
2,800 4,600 2,200
Hamme rmill Elevator Screening unit
5,200 1,300 1,ZOO
Return conveyor
Surge bins Other conveyors
1,000
11,450 Z,000
Electric motors
Installation of equipment Total mill, per unit x 2 for 2 units
4,300
6,000
42,050 x 2 : 84,100 40,000
Building and electrical Other equipment Front-end loader (1 i/2 cu. yd.) Two 8-ton dump trucks @ $10,200 each Total other equipment
Based on conversion rate of Cr$1,
45,400 $235,750
Total cost
(1)
25,000 20,400
40 0
= US$1.00
-306 on a total capacity of 200 tons per day and 150 working days per year, this results in an average investment cost of $7.86 per ton of annual capacity. Operating Costs and Net Returns Estimated operating costs for the stationary limestone crushing operation are shown in Table 63.
The total operating cost, including
labor, management, mill and equipment operating costs, depreciation, and interest on investment was $1.90 per ton compared to $2.134 per ton (CR$3, 000/ton converted at CR$l, 400=US$l.00) value of the limestone f.o.b. the plant.
This results in a margin of $0. 243 per
ton. Annual net return (profit) on invested capital would be $7, 300 or just under 3 percent.
However,
since operating cost includes 7
percent interest on invested capital, total return on invested capital would approximate 10 percent. Portable Plant
The proposed plant is one of several combinations that could be used for the production of agricultural limestone.
Specific recom
mendations would vary with the characteristics of the parent ledge material, as to moisture content, hardness, amount of dirt in ledge, thickness of ledge, by products desired, if any, etc.
-307Estimated operating cost,
Table 63. stationary limestone crushing operation, Brazil, 1964
Cost item
Cost per year (150 days) U.S. dollars
Labor
(2)
$ 9,800
Cost per ton of limestone crushed U.S. dollars $ .33
Operating cost, mi1) & other equipment
13,900
.46
Depreciation ( 4 )
16,800
.56
Interest on investment ( 5 )
16, 500
.55
Total operating cost
$57,000
$1.90
(1) Based on annual output of 30, 000 tons agricultural limestone. (2) Includes foreman, bookkeeper, mill labor, quarry labor and equip ment operators - total 22 men, working 150 days per year. (3) Includes power, fuel, repairs, parts and other supplies. (4) Based on following rates, adjusted for 150 days use per year: buildings 30 years, trucks 5 years, mill 10 years, bulldozer and payloaders
10 years, other equipment 5 years.
(5) At 7 percent annual interest.
agir'.
-308-
This recommendation is suitable when agricultural lime is desired
as a sole product; or with lime as a primary product and crushed rock The most efficient production is the second set-up,
as a by product.
with lime and crushed rock.
To reduce all of the material to agricul
tural lime takes more time, consequently increasing the cost per ton. Major items of equipment for the portable plant are shown in
figure 54. The initial operation required would be stripping the limestone ledge of its overburden of dirt. This could be done with a bulldozer if the dirt had to be moved but a short distance, or with one or more
motor scrapers if the haul was longer. The exposed limestone ledge will be drilled with a pneumatic powered drill.
Air provides the power to move the drilling mechanism
from one location to another, to raise and lower the drill hammer, and to turn the drill bit.
The air will be provided by a portable air compres
sor.
The drill holes are loaded with an explosive that is detonated with an electric blasting cap.
Electric circuits should be checked, prior to
detonation, with a galvanometer.
The caps will be detonated with a
blasting machine. With a ledge depth of approximately 2 meters or more it is feas ible to move the portable crushing plant to the face of the ledge.
A
-309-
A
U
Primary crusher (impactor) and power shovel
-
Primary crusher
-
opposite side
7-
-77
crS
r
eei
g ui a
m
m
A7 t.
Screening unit
Hamnme rmill
Trucks loading at conveyors
Pneumatic rock drill
Figure 54.
A modern, portable, U.S. agricultural limestone crushing plant.
-310 power shovel will pick up the rock and place it in the primary crusher. This primary crusher is an impactor, working on the principal of
a rotary hub with heavy knives or hammers that break the rock. The material passes to a triple deck screen.
The material that is
too large to pass through the first screen (1,5" prox) will return to the primary crusher.
That material passing the 1,5" screen but re
tained on the second screen (1,5" prox) will be discharged to a surge bin, then into a truck for stock-piling.
This crushed rock could be
used as concrete aggregate or as rock surfacing material. The material passing through the 1/2" screen is sent to the ham mermill for total reduction to lime.
This lime is conveyed to a surge
bin for temporary holding for the stock pile truck. A bulldozer is needed during the operation to clean up around the shovel and plant and to level the stock-pile with each successive lift. The dozer also will be necessary to move the crusher out for blasting and into the new shot. With ledges less than 2 meters thick, it is desirable to set the
plant in one location and haul the shot rock to the primary crusher. This set up requires two heavy duty hauling units, hauling from the shovel to the primary crusher. The plant described would have a daily capacity of 500 metric tons of crushed road rock plus 320 tons of agricultural limestone or it
-311 could produce 550 tons of agricultural limestone daily if this is the only product desired.
However, the combination road rock agricul
tural limestone production is the more efficient, assuming that there is a market for both products.
Investment Required
Table 64 shows the equipment used in the portable plant, to gether with the U.S. supplier and the cost f.o.b. the factory in the United States.
Table 65 shows the estimated cost for a complete
plant under four different stripping situations. Based on 150 days operation per year and 550 tons per day pro duction, or 82, 500 tons per year, investment cost per ton of annual production would be: Investment/ton annual production
Situation A (very light stripping)
$4. 11
Situation B (moderate stripping)
4.54
Situation C (heavy stripping - portable)
5.86
Situation D (heavy stripping - fixed)
6. 27
These investment rates compare to an estimated investment per ton of annual capacity of $7. 86 for the stationary plant.
-312-
Table 64.
Equipment list and cost, portable limestone crushing plant, U.S. dollars, f.o.b. factory Size
Equipment
Manufacturer
Cost f.o.b. factory
Stripping Equipment *Bulldozer
D-7
or +2 Motor Scrapers 631 D-9 +1 Push Tractor
Drilling Equipment Air Track Drill Air Compressor
4" 600 CFM Roto Screw
Blasting Equipment Galvanometer Blasting Machine Dynamite 60% Gel Ammonium Nitrate Blasting Caps
Caterpillar Tractor Co. Peoria, Illinois Caterpillar Tractor Co. Caterpillar Tractor Co.
Gardner Denver Quincy, Illinois Gardner Denver
$ 10,000.00 22, 000.00
$
20.00 250.00
U.S. Power Co. $20. 00/100 lb. Terre Haute, Indiana $80.00/ton U.S. Power Co. $0.35 Ea.
Loading Equipment Power Shovel
1 1/2 Cu. Yd.
Northwest Engineering Co. Green Bay, Wisconsin
Crushing Equipment Impactor
50" x 36"
Rogers Iron Works Joplin, Missouri Rogers Iron Works Rogers Iron Works Rogers Iron Works Cline Truck Co.
3501 Gardner Avenue
Kansas City, Missouri
Screen Unit Hammermill 2 Surge Bins 3 Trucks
$ 35,000.00 or 84,000.00 60,000. 00 $ 144, 000.00
Triple deck 42" 8 Cu. Yd.
12 ton
1 Electric generator
75 kwh
$ 60,000.00
$ 70,000.00 36,000.00 30,000.00 10,000.00
51,000.00 15,000.00
. With very light stripping it is possible this dozer will have time to strip and also perform clean-up stockpile jobs. + These machines would be required in heavy stripping.
-313-
Equipment cost analysis under four stripping situations, Table 65. cost in U.S. dollars, f.o.b. factory in the United States Situation "A" 1. Very Light Stripping 2. Portable Operation Dozer
Crushing & Hauling Equipment
$ 35,000.00
304,270.00 $ 339,270.00
Situation "B" 1. Moderate Stripping (but is full time job) 2. Portable Operation Dozer for stripping Dozer for around plant Crushing & Hauling Equipment
$ 35,000.00 35,000.00 304, 270.00 $ 374, Z70.00
Situation "C" 1. Heavy Stripping 2. Portable Operation Push Tractor & Scrapers Dozer around plant Crushing & Hauling Equipment
$ 144, 000. 00 35,000.00 304,270.00
$ 483, 270. 00 Situation "D" 1. Heavy Stripping Z. Stationary Operation Push Tractor & Scrapers Dozer around plant Crushing & Hauling units 2 Heavy Duty Quarry Trucks
$144,000.00 35,000.00
304, 270.00 34,000.00 $517,270.00
-314Operating Costs and Net Return
Table 66 presents an estimate of operating costs for the port able limestone crushing plant under four different stripping situations. Operating costs per ton varied from $1. 185 with very light stripping (small amount of overburden to be removed) to $1. 758 with heavy strip ping and a thin limestone ledge.
The average cost over the four situa
tions was $1.466 per metric ton of ground limestone produced.
This
compares to $1.90 for the stationary plant. On the basis of 82, 500 tons per year, valued at CR$3, 000 con verted at CR$l, 400-US1.)0, the value of total production would be $176,786.
Net returns on ifivestments under the four stripping situa
tions are shown below: Situation
A light stripping
lMet Return U.&,dollars $?,,
Return on Investment percent
Return plus interest on investment percent
986
23
30
B - moderate ctrippin 7
6R,986
18
25
C - heavy stripping
43,586
9
16
31,786
6
13
portable operation
D - heavy stripping
stationary ope ration Under such conditions, assuming a market for the crushed lime stone produced is available, a portable limestone crushing plant, such as that described, should be a profitable operation.
Table 66.
Estimated operating cost, portable limestone crushing operation, four different stripping situations, Brazil, 1964 A. Light Stripping
Cost item
Cost per Cost ton of per year (150 days) limestone crushed'
B. Moderate Stripping
C. Heavy Stripping portable
Cost per Cost ton of per year (150 days) limestone crushed'
Cost per Cost ton of per year (150 days)limestone crushed 1
D. Heavy Stripping stationary Cost per Cost ton of per year (150 days) limeston
crushed
(U. S. Dollars)
$
$
$ 10,900 $ .133
$ 7,000
$ .095
Operating cost, all equipment 3
43,200
.524
48,000
.582
57,600
.698
63,600
.771
Depreciation 4
22,700
.Z75
Z5,300
.307
3Z,300
.39Z
34,500
.418
Interest on investment 5
Z4,000
.Z91
26,000
.315
34,000
.41Z
36,000
.436
$1.185
$107,800
$1.307
$133,200$1. 615
$145,000
Laborz
Total operating cost
$97,800
8,500 $
1 Based on annual output of 82,500 tons agricultural limestone
.103
9,300$.113
Includes: foreman, bookkeeper, quarry labor, crusher labor, and equipment operators, total 11 to 16 men, working 150 days per year 3 Includes fuel, repairs, parts and other supplies 4 Based on 10-year life, adjusted for 150 days use per year 5 At 7 percent annual interest
$1.758
-316 -Rsponse of Crops to Ground Limestone
On the acid soils of Brazil, many crops do respond to crushed limestone when it is applied alone, bringing about an increase of pro duction up to 40 percent or more.
Crops sensitive to a scarcity of
lime in the soil include such important Brazilian farm products as cotton, corn and sugarcane, table 67.
Striking examples of increased
production are shown in the table where limestone is added to the soil to be planted to corn in comparison with treatment by nitrogen, phosphate and potash.
For example, both at Veranopolis and at
Encruzilhada do Sul the application of lime alone brought an equal or greater response than when lime was applied along with nitrogen,
phosphate and potash. Application of limestone to alfalfa in Rio Grande do Sul resulted in a yield increase of 60 percent.
Liming corn land in Minas Gerais
and Rio Grande do Sul gave yield increases ranging between 8 and 27 percent, with most of the trials indicating yield gains of 23 to 25 percent.
Application of limestone to cotton in Sao Paulo and Minas
Gerais resulted in yield increases of 23 to 38 percent, with one trial showing a gain of 120 percent in yield.
Sugar cane yields in Sao Paulo
rose 33 to 43 percent following application of agricultural limestone. Wheat also showed substantial gains in yield (11 to 48 percent) following the application of agricultural limestone.
Table 67.
Crop and reference Alfalfa 113.
Corn 100.
114.
Crop response to lime, Brazil
Amount ground Additional produc tion per hectare Basic treat- limestone applied per ment of percent quantity hectare all plots
Location and year
Pelotas R.G. do Sul 1949-51
0
3.6 T
60%
1200
Sete Lagoas Est. 'sp., M.G. 195 -54 Est. Esp. de
0
9 T
27%
444 kg
0
9 T
25%
335 kg
Nature or origin of lime
dolomite
R.G.
Veranopolis, do Sul 1954-57
65. p. 29
Veranopolis, R.G. do Sul 1954-57
65. p. 31
Encruzilhada do
Lime applied only once.
0
2 T ea yr
23%
472 kg
NPK
2 T ea yr
8%
208 Kg
0
2 T ea yr
24%
191 kg
NPK
2 T ea yr
27%
244 kg
Sul, R.G. do Sul 1956, 1957 65. p. 31
Encruzilhada do Sul, R.G. do Sul 1956, 1957
Latin square
Average of 4 years.
Sete Lagoas, M.G. 1951-55 65. p. 29
Remarks
calcite
calcite
Random bloc-.s
Table 67.
Crop and reference
Crop response to lime, Brazil (continued) page 2 of 4
Amount ground Additional producBasic treat- limestone aption per hectare ment of plied per all plots hectare percent quantity
Location and year
Cotton 48. p.
14
Orlandia to Barretos, S.P. 1959-61 22 field experiments
N P KS + MN
3 to 4 T enough to bring pH to 6.0
48. p.
14
Orlandia to Barretos, S.P. 1959-61
N P KS + MN
about 4 T Z3% enough to bring pH to 6.0
Nature or origin of lime
Average of Locations dolomite 58% 712 kg seed cotton
282 kg dolomite seed cotton
Remarks
Soil pH 4.5 - 5.5 Lime worked into soil six weeks before planting.
2Z field experiments. Soil pH 4. 5 - 5.5. Lime worked into soil six weeks before planting.
17.
Tatui, S.P. 1956-60
05
T
26%
209*
calcite
Soil - "Corumbatai". pH 5.33 * weight expressed in
seed cotton
100.
Est. Esp. de Sete Lagoas, 1951-54
114.
Est. Esp. de Sete Lagoas,
1951-55
0
9T
0
9 T
120%
344 kg
cotton with seed
318 kg
Average of four yrs.
M.G.
M.G.
38%
Lime applied only once.
Crop response to lime, Brazil (continued) page 3 of 4
Table 67.
Crop and reference
Location and year
Amount ground Additional produc Basic treat- limestone aption per hectare ment of plied per all plots hectare percent quantity
Nature or origin of lime
Remarks
Soybeans
100.
Est. Esp. de Sete Lagoas, M.G. 1951-54
0
9 T
9%
115 kg
82. p. 679
Municipio de Cosmopolis Usina Ester, S.P. 1958
NPK
8 T
38%
25.6 T
82.
Cosmopolis, S.P. N 1956-58 P 20 K 20
43%,
28.4 T
Glacial fine sandy soil. pH 4.65.
330/
26 T
Glacial sand with clay soil.
Sugarcane
3.
5
= 90 kg/ha = 120 kg/ha = 90 kg/ha
5 T
Usina Ester, S.P. 1954-60
NPK
Itapeva and Fluare, S.P.
NPK
2 T
21%
129 kg
Vacaria and Lagoa Vermelha, R. G.
NPK
1T
48%
463 kg
dolomite
Glacial fine sandy soil. pH 4.65.
Wheat
14. p. 871
1. p. 11
do Sul 1959
b
dolomite
Averaging NSP and TSP in the basic treatment. pH 4.6 - 4.9. New land of Campos de Cima de Serra.
Table 67.
Crop response to lime, Brazil (continued) page 4 of 4 Amount ground Additional produc-
Crop
Location
and
and
reference
year
Basic treat-
ment of all plots
limestone ap-
tion per hectare
plied per
Nature or
origin of
hectare
percent
quantity
40. p. Z9
Herval, Piratini Pedro Osorio, R.G. do Sul 1962
0
5 T
40%
Z31 kg
59.
E. E. de Ponta Grossa, Parana 1960-61
0
8 T
11%
100 kg
lime
Remarks
-321
-
Economic Value of Agricultural Limestone
Analysis of economic returns from the use of limestone is based on the results of fertilizer experiments and field trials shown in table 68.
The increased yields from the use of limestone were
multiplied by the price of the crop to determine the increase in gross value of product resulting from a given quantity of lime. for March,
Crop prices
1964 were used in making the computations (table 68).
The cost of agricultural limestone, as reported by limestone
crushers, was Cr$3,000 per ton.
Added to this basic cost was a
charge of Cr$700 per ton for delivery to the farm and Cr$400 per ton for application.
As in the case of fertilizers, no interest
charge on the money needed to purchase the limestone was included nor the extra cost of harvesting and marketing the increased production. In experiments where the increased yield represented an average of several years production from one application of limestone, the cost of the limestone was also spread over the same time period. Although agronomic research with limestone is very limited, the data in table 68 indicate that the application of limestone is profitable, particularly on sugar cane and cotton.
Net returns
from the use of limestone on these two crops are high, and considerably greater than the cost of the limestone.
Corn and
agri..
Table 68. Type of limestone used
Kg. lime per ha.
Calculation cf net income changes per hectare from application of limestone, 1964
Increased yield per ha. from lime
Value of increase yield per ha.
(kg.)
(Cr$)
Cost of lime per ha. (Cr$) Corn
Net return per ha. from lime
Comments
(Cr$)
Calcite Calcite
Minas Gerais 9,000 9,000
444 335
18,426 13,902
12,300 9,225
6,126 3,667
Lzroe only. L~re only.
Calcite Calcite Calcite
R.G. do Sul 2,000 2,000 2.000
427 191 208
17,720 7,926 8,632
8.200 8.200 8,200
9,520 (-274) 432
Calcite
2,000
244
10,126
8,200
1,926
L~rne only. Applied each year for three years. Lzrne only. Applied each year for two years. Undefined amounts of N. P 2 0 5 and KO in basic treatment Lime applied each year for three years. of all plots. Undlefined amounts of N, P,0 5 and KgO in basic treatment Lime applied each year for two years. of all plots.
Dolomite
Sao Paulo 3,000 - 4,000
712
118.192
5,467
112,725
Dolomite
4,000
282
46,812
5,467
41,345
Calcite
5,000
209
34,694
5,125
29,569
Uniefined amounts of N, P205, K20, sulfur, and Mn in Three year average. b;atic treatment of all plots. Undefined amounts of N, P 2 0 5 , K20, sulfur, and Mn in Three year average. batic treatment of all plots. Lime applied only once. Lime only. Four year average.
Unknown Unknown
Minas Gerais 9.000 9,000
344 318
57,104 52,788
12,300 9,225
44,804 43,563
Lime only. Lime only.
Dolomite
Sao Paulo 8,000
25,600
83,456
32,800
50,656
Unknown
5,000
28,400
92,584
20,500
72,084
Undefined amounts of N. P 2 0 5 and K 2 0 in basic treatment o" all plots. 90 kg. N, 120 kg. P 2 0 5 and 90 kg. K 2 O per ha. in basic treatment of all plots.
Three year average . Lime applied only once. Lime applied only once. Four year average.
Cotton
Three year average. Lime applied only once. Lime applied only once. Four year average.
Sugar Cane
Wheat Sao Paulo Dolomite
2,000
129
9,244
8,200
1,044
Undefined amounts of N, P20 of all plots.
Unknown
R.G. do Sul 1,000
463
33,178
4,100
29,078
Unknown
5,000
231
16,553
20,500
(-3,947)
Undefined amounts of N, P 2 0 of all plots. Lime only.
Unknown
Parana 8,000
100
7.166
32,800
(-25,634)
March, 2
5
and K 2 O in basic treatment
5
and KZO in basic treatment
Lime only.
1964 product prices were used, (table Limestone prices in the first three months 6f 1964 were reported to be Cr$3,000 per tor. Added to the basic price was a charge of Cr$400 per ton for application and Cr$700 per ton for transportation to the farm. Where yield response was measured over a series of years from one application of lime, the average cost of the lime for the number of years involved was used to calculate net income per hectare.
-3Z3 wheat show reasonably good increases in yield from the application of limestone but due to the lower prices that these two products command, net returns are not as favorable as with sugar cane and cotton. Considering the high acidity of Brazilian soils, it is difficult to believe that limestone will not substantially increase yields of most crops.
The quality and quantity of agronomic research with
limestone should be increased for the purpose of determining the most profitable level of application of limestone for each crop and to determine the relationship between limestone and other fertilizers.
aq;I.
-324-
LIVESTOCK MINERALS
An adequate supply of essential minerals is necessary for the health and growth of livestock, and in fact for life itself,
Livestock
and poultry require a balance of minerals in their ration to promote essential metabolic processes.
Deficiencies in minerals lead to
reduced feeding efficiency, retarded growth, reproductive problems, crippling and other physiological difficulties, and in extreme cases may result in death.
Proper mineral balance in rations consuriied by
livestock results in increased gains, higher reproduction rates, and a generally higher level of health and performance,
FEEDING REQUIREMENTS The principal minerals required are salt, phosphorus and calcium, but in addition, small amounts of such minerals as magnesium, potassium, sulfur, iodine, iron, copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc, molybdenum and possibly other minor mineral elements are necessary, Table 69 illustrates the functions of these mineral deficiency symptoms, supplemental sources and generalized requirements for cattle. Of these minerals, salt is the only one that is almost universally deficient, and must always be provided In adaquate amounts for live stock and poultry.
The other minerals required are normally available
Table 69.
Element
I
Livestock minerals which may be deficient for cattle production in Brazil
Function in body
Gross deficiency symptons
Supplemental source
Requirements of
mature cattle
Calcium
Bones and teeth; normal blood clotting; regulates heart action and muscular activity.
Poor growth and bone development; lowered milk production.
Steaned :onemeal; defluorinated phosphate; marble dust.
0. 23 to 0. 30 percent of dry ration; 6 to 9 kilos per year.
Phosphorus
Bones and teeth; essential part of every cell and blood; chemical activity in release of body energy.
Poor utilization of feed; slow growth; low milk production; abnormal appetite as chewing bones; bones fragile and easily broken; stiffness; poor calves and repro ductive failure; general weakness of body; (susceptibility to diseases and parasites).
Steamed bonemeal; defluorinated phosphate, di- and monophosphate salts.
Minimum 0. 13 per cent of dry ration; 4 to 6 kilos per year.
Sodium Chloride
Sodium regulates cell reaction. Chlorine constituent of gastric juice; aids digestion; in all body fluids.
Marked salt hunger; loss of appetite; weight loss; breakdown of body functions,
Common salt. Cattle on pasture near salt water require less than those inland.
6 to 9 kilos per year.
Iron
Homoglobin formation; essential for oxygen transfer to cell respiration.
Salt sickness (anemia); low homoglobin.
Red c.:dde of iron; ferric ammonium citrate (soluble); fer rous sulfate.
0. 01 percent of dry ration; 0. 55 to 0. 75 of pound soluble iron per year.
Copper
Hemoglobin formation; catalyst for iron; hair pigmentation.
Salt sickness (anemia); failure of hemoglobin formation; depraved appetite; severe scouring; loss in weight; moves with difficulty; hair coat fades.
Bluestone (copper sulfate); copper oxide.
9 parts per million of copper in dry feed; 0. 12 pound copper sulfate yearly.
Cobalt
Rumen function; red blood cell formation; reduces pathogenic organisms in rumen; vitamin B12 synthesis.
Salt sickness; low hemoglobin; loss of appetite and flesh; rough hair coat; reproduction failure,
Cobalt either as chloride, sulfate or carbonate.
1 part of cobalt in 10, 000, 000 of dry feed; 0. 23 gram of cobalt or 0. 5 of gram cobalt chloride yearly.
-3z6 in adequate amounts in rations commonly consumed by livestock. However, in areas where soils are deficient in these minerals it is necessary to supplement rations by feeding mineral mixtures to the point that nutritional requirements are met.
Such is the case over
much of Brazil where soils are generally deficient in calcium and phosphorus. Ceara.
Instances of cobalt deficiency have been observed in
As a result, Brazilian stockmen and poultry producers
generally should follow the practice of providing a basic mineral supplement for their livestock and poultry. The Committee on Animal Nutrition of the U.S. Academy of Sciences - National Research Council, has published a series of authoritative monographs on Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals.
An analysis of the mineral requirements specified indicates
the following annual generalized requirements for salt, phosphorus and calcium for livestock and poultry produced in Brazil (table 70).
Salt Sodium and chlorine are both necessary for animal production, and farm animals usually do not obtain enough of these minerals from the feed they eat. supplied.
Therefore, under normal conditions salt should be
Although animals which live chiefly on forage (such as cattle,
sheep, goats and horses) need a greater proportion of salt in their
-327-
Table 70.
Annual requirements per head of livestock and poultry for salt, phosphorus, and calcium
Class of livestock or poultry
Annual requirements, kilograms per head Calcium Phosphorus Salt
All cattle
7.30
5.48
6.57
Swine
3.65
2.92
4.0Z
5.48
4.75
Horses and mules
10.95
Sheep and goats
4.00
1.10
1.Z0
All poultry
0.18
0.ZZ
0.80
1 Calculated from data in series Nutrient lequirements of Domestic Animals, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. ration than do hogs or poultry, the safest plan is to furnish salt for all species of livestock and poultry.
Salt Forms Salt may be provided in a number of different forms, such as loose salt, lumps of rock salt, or salt blocks, the choice depending on which ever form is the cheapest and most convenient. Brazil, loose salt will be the cheapest form.
Generally speaking in
Salt for livestock does
not have to be refined, and as a matter of fact, salt produced from the evaporation of sea water is normally perfectly acceptable for livestock use, and may even be superior as it contains traces of other minerals
-328 and inorganic substances which are utilized by livestock.
In areas
where the soil and local feeds may be deficient in iodine, 0. 01 percent of potassium iodide or in some cases, calcium iodide, plus a stabilizer usually consisting of sodium sulfite (NaZS 2 O3) and sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) should be added. Although the feeding of loose salt would appear to be the most practicable for Brazil, salt blocks may be made for use where they would be convenient.
Normally blocks are made in 50-pound units.
Most of the 50-pound blocks used in the United States are made on hydraulic presses furnished by the Hydraulic Press Manufacturing Company, Mount Gilead, Ohio (figure 55). at 180-280 blocks per hour.
The presses are rated
The cost of such equipment delivered
in Brazil would be approximately $123,000 - $130,000 depending on the type of unit purchased.
Salt Requirements Although livestock have specific requirements for salt, and the amount of salt required may vary slightly from region to region, the most practicable means of supplying them with salt is through allowing them free access to a supply where the stock can take as much as they desire.
They will not take too much unless they have previously had an
-329-
I
7 -/
Figure 55.
Hydraulic press for the manufacture of livestock salt blocks
-330 insufficient amount, in which case they may eat so much as to cause indigestion.
Therefore, at the beginning the amount should be limited.
Beef cattle on range or pasture will consume from 400 to 1, 000 grams of salt per head per month.
More salt is eaten during periods
when forage is abundant and succulent than at other times; cattle on
feed in a dry lot will normally consume less salt than when on pasture. However, if given access to salt they will satisfy their requirements
under any conditions. Consumption of protein supplements, such as cottonseed oil meal, desirable for range livestock during periods of poor range forage conditions, can be regulated through the use of salt-protein mixtures, since the cattle will consume no more salt than that necessary for their daily requirements. United States.
This practice is quite common in the Southwestern
The amount of salt in relation to the amount of protein
supplement required to regulate the consumption of the mixtures varies with the age and weight of the animal, the quantity and quality of avail able forage, length of feeding period, and the amount of concentrates intended for daily consumption.
For example, for 180 kilo calves on
dry pasture, a mixture of 250 grams of salt with 900 grams of meal will result in consumption of 900 grams of meal per day.
Steers
weighing 320 kilos required 400 grams of salt to every 1, 350 grams of meal to limit meal consumption to 900 grams per head per day.
Less
-331
salt in proportion to meal is required on light or moderately grazed pastures than on pastures which are heavily grazed. Dairy cattle will consume as much as 113 grams of salt per head per day.
Mixing some salt with grain mixtures tends to make
the mixture more palatable and also insures that the cattle get some salt each day. basis.
In addition salt should be available on a free choice
Most efforts show that dairy cattle have a decided preference
for loose salt over block salt. Sheep and goats are especially fond of salt and consume more in proportion to their body weight than do cattle.
For range sheep, the
provision of salt daily is better than periodic salting as sheep will settle down and be more contented if salted each evening.
Range
sheepmen commonly recommend 450 grams of salt per ewe per month. Salt may also be used in combination with protein supple nents to regulate protein consumption by sheep under range conditions.
Salt
is also used mixed with other minerals to provide complete mineral supplements for sheep, and when mixed with phenothiazine (1 part) and salt (9 parts) will assist in controlling internal parapites.
Where
sheep have not had access to salt, initial amounts available should be limited to avoid possible danger from salt poisoning. Swine need less salt than cattle or sheep, but it should be regularly available.
The best plan is to let pigs have access to salt
-332 up to 90 in a box or trough and under these conditions they may eat grams per head daily. Chickens require varying amounts of salt in their rations.
In
general, the addition of 0. 5 percent, by weight, of salt to the poultry is
ration is sufficient for laying and breeding hens and 0. 75 percent sufficient for rapidly growing chicks.
Demand for Salt Although virtually all Brazilian livestock and poultry need mineral supplements, it is equally certain that all livestock in Brazil will not be fed such supplements in the required amounts.
Therefore,
the
demand requirements will be less than the indicated nutritional requirements. The problem of estimating livestock mineral requirements for Brazil is complicated by discrepancies in reported cattle numbers as found in census data, and estimates of the yServico de Estatistica da Producao".
For example, in 1960 the census (Servico Nacional de
the Recenseamento) reported 55, 692, 653 cattle and for the same year estimate of the "Servico de Estatistica da Producao" of cattle numbers for
was 73, 962, 000. In this report, census data have been used of cattle. For other classes
calculation of mineral requirements of the of livestock and poultry, not reported in the census, estimates "Servico de Estatistica da Producao" were used.
-333-
Were all livestock and poultry in Brazil provided with the recom mended amounts of salt, it would have required 956,000 metric tons of salt in 196Z and an estimated 1,131,000 tons would be required by 1970 (table 71).
This is approximately equal to 78 percent of the entire
production of the Brazilian salt industry, which produced 1, Z40, 000 tons in 1962 and an estimated production of 1, 440,000 tons in 1970. It is estimated that the population of Brazil will increase by approximately Z5 percent 1962-1970.
In order to maintain present per
capita levels of salt consumption, there would need to be produred about 1,500, 000 tons of salt by 1970.
Production of salt for increased
use by livestock would increase this demand still more.
If it is assumed
that by 1970, consumption of salt by livestock were to increase by 25 percent of the nutritional requirements, this would add a demand of Z83,000 tons.
Salt Supplies Brazil would have no difficulty in increasing domestic production of salt in amounts adequate to meet this demand, either through increased evaporation of sea water or through mining of known deposits. Total production of salt in Brazil during 1953-1962 is shown in table 72.
During this period salt production increased by two-thirds.
This salt is at present produced by evaporation of sea water.
Table 73
-334Table 71.
Estimated mineral requirements of Brazilian livestock and poultry, national total, 1962 and 1970
Salt Species of livestock
I9Z
Annual mineral requirement Calcium 1970 1962 1970
-
tons Phosphorus1970 196Z
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
Cattle
4Z7, 050
481,800
384, 345
433, 620
320, 580
361,680
Hogs
193,080
254,770
Z12,660
280,600
154,470
203,8Z0
Horses
169,7Z0
202,570
73,620
87,870
84,940
101,380
Sheep & goats
1Z8,400
144,400
38,520
43,320
35,310
39,710
37, 390
47,470
166, 160
210, 960
45, 690
58, 010
875, 305 1, 056, 370
640, 990
764, 600
656, 479
792, Z78
480, 742
573, 450
218, 8Z6
Z64, 092
160, 248
191,150
Poultry
Total
Supplied from feed and forages
955, 640 1, 131,010
-
-
Supplemental minerals 955, 640 1, 131,010 required
-335-
Table 72.
Salt, Brazil, production from sea water, 1953-19621
Year
Production (tons)
1953
761,303
1954
675,324
1955
580, 818
1956
798, 428
1957
797, 803
1958
955, 006
1959
854, 473
1960
922, 914
1961
888, 942
1962
1 Source:
1,240,402
Anuario Estatistico do Brasil
agzi,
-336-
Table 73.
Salt, Brazil, distribution of production by states,
1960, 1961, and 196Z 1
State Para
1960
Production 1961
30
-
-
tons 1962
10
Maranhao
35, 347
36, 750
47,997
Piaui
14,584
15,095
11, 809
Ceara
148,611
103,373
127,816
Rio Grande do Norte
584, 131
498, 840
886, 640
600
103
644
1,175
725
1,405
Alagoas
54
4
20
Sergipe
27, 612
21, 700
26, 000
i, 063
12,814
5, 366
Rio de Janeiro
109, 707
199, 538
132, 695
Total Brazil
922, 914
888, 94Z
1,240, 402
Paraiba Pernambuco
Bahia
1 Source: Anuario Estatistico do Brasil
-337 shows the distribution of salt production, by states, in Brazil for the years, 1960, 1961 and 196Z.
Most of the salt is produced in the North
east, Rio Grande do Norte producing nearly two-thirds of the national total, and Ceara producing another 10 percent.
The hot, dry climate
of the Northeast and coastal topography favor salt production.
The
only other area of significance is in the State of Rio de Janeiro at Cabo Frio where the lagoon of Araruama serves as a natural evaporator and offsets the disadvantages of lower evaporation rates and higher rainfall normally associated with this part of Brazil.
Rio de Janeiro
produces from 10 to 20 percent of the national salt production. Although the principal source of salt for Brazil at present is from the evaporation of sea water, extensive deposits of rock salt are known to exist. Deposits of salt are found in many areas throughout Brazil. was formerly mined in Bahia, particularly near Joazeiro.
Salt
Reserves,
in Sergipe, shown by oil drilling operations, are estimated to be approximately 35, 000, 000 tons. in Amazonas.
Extensive deposits are known to exist
The amount of rock salt reported is estimated to be as
much as 10 trillion tons.
Other smaller deposits and salt wells are
scattered throughout Brazil.
ag i.
-338-
Calcium and Phosphorus Livestock are more apt to suffer from lack of calcium or phos phorus than any other mineral except salt.
As these minerals become
depleted in the soils in an area, feeds, and in particular roughages, produced on such soils tend to become deficient in these minerals. Hogs need somewhat greater proportions of calcium and phosphorus in their rations than do cattle and sheep, and poultry require even greater amounts. Where livestock and poultry are fed good-quality rations or where livestock graze on good pastures or ranges, their normal requiremento for phosphorus and calcium are met by the feed they consume.
However,
Brazilian soils are generally deficient in both phosphorus and calcium, and as a result feeds produced and fed will not entirely meet the phosphorus and calcium requirements of livestock and poultry.
As a
result, Brazilian stockmen and poultry producers should provide supple mental phosphorus and calcium. Livestock and poultry vhould be offered phosphorus and calcium supplements, mixed with salt in proper proportions to improve palat ability, on a free-choice basis in a suitably designed mineral feeder or box or as an ingredient in prepared rations,
When such minerals
are available on a free-choice basis, livestock will regulate their con sumption of such mineral supplements to the amount necessary to
-339 provide an adequate mineral balance in their rations.
Calcium and Phosphorus Requirements Generalized calcium and phosphorus requirements for major species of livestock and poultry are shown in Table 70 . requirements for different classes and weights vary.
However,
These are
shown in detail in Tables 74 through 79.
Demand Requirements - Calcium and Phosphorus Annual estimated Brazilian national requirements for calcium and phosphorus are shown in Table 71.
Total requirements are
estimated to have been 875, 000 tons of calcium and 640, 990 tons of phosphorus in 1962.
Under normal soil conditions,
would be met from feeds and forages consumed.
these requirements
However, since
Brazilian soils are generally deficient in calcium and phosphorus, it is recommended that at least 25 percent of these annual requirements be met through the feeding of mineral supplements.
This would have
required 218, 826 tons of calcium and 160, 248 tons of phosphorus to meet supplemental requirements for livestock and poultry in 1962. On the same basis, estimated annual total requirements for 1970 would be 1, 056, 370 tons of calcium and 764, 600 tons of phosphorus, and supplemental mineral requirements would be 264, 092 tons of calcium and 191, 150 tons of phosphorus.
-340
Table 74.
1 beef cattle Calcium and phosphorus requirements of
Body weiplht Class
lb.
kilos
Grams per head per day Ca.
P.
Fattening calves finished as short yearlings
400 600 800 1000
181 272 362 454
20 20 20 20
15 17 18 20
Fattening yearling cattle
600 800 1000 1100
272 362 454 499
20 20 20 20
17 20 24 25
Fattening two-year cattle
800 1000 1200
362 454 544
20 20 20
22 25 26
Wintering weanling calve s
400 500 600
181 227 272
13 13
13
10 10 10
Wintering yearling cattle
600 800 900
272 362 408
13 13 13
11 12 12
Wintering pregnant heifers
700 900 1000
318 408 454
15 13
13
14 12
12
Wintering mature pregnant cows
800 1000 1200
362 454 544
16 13 13
15 12 12
Cows nursing calves, first 3-4 months postpartum
900 1100
408 499
30
23
Normal growth heifers and steers
400 600 800 1000
181 272 362 454
16 15 15 13
11 12
13
14
Bulls, growth and maintenance (moderate activity)
600 1000 1400 1800
272 454 635 816
21 19 17 15
15 15 16 18
1 Source: National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals; Publication 579-Beef Cattle, Washington, D.C.
-341
Table 75.
-
1 Calcium and phosphorus requirements of dairy cattle
Body weight kilos lb.
Class
Grams per head per day P. Ca.
3
50 100 150 200 400 600
23 45 68 91 181 27Z
4 7 12 13 13 13
10 10 12 12
800
362
13
12
1000 1200
454 544
1Z 12
12 12
800 1000 1200 1400 1600
362 454 544 635 726
6 8 10 11 12
6 8 10
11 12
Reproduction
8
7
Lactation
1
0.7
Normal growth of dairy heifers
Maintenance of mature cows
Maintenance of breeding bulls
Iz00 1600 2000 2400
544 726 907 1089
10 12 16 19
6
10 12 16 19
1 Source: National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals; Publication 464-Dairy Cattle, Washington, D. C.
-342-
1 Calcium and phosphorus requirements of swineI
Table 76.
Liveweight kilos lb.
Class Growing pigs
10 25 50
4.5 11 23
Grams per head per day P. Ca. 2.5 5.9 9.4
2. 2 4.5 7.3
Finishing pigs (self-fed): Meat type
100 150 200
45 68 91
12.0 15.4 18. Z
9.6 12.3 14.5
Bacon type
100 150 200
45 68 91
11.8 14.8 16.1
9.4 11.8 12.9
Bred: Gilts Sows
300 500
136 227
16.3 20.4
10.9 13.6
Lactating: Gilts Sows
350 450
159 204
30. 0 34.0
20.0 22.7
Boars: Young Adult
300 500
136 227
16.3 20.4
10.9 13.6
Breeding Stock
1 Source;
National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council,
Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals;
Publication 648-Swine, Washington, D.C.
-343-
Table 77.
1 Calcium and phosphorus requirements of sheep
Body weight kilos lb.
Class
Grams per head per day P. Ca.
Ewes-Non-lactating and first 15 weeks of gestation
100 120 140 160
45 54 64 73
3. 2 3.3 3.4 3.5
2.5 2.6 Z. 7 2.8
Ewes-Last 6 weeks of gestation
100 120 140 160
45 54 64 73
4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8
3.1 3.3 3.5 3.7
Ewes-First 8-10 weeks lactation
100 120 140 160
45 54 64 73
6.2 6.5 6.8 6.1
4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2
Ewes-Last 12-14 weeks of lactation
100 120 140 160
45 54 64 73
4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2
3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0
Ewes-Replacement lambs and yearlings
60 80 100 120
27 36 45 54
2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2
2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9
Rams-Lambs and yearlings
80 100 120 140 160
36 45 54 64 73
3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4
2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1
Lambs-Fattening
60 70 80 90 100
27 32 36 41 45
2.9 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1
2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8
1 Source:
National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals; Publication 504-Sheep, Washington, D.C.
agr'i
-344 Table 78.
Calcium and phosphorus requirements of horses Body weight lb. kilos
Class
1
Grams per head per day Ca. P.
Growing Horses 600 lbs. mature weight
200 400 600
91 181 272
11 11 6
10 11 6
Growing Horses 800 lbs. mature weight
200 400 600 800
91 181 272 362
14 17 13 9
11 13 13
9
Growing Horses 1,000 lbs. mature weight
200 400 600 800 1,000
91 181 272 362 454
16 15 14 13 11
11 12 12
12
11
Growing Horses 1,200 lbs. mature weight
zoo 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
91 181 272 362 454 544
19 18 18 18 12 12
16 17 17 17 12 12
Growing Horses 1,400 lbs. mature weight
200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400
91 181 272 362 454 544 635
24 21 19 18 14 13 13
17 17 17 17 14 13 13
Mature Horses at light work
400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400
181 272 362 454 544 635
6 9 10 12 14 16
6 9 10 12 14 16
Mature Horses at medium work
400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400
181 272 362 454 544 635
8 10 12 14 16 18
8 10 12 14 16 18
Mature Horses, Last Quarter Pregnancy
400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400
181 272 362 454 544 635
9 12 14 16 18 20
8 11
13
15
17
19
Mature Horses, Lactation Peak
400 600 800 1,000 IZOO 1,400
181 272 362 454 544 635
18 23 27 30 34 37
13 18 22 24 27 30
1 Source:
National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Nutrient Rrquirements of Domestic Animals; publication 912-horses, Washington, D. C.
-345-
1 Calcium and phosphorus requirements of poultry
Table 79.
In percentage per lb. of feed Species and class
Ca.
P.
Chickens Starting chickens 0-8 weeks
1.00
0.6
Growing chickens 8-18 weeks
1.00
0.6
Laying hens
2.25
0.6
Breeding hens
2.25
0.6
0-8 weeks
2.00
1.00
Growing turkeys 8-16 weeks
1.70
0.85
Breeding turkeys
2.25
0.75
Turkeys Starting poults
Source:
National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals; Publication 8Z7-Poultry, Washington, D. C.
-346In considering the mineral requirements of Brazilian livestock, it is believed unlikely that horses in Brazil will be given much in the way of phosphorus or calcium supplements, and in order to make the estimates of mineral requirements more realistic, these requirements should be further reduced by including only 10 percent of the phosphorus and calcium requirements for horses.
Considering these assumptions,
it is estimated that livestock in Brazil in 1962 would have required approximately 202, 000 tons of calcium and an estimated 141, 000 tons of phosphorus.
On the same basis, by 1970 there would be required
244, 000 tons of calcium and 168, 000 tons of phosphorus. However, it is improbable that the livestock and poultry industry will actually demand these amounts by 1970.
If it is assumed that by
1970 consumption of phosphorus and calcium by livestock and poultry were to increase to 25 percent of the supplemental nutritional require ments, this would add a demand of approximately 42, 000 tons of phosphorus and 61, 000 tons of calcium by 1970.
These amounts could
constitute a reasonable 1970 goal for the increased production of calcium and phosphorus livestock supplements in Brazil.
Calcium and Phosphorus Supplies Brazil can supply its livestock needs for phosphorus and calcium from two materials which can be produced locally.
Both phosphorus
-347 and calcium can be supplied from either steamed bone meal or deflourinated tricalcium phosphate. Steamed .5one Meal Steamed bone meal is a by-product of the meat packing industry and based on 1962 slaughter data for Brazil as reported by the 'Servico de Estatisticas da Producao",
approximately 240,000 tons of steamed
bone meal could have been produced in commerical meat packing houses. However, discussions with meat packers in Sao Paulo indicate that little steamed bone meal is produce," in Brazil, most of the bones being used in tankage or other feed supplements fed primarily to poultry and swine. Since steamed bone meal contains 14 percent phosphorus and 30 percent calcium, the potential 1962 pruduction of this product would have furn ished approximately 35, 000 tons of phosphorus and 72, 000 tons of calcium for livestock feed.
Based on a demand equal to 25 percent of
the supplemental requirements for phosphorus and calcium, this would have furnished all of these minerals required in 1962.
However, since
tankage and other meat by-product feeds are not ordinarily fed to cattle or sheep, it is recommended that the meat packing industry in Brazil give attention to the possibilities of producing feed-grade steamed bone meal for use by these classes of livestock.
Attention should be focused
on the relative profitability of processing bones for steamed bone meal compared to their use in tankage or for other purposes.
Figure 56
ac~rr
-348-
Con
11,IOr
o r
r8one
0
TankI,,,o[,'e n
t
1
n
C am~ei"
l,'s are
$okn'ion
T
Figure 56.
i-has
Flow diagram of process for manufacture of of degreased, steamed bone meal
-349 shows the type of equipment required for the producticn of steamed,
degreased, bone meal.
Defluorinated Tricalcium Phosphate
In using inorganic phosphorus supplements for livestock feeding, it is necessary to make sure that the product fed does not have a dangerous amount of fluorine which is toxic to livestock.
The maxium
fluorine permissible is one part of fluorine to each 100 parts phos pho'us.
As a result, rock phosphate and phosphate fertilizers are
unsuitable for livestock.
However, with proper treatment, inorganic
sources of phosphorus may be safely used as mineral supplements for livestock. The most feasible plan for supplying feed phosphate and calcium in Brazil at the present time appears to be the local production of defluorinated tricalcium phosphate.
This material can be produced
from normal superphosphate by a simple calcination step. Considerable hard currency savings can be effected by local production of this material over the importation of dicalcium phosphate or other higher analysis or more sophisticated materials.
The process
is easily operated, the product has been proven to be an excellent source of phosphorus and calcium for animals, and the equipment ,enui.'ed can be manufactured in Brazil.
-350-
Typical product specifications for this material, as currently manufactured in the U.S. are as follows: Description: The American Feed Control Officials have officially defined Defluorinated Phosphate as follows:
"Defluorinated Phosphate includes
other calcined, fused or precipitated calcium phosphate.
It shall
contain not more than one part of fluorine (F) to 100 parts of phosphorus The maximum percentage of fluorine (F) shall be stated on the
(P). label.
The term "Defluorinated" shall not be used as a part of the
name of any product containing more than one part of fluorine (F) to 100 parts of phosphorus (P). Guaranteed Analysis: Calcium, not more than Calcium, not less than Phosphorus, not less than Fluorine, not more than Moisture, less than
Percent 36.00 30.00 14.00 00.14 00. 20
Physical Character: Average Weight per Cubic Foot, Approximately 67 pounds. Mesh Size Through 20 mesh Through 100 mesh
Percent 98 44
-351-
Typical Analysis:
Percent
Phosphorus Phosphoric Acid Calcium (Ca)
14.0
30.0 32. 0
Calcium Oxide
44.5
Fluorine (F) Manganese (Mn)
.10-. 12 .016
Magnesium (Mg)
.16
Iron (Fe) Aluminum (Al) Carbon Dioxide (COZ)
. 70 . 70 4.66
Sulfur (S) Silica Dioxide (Sio 2 )
3.25 4.89
Note: The analysis of trace elements are approximate only and are subject to variation. Processing: The process requires standard equipment and can be easily operated.
A process flowsheet for the manufacture of defluorinated
superphosphate is shown in Figure 57.
Cured, normal. superphosphate
is fed to a surge hopper with a controlled rate feeder, from the feeder it goes to a counter current rotary kiln by means of a water-cooled feed pipe.
The kiln is operated to provide a product temperature of
2300-24000 F.
The kiln product is quenched with water and conveyed
to a storage pile.
The gases from the kiln are scrubbed with water
and discarded. Depending upon the grade of normal superphosphate utilized, lime stone can be used to lower the grade to 14 percent phosphorus by blend ing.
The material is then ground to minus 20 mesh and either shipped
agri'.
Fue der A
Nomlwate Supe rphosphate
r cooled feed pipe
Spray
Water
Rotary Kiln
,
C~rush-Grind and Ship Calcine Storage
Figure 57.
Fel
Process flowsheet for the manufacture of defluorinated superphosphate
-353 in bags or bulk. A typical cost estimate for a plant designed for 18, 000 TPY of 14 percent P product follows: Cost-US$
HP Required
10, 000 Bucket elevator 40' x 40 TPH Z, 000 Weigh hopper, 2 tons, auto batch Belt conveyor 150' x 40 TPH Z5, 000 8,000 Feed bin, 32 ton, with feeder 7' x 90' kiln, fire box, feed, 200,000 pipe, scrubber and stack Quench and conveyor to 15, 000 storage 150' x 5 TPH 15, 000 Payloader, feed + product 70, 000 Shipping mill 40, 000 Structures 36, 000 Electrical 240 HP
7.5 .5 5 10 150 10 50
$411,000
Engineering + Contingencies at 30 percent TOTAL
124, 000 $535, 000
The estimate above is based on the assumption that the feed plant is made a part of an existing superphosphate plant and that sufficient land, utilities, tracts etc. are available. An operating cost estimate for Brazil in the state of Sao Paulo, for March, 1964 follows for a plant to produce 18, 000 TPY: $ 835, 304 NSP at 20%, 1. 74T at 26. 67/ton Fuel, 8 M 2 BUT/ton (53 gpt) at $0. 072/gal 68,688 12, 600 Power, 10 KWH/ton at $. 007/KWH 53, 500 Amortization $535, 000 at 10 yrs 37,450 Maintenance at 71o 10, 700 Insurance + taxes at 2% Operating labor, 2 men/shift, 13,000 4 shifts plus 5 men 1 shift - 13 men at $1, 000/yr 13, 000 Fringe and social benefits at 100% of operating labor 26, 000 Plant overhead at 100%6 of OL and F 18, 000 Supplies at $1 per ton 72, 000 Bags at $4 per ton 1I,-160, 4Z YEARLY TOTAL
-354Cost per ton - $64. 46 per At the rate of exchange of 1400 cruzeiros, this is Cr$ 90, 244 ton. the The foreign currency savings possible can be estimated from following: Per ton of defluorinated phosphate
1. 04Z T Rock at $19/ton 0. 217 T Sulfur at $Z8/ton
$19.80 6.09
$z5. 89
Vs $67. 18/ton of imported 18. 5 percent P dical or $50. 84 per ton of 14 percent P equivalent. If phosphate rock and sulfur are both imported, the foreign exchange savings for an 18, 000 TPY plant would be: 18, 000 x ($50. 84 - Z5. 89) = $449, 100.
If domestic phosphate rock were used instead of imported rock and only sulfur were imported, the foreign exchange savings would be: 18, 000 x (50. 84 - 6. 09) - $805, 500.
The above figures, on the basis of one ton of feed phosphorus are: Foreign Exchange Savings
Imported rock and sulfur Domestic rock, imported sulfur
$178. Z $319.64
Based on an estimated 1970 livestock market demand for 42, 000 tons of phosphorus and 61, 000 tons of calcium, it would require 17 such
-355 plants to meet this requirement at a total investment cost of $9, 095, 000. Should it be assumed that at least half of the phosphorus and calcium requirements for livestock would be furnished from steamed bone meal., then this required investment would be reduced proportionately. It is recommended that encouragement be given to the installation of at least one plant for the manufacture of defluorinated tricalcium phosphate for use as a mineral supplement for livestock.
Trace Minerals Trace minerals such as manganese,
zinc, iron, copper, iodine
and cobalt are required for proper mineral balance in livestock rations. Although the amounts of such trace minerals required are extremely small, deficiencies can result in severe nutritional difficulties leading to loss of weight and other physiological difficulties for animals so affected.
Where livestock or poultry are receiving rations which are
adequate in other respects but where evidences of nutritional deficiency persist, consideration should be given to the feeding of trace mineral mixtures.
Symptoms of trace mineral deficiencies are often apparent
and recovery following the provision of trace minerals is usually spectacular.
It is recommended that trace mineral mixtures be provided
only where evidences of such deficiencies are indicated.
In most
instances, the most practicable procedure would be to feed a
-356 commercia]ly-prepared trace mineral premix, either mixed with feeds fed or with other mineral supplements. An example of a trace mineral deficiency has been noted in Ceara where a disease called I' mal do fastio" (lack of appetite) in cattle occurs in the sugar plantation area of the Serra da Ibiapaba.
A study
was made of this problem by the Institute of Animal Biology, Rio de Janeiro1 .
The research showed that the disease affected only cattle
kept in the area for long periods.
The symptoms of the disease were
lack of appetite, progressive loss of weight, anemia, rough hair coat, hard bowels and finally death.
Cattle taken from the area recovered.
Post-mortem findings showed very low liver cobalt values. Although the authors could not perform cobalt feeding tests on the sick animals,
they believe that the "real do fastio" is in reality a nutritional cobalt
deficiency and could easily be cured through feeding traces of cobalt to the cattle in the region. Different types of trace mineral mixes are needed for different species of livestock and poultry.
Hoowever, two generalized trace
mineral mixes used in the United States will serve all classes of live Tokarma, Carlos H, Jurgen Dobereiner, Camillo F. C. Canella, and Maria Normelia R. Damaso, "Cobalt Deficiency in Cattle in Serra da Ibiapaba", National Research Council, Pathological Division, Institute of Animal Biology, Rio de Janeiro.
-357 stock and poultry. Mix "A" is formulated to provide the six trace elements most often found deficient in rations of cattle and sheep. used in maintenance rations for mature swine.
It may also be
The ingredients of
mix "A" are: manganous oxide, ferrous carbonate, copper oxide, zinc oxide, calcium iodate, cobalt oxide, and calcium carbonate, with a trace mineral content as follows: Manganese
-
Iron
-
Copper Zinc Iodine Cobalt
-
6.00%6 3.00%
0.55%6 0. 50%6 0. 33%6 0. 30%
Mix "B" is formulated to provide trace minerals required by The ingredients are the same as mix "A" but the
swine and poultry. formulation differs.
The trace mineral content for mix "B" is as
follows: Manganese Zinc Iron Copper Iodine Cobalt
-
-
9.00% 8.00%o 3.00%o 0.55% 0.190
0.100
Trace mineral premixes may be mixed with other mineral supple ments, with protein supplements or with complete prepared rations. Only very small amounts of such a premix are required.
Such mixtures
are commercially prepared and should be used in accordance with the
-358 directions of the manufacturer.
Livestock Mineral Feeders With the exception of livestock fed prepared rations and poultry, the simplest method of feeding mineral supplements is by allowing animals "free choice" access to such minerals in a properly-designed mineral feeder.
Such feeders can be cheaply constructed but should
(1) make the minerals easily accessible to the livestock and (2) protect the minerals against loss from rain or wind. Loose salt, mixed with the phosphorus -calcium supplement is probably the most practical form of mineral supplement for Brazilian livestock.
Salt blocks or other mineral blocks offer added convenience
under some conditions, but equipment for the manufacture of such blocks is expensive and not generally available in Brazil. Illustrations of simple mineral feeders for cattle are shown in figures 58 and 59.
Economic Value of Livestock Minerals No adequate basis exists for appraising the expansion in livestock production which could result from increased feeding of minerals to livestock in Brazil.
However, it could reasonably be assumed that more
-359-
L
~
Fiue5.Asmpehm-aemiea
,f~.
-1A
J
-~
edr
Implement wheel Concrete fill
0
,PNN
-.
m
55 gallon drum
ra 23. diameter
._____...
-
Plug all openings in top of drsum.
These must be
watertight.
-
PLAN
VIEW
bottom edge of vane RCoill
b
for stiffening and to reduce -"
of injul
:"chance ----
""318
3/8"' bolts
16 to 20 gage sheet metal
Two/3/16"a
"ne
1/2.
f
steel strops
,
12 7.
1/2" steel strap 3/16"Y 40",long
/
inside drum
55 gallon df.i.'r. -
PFRSPELTIVE
2-
3/8" bcIts with washers
VIEW
I
m Three 3/16"xl 1/2'x6 steel straps bolted to drum
oeuaXG
20
"
I g
The feeder drum swvivels on an old
-
_
j
welded to wheel rim
For proper operation, the feeder sho.ld
elded to the hub of unit which is implhmnl wecl or anchored into
b, set on a 1-e I surface.
Rlunt h- outside with aluminum paint or other rust -preventing coating.
- the concrete fill
251"
Coat inside of drum with asphalt paint.
APPO,. Old implement
lwhel about 28" dia.
filled with concrete
SIDE
NOTE:
automobile front wheel and axle
Remove"burrs trom eicies of opening cut i drum.
ELEVATION FIGURE 59. Plans for a Homemade Weathervane Mineral Feeder for Cattle
Source:
Kansas Agricultural Extension Service
-361 adequate use of livestock minerals could easily result in at least a 10 percent increase in the production of livestock and poultry and their products in Brazil.
The value of production of meats, poultry,
milk, eggs and wool in Brazil in 1962 was approximately Cr$600 billion and 10 percent of this value would be Cr$60 billion.
If all of these
livestock and poultry had been supplied with minerals, under the assump tions of this report, and assuming that the phosphorus and calcium
requirements of poultry and swine are being met through packing house products fed, the total cost of such supplemental mineral requirements would have been approximately Cr$35 billion, pricing stock salt at Cr$ZO per kilogram and bone meal at Cr$15 per kilogram. Thus, an increase in production of livestock and livestock products of but 5.8 percent would have offset the cost of livestock minerals in 1962. With increased commercial production ci livestock minerals, it is probable that unit costs of such minerals could be subs "antially reduced with a resultant increase in returns from the use of minerals for livestock.
Examples of Returns from Feeding Minerals to Livestock There has been no research done in Brazil which relates to the results obtained from feeding minerals to livestock or poultry.
However,
work done in the United States serves to illustrate the gains possible.
-36z-
It is assumed that most livestock in Brazil would benefit through access to mineral supplements. Dairy Cattle Work on dairy cattle in Florida1 compared milk production of dairy cattle on calcium deficient rations with cattle on adequate rations. Over a total of 218 lactations, the low-calcium group averaged 4, 856 pounds of milk per year compared to 7, 084 pounds of milk per year for the group fed steamed bone meal and salt in amoants to insure adequate mineral balance in rations fed.
Figure 60 shows average
daily milk production of cows in this experiment. Another experiment at Cornell University, relating to the value of salt in the rations of dairy cattle produced the following results: Salt fed per day 0 15 grams 60 grams
Annual milk production 7, Z50 lbs. 11, 265 lbs. 11, 550 lbs.
Beef Cattle Experiments at Kansas State University on salt showed that in three trials, beef calves wintered on roughage and a small amount of protein supplemen'
with no salt provided, gained an average of 40 pounds per
Becker, R.B., P.T. Dix Arnold, W. G. Kirk, George K. Davis and R. W. Kidder, "Minerals for Dairy and Beef Cattle", Florida Agri cultural Experiment Station Bulletin 513R, 1957.
-363-
The upper curve is the average of 73 lactations on rations adequate in calcium.
r 28
The lower curve is the average of Z18
-lactations
on low-calcium rations.
z'4
j20. 16 l2
8
4
40
80
120 160 200 240 280 Days in milk
320
360 400
Figure 60. Average daily milk yields of Jersey cows in the Florida Station dairy herd before and during the use of steamed bone meal as a supplement to low-calcium rations. Lactations were computed to a uniform mature age basis for comparison. Source: Becker,R.B., P.T.Dix Arnold, W.G.Kirk, George K. Davis and R.W.Kidder. "Minerals for Dairy and Beef Cattle," Bulletin 513R, University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 10.
a=~i~
-364 head less than did others receiving salt.
The addition of salt increased
the digestibility of the ration and produced much cheaper gains. Similar research at Kansas State University with feeding calcium supplements showed that the calves fed the calcium supplement had stronger bones, required less feed for 100 pounds of gain, and yielded better carcasses than did those which were on calcium-deficient rations. Experiments on the King Ranch, in Texas, showed benefits from providing phosphorus supplements to beef cows in an area where natural feed is low in phosphorus.
Cows supplied with phosphorus
supplements averaged nearly Z00 pounds heavier, had a higher calving rate, and produced heavier calves at weaning than did cows which received no phosphorus supplement.
Work at New Mexico State
University prod aced comparable results. Swine The value of salt in swine rations has been illustrated by research at the Indiana and Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Stations.
In two
Indiana experiments, pigs made an average daily gain of but 0. 86 pound, and required 5. 62 pounds of feed per pound of gain when fed a ration of yellow corn, soybean oil meal, and a mineral mixture containing no salt.
Other pigs, supplied with salt in addition gained 1. 61 pounds per
day and needed only 3. 63 pounds of feed per pound of gain.
The results
at Wisconsin were similar but the differences weren't as great.
-365-
Summary Review of this experimental evidence points up the substantial gains which result when minerals are added to rations deficient in mineral nutrients.
Because of the mineral deficiencies which exist
in the soils of Brazil, because of the relatively small amount of grain fed to cattle, because of the lack of legumes in pastures and forage crops, and because of the general low level of animal husbandry practices throughout most of Brazil, it is realistic to assume that feeding -of mineral supplements to livestock and poultry would: 1.
Increase rates of reproduction
Z. Increase gains or production per unit of feed fed 3.
Reduce death losses
4.
Increase resistance to disease
5.
Increase the profitability rf livestock production.
Brazil appears to have a great potential for expanded production of livestock and poultry.
A first step in improving the productivity of
its animal agriculture should be the encouragement of the adequate use of mineral supplements.
aqgirj
-366-
IMPACT OF EXPANDED MANUFACTURE
AND USE OF AGRICULTURAL MINERALS
Expansion of the manufacture and use of agricultural minerals in Brazil will have a three-dimensional effect on the economy of Brazil. Agricultural production will be increased for both domestic and export sales, and dependence on imports of agricultural minerals and agri cultural products will be decreased.
Further, these developments are
interrelated and complimentary in their effects. Increased agricultural production
for domestic use
Increased
Brazilian
production and use of
agricultural minerals
Decreased dependence on imports of agricultural minerals and agricultural products
Increased agricultural production for export sale
As a result, the following improvements in the Brazilian economy would occur: 1. 2.
Net farm incomes would risc, with coincident benefits to local and national business activity. Increased agricultural production would mean more abundant supplies of agricultural production for domestic consumption.
-367 3.
4.
5.
Supplies of agricultural products available for export would be increased, with attendant gains in foreign exchange so badly needed in Brazil. Imports of agricultural minerals and agricultural products would be reduced, with resultant savings in expenditures of foreign exchange. Expansion of the manufacture of agricultural minerals would mean increased investments, employment and profits in this industry with related multiplier effects on economic conditions throughout the economy.
Value of Gains It is impracticable to attempt to specify in exact, quantitative terms, the total impact of the increased manufacture and use of agricultural minerals in Brazil.
Uncertainty regarding the rate of incr, ).se in
manufacture and use, and uncertainty regarding governmental manage ment of foreign exchange and export-import programs, would make such calculations purely conjectural. However, in order to estimate the possible impact on the Brazilian economy of increased manufacturing and use of fertilizer three factors were considered: (1) estimated value added to the Brazilian economy from the increased production resulting from the use of fertilizers, (2) savings in foreign exchange due to decreased imports of fertilizers and agricul tural products, and (3) value of possible increases in exports of agricultural products.
Because of the lack of farm management data and information, the estimated value added to the economy from the use of fertilizers was based on the data presented in the fertilizer-crop yield response section of
agri'
-368 Using the data developed in that section, an average gross
this report.
and net return per kilogram of N, P, and K used in the experiments was computed.
This procedure resulted in average gross returns per kilo
gram of N, Cr$654, P 2 0
5
, Cr$671 and KzO, Cr$893 and average net
returns per kilogram of N, Cr$42, P205, Cr$480 and K 2 0, Cr$768. These figures were than applied to the amount of fertilizers used in 1963 and to the expected increases in fertilizer use by 1970 for both the linear and curvilinear projections.
The results of this computation
are shown in table 80. The figures presented in this table are considered to be reasonable estimates.
However, they may be a little higher than the actual con
tribution made to the economy by fertilizer because the amount of fertilizer used per hectare by farmers is probably less than the average volume used in the experimental plots. Assuming that the returns from fertilizer are such as experimental data would indicate, the total contribution made to the economy from the use of fertilizer by 1970, based on the curvilinear projection, could be U.S. $307.1 million.
Farmers, under these conditions, could expect,
on the average, two dollars in gross returns for every dollar invested in fertilizer. The average net return per kilogram of nitrogen of Cr$42 would indicate that the use of nitrogen is not profitable. are probably considerably higher.
However, returns
If the cheapest source of nitrogen
-369Table 80.
Estimated value added to the Brazilian economy from use of fertilizer
Estimated value added to economy from fertilizer in 1963
Estimated increase in value added by 1970 (linear projection 2 of consumption)
Estimated increase in value added by 1970 (curvilinear projection 3 of consumption)
(million U.S. $)
(million U.S.$)
(million U.S.$)
Value added to gross national income Less cost of imported fertilizer Net return to national income Less cost of manufacturing, transportation, etc. Net return to agriculture
178.9
24.04
69.7
128.2
2.95
5.95
154.9
66.8
122. 3
40.5
22.3
49.4
114.4
44.5
72.9
1 Cruzeiro values converted to dollars using exchange rate of Cr$l, 200 per dollar. 2 This is the increase in consumption that could be expected if the annual increase in consumption from 1950-63 continues at a linear rate (figure 32, page 66). This is the increase in consumption that could be expected if the annual increase in consumption from 1950-63 continues at the same percentage rate (figure 33, page 66). Estimated cost of total fertilizer imports for 1963. 5
Estimated cost of imported K 2 0 at U.S. $82.85 per ton of K 0. 2 consumption of N and P 2 0 5 will be manufactured in Brazil.
Assuming that total
-370 available in Brazil, ammonium sulfate, had been used in all the nitrogen experiments, and the yield responses had been the same, the net return per kilogram of N used would have been almost Cr$400 or nine to ten times greater.
The net return from the use of nitrogen
relative to the cost of nitrogen is probably just as large as it is for phosphate or potassium when economical sources of N are used. Although the amount of agricultural limestone used in Brazil is still relatively small, with an estimated 250, 000 tons used in 1963, the potential returns from its use appear to be good.
The estimated
grois and net returns per hectare from the use of limestone, based on experimental results, are Cr$36,900 and Cr$24,500 respectively from an average application of 5, 000 kilograms. Assuming the same average returns under actual farming conditions the total gross return from the use of limestone in 1963 would have been approximately one million dollars.
If increases in the use of agricultural
limestone develop as suggested in the limestone section of this report so that by 1975 consumption is in the area of 3.75 million tons the value added to the economy could be over U.S. $15 million assuming present day price relationships. One of the most immediate effects of a self sufficient fertilizer industry in Brazil would be a substantial saving in foreign exchange requirements.
It is estimated that in 1963 Brazil spent over U.S. $19
million in foreign currencies for the importation of nitrogen and
-371 phosphate used as fertilizer.
Assuming 1963 prices, the same
percentage of imports and an increase in consumption equal to the 1950-63 linear rate,Brazil, by 1970 would be spending over U.S. $27 million in foreign exchange annually for nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers alone.
If fertilizer consumption increases at a faster rate foreign ex
change expenditures by 1970 could exceed U.S. $33 million annually. Since it appears possible to meet Brazilian requirements for both N and P205 from projected national production by 1970, savings in foreign exchange could amount to $Z7 million to $33 million annually. The above figures represent nitrogen and phosphate imports only. Potassium and sulfur have not been included because the total potassium and sulfur for the manufacture of fertilizers in Brazil will have to be imported for some years in the future unless a major technical break through develops. Brazil imported 2. Z million tons of wheat and wheat flour in 1962, valued at U.S. $161.6 million.
Only 9-10 percent of the total volume
of wheat imported involved commercial transactions.
The remainder
represents P.L. 480 and other non-commercial transactions.
In order
to offset the commercial transactions to save foreign exchange Brazil would have to increase total production of wheat by about 220,000 tons. Based on fertilizer response data for wheat it appears that the increase could be accomplished by applying about 60 kilograms of N, P and K per
-37Z hectare to about one-fourth of the hectares planted in 1962.
Asu5uming
a price for wheat equal to that of March 1964, the added gross income to Brazilian wheat farmers could be in the neighborhood of Cr$15. 7 billion.
The savings in foreign exchange would be approximately U.S.
$16. 1 million.
Sixteen million dollars represents 80 percent of the
estimated amount needed to increase the production of nitrogen in Brazil to 91,000 tons of N. Agricultural products accounted for 80. 4 percent of the total dollar value of Brazilian exports in 1962.
Coffee is by far the most important
export commodity but cotton, sugar, cocoa and corn are also important. Because of the world supply of coffee and cotton; sugar, corn, cocoa and rice appear to have the greatest potential as foreign exchange earners. Sugar, because of the high price it presently commands, offers the greatest export possibility.
A ten percent increase in sugar exports
would yield U.S. $3.8 million in foreign exchange.
To achieve this
increase in sugar exports approximately 440, 000 tons of increased cane production would be needed.
The section of this report dealing
with fertilizer-crop respcnse indicates that a 40 ton per hectare increase in yield can be expected from an application of 75 kilograms of N, 75 kilograms of P 2 0
5
and 50 kilograms of K 2 0 per hectare.
This means
that 11,000 hectares, or less than two percent of the 1962 sugar cane lands, would have to be fertilized at the above rate to affect a 10 percent
-375 this report is based on present-day prices and price relationships, it is felt, based on the increases in production and use of agricultural minerals that can reasonably be expected in the next five to ten years, and the ever expanding need for food by both man and animals in Brazil and the world, that the estimates are reasonable. The total effect of increased agricultural production from the use of fertilizers, limestone and livestock minerals is outlined in table 81.
-376-
Table 81. Estimated total value added to the Brazilian economy from increased use of fertilizers, limestone and livestock minerals, 1970 Source of value added
Amount (million U. S. $)
Fertilizers Estimated value added to the Brazilian economy by 1970 from fertilizers if use increases at a $307.1 curvilinear rate Estimated annual savings by 1970 in foreign exchange if all N and P 2 0 5 is manufactured in Brazil
33.0
Less estimated annual cost of K 2 0 imported by 1970
13.2
Estimated net return to Brazilian economy by 1970 from fertilizer usage
326.9
Limestone Estimated value added to Brazilian economy by 1970 from a 25 percent annual increase in limestone usage
10.5
Livestock Minerals Estimated value added to Brazilian economy from 10 percent increase in livestock and poultry production due to minerals
50.0
Total value added from all agricultural minerals
$ 387.4
1
This figure does not allow for imports of sulfur needed to manufacture normal super-phosphate.
-377-
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A PROGRAM FOR THE INCREASED
MANUFACTURE AND USE OF AGRICULTURAL MINERALS
IN BRAZIL
Expansion of the manufacture and use of agricultural minerals in Brazil must proceed in a coordinated pattern to produce the greatest economic gains.
Five basic areas of development must be considered.
These are: 1.
Development of basic materials sources
2.
Improvement and expansion of processing and distribution facilities
3.
Research, education, agricultural extension activities
4.
Market development and promotion
5.
Credit
A combined program which provides for appropriate and simul taneous progress in each of these areas would have the greatest chance for overall success in accomplishing the desired goals.
Certain phases
of such a program could be advanced through actions by federal and state governments,
some could provide the basis for cooperative
efforts between government and private industry, and other phases could best be achieved by private industry alone.
Throughout the
development of the agricultural minerals industry, primary emphasis should be given to private industry.
-378-
Development of Basic Materials Sources
Nitrogen - Important natural deposits of nitrogen fertilizers, such as those existing in Chile, are not found in Brazil.
As a result, Brazil
must depend on the production of synthetic ammonia for its nitrogen supplies. Nitrogen production in Brazil will be largely based on natural gas, such as that found in Bahia, and on by-products of the petroleum refining industry, presently chiefly associated with Petrobras install ation at Cabatao. A smaller, but useful, source of nitrogen fertilizers is derived from ammonium sulphate produced as a by-product of the steel industry.
Another possibility is the recovery of ammonia from the
distillation of coal. The major development, in terms of nitrogen fertilizers, in Brazil, will come from processing natural gas and petroleum refinery by-products. Continuous appraisal of exploration for petroleum and natural gas should be made.
Particular attention should be given to the
quality, acbessability, and cost of natural gas, and to the system of feeder lines necessary for assembling such gas for processing into ammonia.
Developments in the oil refining and steel industries
-379 should be closely followed in terms of by-product availability for the manufacture of nitrogen fertilizer. Phosphate - Although phosphate is more generally available than other agricultural minerals in Brazil, an expanded and systematic program of mineral exploration should be established by the Government of Brazil and by private industry.
Drill cores from
oil explorations should be made available for appraisal. In viek of the transportation problems which exist in Brazil, local sources of phosphate fertilizers become of strategic importance. Particular attention should be given to the location of possible phosphate deposits in developing agricultural areas. A systematic study of known phosphate deposits in Brazil should be undertaken.
Appraisal of the tonnage of reserves, the availability
of deposits from a mining standpoint, mineral analyses, and other measures of usefulness should be made. Potash - Brazil has no known deposits of potassium minerals of importance.
However, this should not be accepted as a foregone
conclusion.
Exploration for potash deposits should be continued.
Consideration should be given by the Government of Brazil to the offering of a substantial reward for the discovery of commercially important deposits of potash.
With such a proposal, little cost would
be incurred unless a deposit of potash were found.
This scheme was
used in the United States to encourage the exploration for uranium.
-380-
Active consideration and research should continue to be given to other possibilities for the recovery of potassium materials from such sources as sea water, feldspar, carnallite, leucite, and other potassium bearing minerals.
The greatest probability of success apparently is in
the recovery of potash from sea water, although even in this case an economically feasible process from the standpoint of fertilizer usage is not yet available. Imports of potash will continue to be the most important source of potassium minerals.
Efforts should be made to determine the least
cost sources of such materials for the Brazilian fertilizer industry. Limestone - Although limestone is reported as generally available throughout eastern Brazil, little is known concerning deposits in other parts of the country.
A beginning should be made to survey the newly
developing agricultural areas for available limestone deposits. More detailed information is needed on existing limestone deposits. Information regarding the type of limestone (calcitic or dolomitic), its hardness, its availability from the standpoint of agricultural areas, the amount of overburden, moisture content, and thickness of the limestone ledge would be useful. Livestock Minerals No serious problems exist relative to the availability of sources of basic livestock minerals materials.
-381
-
Improvement and Expansion of Processing and Distribution Facilities
There are, in existence, a large number of plans for the improve ment and expansion of processing and distribution facilities for fertilizers. Appendix A.
Information on these planned projects is given in Little information is available on plans for expansion
of limestone crushing capacity or plans for expansion of processing of livestock minerals. In general, the agricultural minerals industry in Brazil is in the hands of intelligent, technically competent, and commercially aggressive men.
Given an effective demand on the part of farmers
and given adequate credit, the industry is capable of bringing about the needed expansion through private, commercial channels. If direct, governmental action is required, it should be restricted to the production or importation of basic materials.
Insofar as
possible, further processing and distribution operations should be carried out by private industry.
Instances exist in Brazil of
established, state or federal owned or controlled industries processing fertilizers or fertilizer materials.
CAMIG (Compania Agricultural
Minas Gerais), a state-owned and state-operated company controls the phosphate deposits at Araxa.
The petroleum industry, and
-382 related nitrogen production, is controlled by Petrobras.
Where
these governmental corporations are established and where they control mineral deposits, they must be reckoned with and efforts must be made to insure competent management.
However, emphasis
should be given, in such governmental corporations, to production of basic fertilizer materials rather than further processing and retail distribution.
Nitrogen Immediate encouragement should be given to the expansion of
nitrogen processing capacity.
It is anticipated that the demand for
nitrogen fertilizers will increase at a more rapid rate than will the demand for phosphate or potash.
As a consequence, the Brazilian
fertilizer industry must begin now to develop the nitrogen capacity necessary to meet this expanded demand. A minimum Brazilian consumption of 91, 000 metric tons of nitrogen is projected for 1970 and a more progressive goal would
result in 1970 consumption of 140,000 tons.
During 1963, Brazilian
production of nitrogen fertilizers amounted to 13,400 tons.
Thus to
reach the minimum 1970 goal, entirely from national production, annual nitrogen capacity would have to be expanded by 77, 600 tons of nitrogen and to meet the 140, 000-ton goal production would have to be expanded by 126,600 tons.
-383-
Neither of these goals is impossible.
Expansion by 77, 600 tons
of nitrogen could be met by the construction of a 200 ton-per-day NH 3 plant (57,000 tons N), remodeling the Petrobras Cubatao installation at Capuava to bring it up to its full capacity of 25, 000 TPY of NH 3 (20,500 tons N), plus anticipated expansion in nitrogen production by the steel industry. The 140, 000-ton goal would require the construction of two Z00-ton-per-day NH 3 plants, one in Bahia to run on natural gas and the other at Capuava to operate on raw material from the Petrobras refinery.
In addition the Petrobras Cubatao operation should be
brought to full capacity and expansion of ammonium sulfate production by the steel industry should be encouraged. The approximate cost of plant-construction to meet the 91, 000 ton nitrogen goal would be $19, 000, 000 and the cost to meet the 140, 000-ton nitrogen goal would be $3, 000, 000. Although economies of scale in nitrogen production are such that a 600- or even a 900-ton-per-day plant could be recommended with further savings in cost per ton of nitrogen produced, the regionalized demand for nitrogen plus transportation difficulties make the construc tion of such a "giant" plant in Brazil questionable under present conditions. Brazil should start now with a program to promote the direct application of anhydrous or aqua ammonia as these materials, so
-384 applied, appear to represent the most economical source of nitrogen for Brazilian agriculture. Although initial use of such forms of nitrogen will be limited primarily to large, mechanized farms, agricultural cooperatives, or in situations where organizations such as sugar companies can provide the application service, a start should be made, providing a custom application service, looking toward the time when anhydrous or aqua ammonia will be more widely used. Ammonia can be made available locally from the Petrobras Cubatao plant or imported through the facilities of Ultragaz.
It is
recommended that five stations for the direct application of liquid nitrogen be established in the State of Sao Paulo.
Each station
would include the necessary storage facility, nurse tanks and simple pull-type applicators.
The total cost of these five stations would be
approximately $275, 000.
Phosphate Brazil can, and should, become self-sufficient in terms of phosphate processing capacity.
However, during 196Z and 1963
Brazil imported over half of the PZ0
5
used at a foreign exchange
cost of over $6,000,000. Based on projections of current consumption and on a projected rate of increase in P 2 0
5
consumption equal to that existing in the
-385-
United States 1942-1962, Brazil would require from 190, 000 to 200,000 tons of P205 per year by 1970.
This amount could, and
should, be produced from locally available phosphate.
To meet
these requirements by 1970 will require that Brazilian production of phosphate fertilizers be increased by 200 percent over 1962. This level of production of P 2 0
5
could be achieved by 1970 on
the basis of well-developed plans already in existence. estimated that 208, 000 tons per year of P 2 0
5
It is
from rock phosphate
produced at Olinda, Araxa and Jacupiranga could be available by 1970.
Other smaller operations would add further to this level of
production. On the basis of present plans as indicated on page 161 of this report, it would be possible to produce 190, 000 to 200, 000 tons of soluble P205 by 1970.
Estimated cost of plant expansion, over
capacity existing in 1963, with sufficient volume to meet these goals would be approximately $16,000,000 to $20, 000, 000. The major deposits at Olinda, Araxa and Jacipuranga should all be developed to their full, annual potential consistent with market demands for P205. Fosforita Olinda has a well-designed and maintained processing plant with a capacity of at least 200,000 tons per year of products. This existing plant is fully capable of processing the amount of phosphate proposed as originating in this area.
The major hAndicap
-386 has been lack of demand in the Northeast and high freight and port costs involved in moving the product to the South.
The inequity in
the foreign exchange rate which penalized Olinda has been removed. The CAMIG operation at Araxa in Minas Gerais has a well developed plan for the production of thermophosphate.
The plan
calls for the manufacture of 50,000 tons per year of thermophosphate in each of three units to be installed in successive years.
This
project is apparently well-conceived, the process is technically sound and thermophosphate would be a good source of P 2 0 CAMIG is seeking AID financing for this plan.
5
in Brazil.
It is recommended
that the necessary financing be made available to CAMIG for the installation of at least the first processing unit of 50, 000 tons per year, and that financing of subsequent units be contingent upon the results obtained from the initial installation. Almost 90 percent of the fertilizer consumed in Brazil is used in the Southern Region which includes Sao Paulo, Santa Catarina, Parana and Rio Grande do Sul. is at Jacipuranga.
The principal deposit in this area
Quimbrasil has been carrying out extensive
studies of beneficiation of the large, underlying deposit of low-grade carbonatite-apatite.
The process appears successful and if a full
scale pilot plant program proves practicable, a phosphate rock concentration plant with an approximate capacity of 300, 000 tons per year of rock, at 40 percent P 2 0 5 , would be built.
Total capital
-387
would be $6,000,000 to $6,500,000 of which $Z,000,000 to $3,000,000 would require foreign currency.
Although it is anticipated that such
financing would be available from private sources, it is recommended that in view of the strategic importance of this proposed plant such supplementary national or international financing as may be required be made available for the construction of the necessary processing facilities. There are a number of smaller, but feasible, plans for expanding phosphate processing facilities in Brazil. Appendix A.
These are discussed in
These must be appraised individually in light of their
technical feasibility and economic justification.
Where such projects
are determined to be economically and technically sound and where a market exists for the products planned, it is recommended that they be considered for such national and/or international financing as may be required.
Potash Due to the fact that there are no known deposits of potash in Brazil, there is little possibility of increasing primary processing of potash minerals in Brazil.
Pending the results of research relating to the
extraction of potassium from seawater or from feldspathic materials, consideration should be given to the planning for the construction of pilot plants to test the commercial processing of potassium from these basic materials.
-388-
Minor Elements In those areas where minor elements may be required, fertilizer mixers and blenders should add such equipment as may be required to insure complete and uniform blending of minor elements with mixed fertilizers sold.
Research, Education, Agricultural Extension
A major problem in expanding the use of agricultural minerals in Brazil is that of demonstrating to farmers the desirability and profit ability of using fertilizers, agricultural limestone and livestock minerals. With this goal in mind, it is recommended that a concerted effort be made to intensify and expand programs of research, education and extension relating to the use of agricultural minerals.
A coordinated
program should be developed involving the Ministry of Agriculture, State Secretaries of Agriculture, agricultural research institutes, agricultural colleges, private industry, private agricultural research institutes or foundations,
and international assistance agencies such as
the Agency for International Development.
It is recommended that the
Ministry of Agriculture and the United States Agency for International Development take the leadership in developing and sponsoring a Brazil ian conference relating to research, education and extension in -agricultural minerals.
-389-
Research
Fertilizers Although it is essential that an intensified program of research in soils, soil fertility and crop fertilization be instituted in Brazil, such a program will of necessity take five to ten years for the experimental replications necessary to produce scientifically acceptable results. However, Brazilian agriculture cannot wait for this length of time, and therefore it is imperative that the results of applicable research, conducted in other countries throughout the world, be reviewed and applied to conditions as they exist in Brazil. The value of some of the agronomic research in Brazil relating to crop response to fertilizers has been reduced through failure to adequately specify check-plot treatments, through failure to include soil tests of check-plots, and through failure to indicate amounts of fertilizers applied in the experiments. be adequately specified.
In all cases these values should
A further difficulty in interpreting the results
of such fertilizer experiments results from the fact that they usually include but one level of application.
If the research could be planned
to include a series of applications of N, P or K at incremental levels, it would become possible to specify meaningful yield response functions. Very little work has been done in Brazil relative to the economics of fertilizer use by Brazilian farmers.
Preliminary analyses as
developed by this project indicate that substantial economic returns
-390 may result to farmers from the application of fertilizers.
An expanded
program of farm management research should be developed to deter mine the indicated costs and returns associated with the application of varying amounts of fertilizers to major crops in the principal agri cultural areas of Brazil. Specific Research Suggestions Direct Application Nitrogen Intensive agronomic research on the use of direct application nitrogen should be started immediately at the important agricultural experiment stations.
The use of direct application nitrogen, particularly
anhydrous ammonia and nitrogen solutions, has a long history of effect iveness, practicality and economy in the United States. In the opinion of prominent agronomists, fertilizer manufacturers and farmers in Brazil, there are large areas of heavy soils in the country which would be suitable for the use of anhydrous ammonia. There are also many large farms which are particularly well suited for direct application of nitrogen.
In addition to the experiment stations,
several large farming enterprises should be selected for agronomic tests on the use of anhydrous ammonia, since it is the large progressive farmers who can be expected to take the lead in a sound new practice. These farmers are also better able to determine the economic potential of newer techniques than the average small farmer. Large areas of the States of Sao Paulo and Parana are reported to
-391 have suitably heavy soils for the use of anhydrous ammonia and the most advanced agricultu-ce in Brazil is also located in these areas. It is common practice in California to use aqua ammonia in irrigation water, and test work should be started in Rio Grande do Sul along these lines since NH 3 nitrogen is preferred on rice over the nitrate form. Direct Application Phosphate Rock Since the soils of Brazil are largely acid, it could be postulated that this country is better able than most to utilize finely ground phosphate rock directly as a source of plant nutrients.
There is a
considerable quantity of data available which indicates this to be true. There is also much data which indicates that the reverse is the case and that available or soluble forms of P205 are much more efficient fertilizer materials. The fertilizer manufacturers themselves are split on the use of rock as an efficient nutrient.
The largest manufacturer in the country
does not sell any rock for direct application, does not include "insoluble P205" in its formulations of mixed goods and does not recommend the use of rock directly as a fertilizer.
Most of the other manufacturers
and mixers include "insoluble PZ05" in their formulations and sell rock, finely ground, for direct application. This situation should be clarified so that proper advantage can be taken of the use of finely ground rock where and if warranted and so that useful information can be given the farmers.
It would help in
a~rd
-39Z national fertilizer planning if the value of phosphate rock, when used directly, could be put in its proper place. It is recommended that a team of competent agronomists be assembled to study the existing data from Brazil, equate it, where reasonable, with similar useful information on D.A. rock for the rest of the world, and then set up a well-designed agronomic research program to fill in the gaps in knowledge which are sure to be revealed. If a reasonable basis for the use of finely ground phosphate rock can be developed, it is possible that considerable savings to the farmer could result, since this form of P 2 0
5
can be cheaper than processed phosphate.
It would also be very useful to the country to have an outlet for low-grade ores which cannot be as economically used otherwise. The problem is where and how to use the rock.
The information
given the farmer should be based on well-conducted research. the official method of analysis for soluble P 2 0
5
Changing
in fertilizer to make
rock appear more soluble should not be a substitute for research data. About 30 percent of the PZO5 used in Brazil is represented by direct application rock, and there remains the question as to how much of this P205 is actually available. Magnesium and Sulfur A great deal of emphasis has been placed on the use of thermo phosphate (fused magnesium silicate - calcium phosphate).
Little
comparative work involving superphosphate and dolomite has been done,
-393 but work in other parts of the world indicates that similar results might be obtained by both methods and also with langbeinite and super phosphate.
Agronomic data bhould be obtained for Brazil on the
comparative results of these tombinations as one facet of a general program to obtain much morb information on the needs for Mg and S. As more nitrogen is produced in Brazil and less imported, the trend will be away from ammonium sulfate and toward other more concentrated forms of nitrogen.
There will undoubtedly be plants
constructed for the manufacture of nitrophosphates, phosphoric acid and triples uperphosphate,
all forms of Pz
0
5 without sulfur.
The
agronomic needs for sulfur should be determined well in advance of these developments so that adequate planning may be done to provide this element where necessary, either by the addition of gypsum or sulfur or perhaps staying with the production of normal superphosphate, which is still regarded as the most economical form of soluble P 2 0
5
in most parts of the world. The requirements of lime are closely bound to the magnesium requirements of the soil since one of the most common liming materials is dolomite, a mixture of magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate.
As liming of Brazilian soils increases, there will be a
need for more precise information on the soil's magnesium needs.
agi
-394Even though regarded as secondary elements, Ca, Mg and S can have severe limiting effects on yields, particularly on heavily leached soils which are quite common in Brazil. Minor Elements Since most of the soils of Brazil are highly acid and many are badly leached, there probably exists a severe minor element deficiency problem.
An exacting program to define the precise areas and
deficiencies would take a long time and a great deal of effort which would dilute the research effort required for the primary and secondary nutrients. It is suggested that a "shot-gun" approach be taken toward the problem by having a team of well-qualified agronomists, made up of both national and international personnel, recommend an all-purpose mix of minor elements for use by both fertilizer manufacturers and experiment stations.
This material would then be manufactured in
Brazil for inclusion in the regular mixed formulation for the farmer. Where known minor element deficiencies were found, the proper quantity of the element or elements should, of course, be provided in addition to the standard mix.
Such procedures are quite common in
the more advanced agricultural countries of the world, even though much more is known about the minor element deficiencies than in Brazil.
-395Agricultural Limestone A beginning has been made with respect to research relating to crop response to agricultural limestone.
In view of the general acidity
of soils in Brazil, all agronomic experiment stations should conduct research aimed at determining the immediate and residual yield response from limestone application to major crops in Brazil. Where fertilization experiments are being conducted, both check plots and experimental plots should receive adequate applications of limestone to insure that soil acidity is not a limiting factor restricting yield response on test plots. Soil Survey and Soil Testing Except for the states of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and limited areas in Rio Grande do Sul, there is little specific information regard ing the distribution of soil types and soil composition.
As rapidly as
personnel and funds permit, soil surveys should be undertaken in major agricultural areas throughout Brazil. In addition a review of accepted methods of field testing of soils should be made with the objective of developing and adopting an acceptable method of soil testing for use by research institutions, the fertilizer industry and agriculture throughout the country. Livestock Minerals for Very little research has been done relative to the requirements minerals for livestock or poultry in Brazil.
Such work should be begun.
-396-
In the meantime, experimental work should be started, using livestock mineral requirements as developed in the United States, to determine the gains in livestock and poultry production which could be made as a result of increased use of minerals.
Increases in reproductive rates,
rates of daily gain, and decreases in disease and nutritional deficiencies should be measured. Transportation Research Inadequacies in transportation constitute a major barrier to the increased manufacture and use of fertilizers and agricultural limestone in Brazil.
A similar situation exists for agricultural products.
Rail,
truck and coastal shipping are all difficult, and severe problems of congestion and inefficient operating systems exist at the major ports. If agriculture and agriculturally-related industries in Brazil are to make satisfactory progress, solutions to such transportation problems must be analyzed.
Accordingly a comprehensive, national study of the trans
portation of agricultural products and farm supplies is recommended. Credit Research Research relative to the credit needs of industry and agriculture for fertilizer is discussed in a separate section of this report, beginning on page 401.
Fertilizer Control Law (Decree 50. 146, January 27, 1961) A committee composed of representatives of the Ministry of Agri culture, the fertilizer industry, prominent farmers and at least one
-397 top agronomist should be called upon to review the subject decree.
In
the light of the economic changes which have taken place in Brazil in the last three years, the fines for poor performance and fraud are com pletely out of context with the original intention of the decree.
The
registration fee should also be increased similarly to help defray the cost of administering the control functions. While examining the decree, it might be well to revaluate the method of analysis specified for P 2 0 of 1961 and signed by F.A.
5
added to article 30 in February
iaias director of I.Q.A.
The method of
analysis appears to be unduly favorable to rock phosphate and may result in perhaps misleading the average farmer.
At least a review is
in order in the light of the latest agronomic information. The law should be reviewed -withthe intention of using it as a basis for a strong inspection program to protect both industry and the farmer. There should perhaps be included some means of financing the inspection program more nearly compatible with requirements of today's economics.
Extension-Education A major part of a program to expand the manufacture and use of agricultural minerals in Brazil must be the expansion of extension oriented activities.
Farmers must be acquainted with the use and value
of agricultural minerals if an effective demand is to be created for these materials.
-398-
Extension Agencies The associacao Brasileira de Credito e Assistencia Rural (ABCAR) is an organization, at the national level, charged for the coordination of: 1.
Rural Extension Programs
2.
Rural Supervised Credit Programs
The combined program takes to rural families, by means of educa tion, the necessary knowledge to improve farm and home practices and to change habits and attitudes as a means of attaining higher social and economic levels.
At the same time it aims to obtain credit for farm
families, based on a complete farm and home mareagement plan, and give supervision to the rational development of these plans. In December 1963 the cooperative system of extension and credit included: 1 National office located in Rio de Janeiro 15 State offices - Maranhao, Ceara, Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco, Paraiba, Sergipe, Alagoas, Bahia, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Goiaz, Parana, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. 44 Regional offices 327 Local offices - covering 469 counties Nine technicians worked in the national office, 113 in the state offices and 682 in the field, i. e., regional and local offices.
-399-
Extension activities were also carried on by other divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture, the Escritorio Tecnico de Agricultura (ETA), State Secretariats of Agriculture, The Agency for International Development, and private research institutes and foundations such as the International Research Institute (IRI) operating at Matao.
In
addition, the agricultural colleges in Brazil are a major force in the program of education and agricultural extension. Illustrative of cooperative extension programs in operation are ETA Project 66 involving ETA, AID and the Ministry of Agriculture and AID-sponsored extension programs involving State Secretariats of Agriculture, the Ministry of Agriculture and private foundations such as IRI. Such cooperative extension activities provide an excellent means of furthering extension-education with respect to the use of agricultural minerals, and should be increased. Emphasis in an intensified program of extension relating to agri cultural minerals should include the following activities: 1. Demonstration plots and demonstration fields, strategically located and plainly marked. An intensive effort should be made to work with farmer-cooperators in establishing small test plots in existing fields to demonstrate the results obtain able from fertilizer or limestone under actual production conditions on individual farms. Z. Demonstration livestock operations to illustrate gains in livestock production from the use of livestock minerals.
-400 3. Crop and livestock field days at research institutes and at other locations throughout Brazil to bring the results of research and demonstration to farmers, ranchers and others. 4.
Radio programs emphasizing benefits from the use of agri cultural minerals and giving directions for the use of such mate rials.
5.
The preparation of pamphlets, simple cartoon-type leaflets, posters, films, visual aids and other materials relating to the use and value of agricultural minerals; reproduction of such materials and their distribution to extension personnel, cooperatives and the agricultural minerals industry.
6.
Regional and national conferences relating to agricultural minerals, bringing together research personnel, extension workers, manufacturers, distributors, agricultural credit agencies, farmers and others concerned with such minerals.
Immediate emphasis must be given to such extension activities, utilizing research already done in Brazil and bringing to Brazilian agriculture and industry the results of applicable research conducted in other countries throughout the world.
Market Development and Promotion Market development and promotion activities of the agricultural minerals industry can complement and supplement the research and extension activities of federal and state agencies.
In order that the
information presented be consistent and not contradictory or confusing, close cooperation between federal and state extension efforts and market development and promotion by the agricultural minerals industry is important.
-401In addition to use of the normal advertising promotional media, industry should undertake an expanded program of field service, technical assistance and test plot demonstrations to acquaint the farmer with the use of agricultural minerals and to demonstrate the results obtainable.
A similar program undertaken by the hybrid seed
corn industry in the United States during the 19301s demonstrated the value of this type of promotional effort.
The successful accomplishment
of such an effort will require trained field service personnel.
Close
cooperation between research and extension agencies in sponsoring and conducting specialized training schools for industry field service personnel could expedite the development of the personnel necessary for such a program.
The Agency for International Development might
also be of assistance in sponsoring such training programs in Brazil. Credit A major economic factor affecting the expansion of the manufacture and use of fertilizers, agricultural limestone and livestock minerals in Brazil, is the availability and cost of credit.
Adequate and suitable
credit must be available throughout the industry, beginning with the provision of foreign exchange credits for the purchase of necessary imported raw materials and equipment, and extending all the way to the granting of production credit to individual farmers.
Regardless
of the availability of agricultural minerals, their proven economic
-402
value and farmers' interest in using such materials, unless farmers and manufacturers have the necessary capital the industry cannot expand.
Of equal importance is the education of farmers, and their lending agencies, with respect to the necessity and the profitability of borrowing for production purposes.
Both the farmer-borrower and the lending
institution must be convinced of the desirability of including money for the purchase of fertilizer, agricultural limestone or livestock minerals in production loans made to the farmer.
The initial problem is perhaps
that of education in the use of production credit, followed by education relative to the advantages of including funds for the purchase of agri cultural minerals in such loans. Existing Credit Facilities The institutions and firms necessary to extend credit to industry and agriculture already exist in Brazil.
The principal problems are
developing more efficient lending procedures and making credit more readily available to borrowers.
A brief description of major credit
sources indicates the nature of sources of financing for agriculture. Bank of Brazil, S.A. The Bank of Brazil is the financing agency of the Government and also the largest supplier of agricultural credit in the country.
The
bank has some 580 agencies and operates through the agricultural
-403 credit branch supplying credit for farmers and cooperatives.
The
industrial division of the same branch works with manufacturers.
The
general credit branch is the source of credit for dealers. In 1962, Bank of Brazil made 374 loans, amounting to Cr$877,947,000 for the specific purchase of fertilizer and soil correctives.
This sum would have financed the purchase of
approximately 34, 000 tons of commercial fertilizer. Bank of the Northeast of Brazil, S.A. This regional Bank is 70 percent government-owned. through directories and departments. makes loans directly to farmers. extends credit to cooperatives.
It operates
The Directory of Rural Credit
The Directory of Cooperative Credit The Directory of Industrial Credit
makes loans to manufacturers and a Directory of General Credit is a source of credit for dealers. Credit Bank of the Amazon This regional Bank operates in the Amazon region.
It recently
created a branch of development of production to deal primarily with rural credit.
However, the bank deals primarily with the rubber industry
in all phases of production and marketing. National Bank of Cooperative Credit This Bank has a very small volume of business although it could play an important role in developing agricultural cooperatives in Brazil.
-404Private and State Banks There is a large number of private and state banks throughout Brazil.
Although they vary greatly in their importance to agriculture,
in general they have not been important sources of production credit for agriculture. Credit from Dealers and Individuals There is little formal extension of credit from dealers and individ uals for purchase of such items as agricultural minerals.
However,
through accounts receivable and merchant credit of this type, financing is extended.
some
The cost of such credit is generally high.
Volume of Agricultural Credit from Banks The value of agricultural credit extended by the principal banks in Brazil, 1961-1963 is shown in table 82. Table 82.
Value of agricultural credit extended by the principal
banks of Brazil, 1961, 1962 and 1963 Value of agricultural credit extended
Banks
1961
196Z
1963
million cruzeiro
Bank of Brazil
Cr$106,753
Cr$189,004
Cr$229,Z96
2, 876
4,360
4,000
1,884
Z,Z85
5,311
2,152 38,8Z1 Cr$152,486
1,963 64,095 Cr$261,707
3,800 Z3,809 Cr$266,ZI6
Bank of the Northeast of
Brazil Credit Bank of the Amazon National Bank of Cooperative
Credit Others Total
Source: Bank of Brazil Reports (1961,
196Z and 1963)
-405-
Terms of Loans Interest Rates The maximum legal interest rate for agricultural credit from governmental banks is 12 percent per year which can be raised to 15 and 18 percent if fees and commissions are considered.
The Bank of
Brazil charges 6 to 7 percent per year for operational credit and 8 percent for investment loans.
This practice is generally followed by
the other official banks but not by most private banks.
Interest rates
charged by dealers and individuals can go as high as 36 to 48 percent per year. Length of Loans Agricultural financing in Brazil is generally for short and medium term periods.
About 85 percent of all agricultural credit supplied is
for operational expenses, i.e., from 6 to 24 months. Security Required Depending upon the type and length of the loans, chattel mortgages and farm mortgages can be required as collateral.
The official banks
recently have started a system to help small producers, by means of which no real guarantee is required.
Recommended Credit Program The provision of adequate and suitable credit to manufacturers and users of agricultural minerals in Brazil is essential to development of
-406 these industries.
Manufacturers must have credit to purchase raw
materials and to construct additional processing capacity.
Agricultural
producers must have production credit for the purchase of agricultural minerals.
Credit terms must be such that loans can be repaid from
expected returns. Credit for Manufacturers Manufacturers of agricultural minerals require credit for three main purposes: purchase o:i raw materials, investment in plants and equipment, and operating capital. Purchase of Raw Materials Acquisition of minerals for processing involves both domestic mineral resources and imports. is that of financing imports.
The principal problem in this area
Foreign exchange must be available in
adequate amounts and at the proper time to permit the scheduling of imports to insure that minerals will be available when needed for processing. It is recommended that the Bank of Brazil work closely with fertilizer processors to insure that foreign exchange credits are made available in the amounts and at the times needed.
In view of the
strategic importance of agricultural minerals to Brazil, sufficient priority must be given to the allocation of such exchange to make it available when required.
Close working relationships should be
-407 maintained with international financing sources such as the World Bank, the Inter-American Bank and AID.
The recent (July 22,
1964) loan
agreement developed between the Alliance for Progress and the Brazil ian Ministry of Finance, for the purchase of U.S. fertilizers, is an example of the type of international financing which can be arranged. The $15 million loan will be administered by the Bank of Brazil and the Ministry of Agriculture, through normal commercial channels, and will permit Brazilian importers to purchase AID dollars to finance the importation of U.S. fertilizer materials in addition to the current level of imports which totaled $22 million for 1963.
The cruzeiros generated
by the sale of dollars by the Bank of Brazil, will be deposited in a special fund, which will constitute a controlled source of agricultural credit, and of credit to expand the domestic fertilizer industry. Capital Investment It is anticipated that funds for capital investment in land and equipment can be obtained from private sources and/or from Brazilian national or from international financing agencies.
Each specific proposal
must, of course, be evaluated regarding its economic feasibility and its ability to repay money borrowed.
It is recommended that within the
Bank of Brazil encouragement be given to initiating loans for the manufacture of agricultural minerals and prospective borrowers be given necessary assistance in developing complete and factual loan
a r,
-408 applications, both to the Bank of Brazil and other national or inter national credit agencies. Credit for Agricultural Producers There does not appear to be a need for new credit agencies to service agriculture, except possibly for the formation of cooperative production credit associations.
Existing channels of credit have the
facilities to lend money to agriculture.
However, there is a decided
need for improvement in services and, in some cases in credit terms, to make it easier for farmers to borrow and repay. Specific recommendations to improve availability of production credit to farmers would include: 1.
Development of a program within the Bank of Brazil of prompt discounting and rediscounting of loans and accounts receivable for the purchase of agricultural minerals by farmers from a. Official or private banks b. Private or cooperative lending agencies c. Cooperatives d. Special agricultural commodity institutes e. Manufacturers and other agricultural minerals dealers. Such a system could operate much like the Federal Inter mediate Credit Bank in the United States, promptly dis counting or rediscounting agricultural paper, with established
-409 allowable interest spreads between discount rates and rates chargeable to farmer-borrowers. 2.
Official and private banks, agricultural cooperatives, commodity institutes and others should aggressively promote the borrowing of funds for purchase of agricultural minerals where the use of such minerals would be profitable to farmers. Agencies, such as ABCAR, and others associated with super vised credit should encourage farmers to borrow for purchase of agricultural minerals where such borrowing appears profitable.
3.
Within areas of specialized agricultural production (sugar, cotton, rice, etc.) consideration should be given to the providing of capital and assistance for the formation of specialized agricultural production credit associations.
4.
A comprehensive, nationwide analysis of the structure of agricultural credit in Brazil should be made in order to measure the adequacy of production credit in terms of the availability of funds, use by farmers, and the suitability of services provided.
Conclusion The adoption and implementation of a program for the expansion of the manufacture and use of agricultural minerals in Brazil will
a~ri
-410 require cooperation and coordination among and within national and state agencies, farm groups, educational and scientific organizations, international agencies, and private and cooperative business interests. Although governmental assistance and participation in such a program is necessary, investments, management and control of the manufacture and use of agricultural minerals must remain a function of private enterprise.
At the beginning of this report it was said
that Brazilian agriculture is losing its battle with time.
Increased
manufacture and use of feitilizers, agricultural limestone and livestock minerals can reverse this trend and offer a means of providing an improved standard of living for Brazil.
APPENDIX A
INFORMATION ON PLANNED PROJECTS
FOR EXPANSION OF FERTILIZER MANUFACTURE
IN BRAZIL
add,
APPENDIX A
PLANNED PROJECTS FOR EXPANSION OF
FERTILIZER MANUFACTURE
The information on planned projects for expansion of fertilizer manufacture in Brazil was developed through personal interviews with responsible officials of the firms or agencies listed during the period January through April, 1964.
It represents the status
of these planned projects at that time only.
The remarks and
status are based on the judgment of the Agri Research, Inc. team
and reflect conditions as they existed at the time the contacts were made.
A-i
Sponsor:
Companhia Siderurgica Nacional
Location:
Volta Redonda, Rio de Janeiro
Contact:
Carlos C. Castello Branco
Product:
Increase to 13, 300 TPY ammonium sulfate by 1966 and 18, 600 TPY by 1970.
Element:
2, 700 and 3, 800 TPY nitrogen
Timing:
As above, a function of steel capacity
Remarks:
Expect to expand steel capacity to 3. 5 million tons by 1970 with one-half, or 2. 5 million tons by 1966. Ammonium sulfate production will be in proportion.
Status:
Probable but small tonnage
A-Z
Sponsor:
Companhia Siderurgica Nacional
Location:
Volta Redonda, Rio de Janeiro
Contact:
P.
Product:
56,000 TPY NH 3
Element:
46,000 TPY nitrogen
Timing:
Plans just starting
Remarks:
Plans ZOO TPD 00
V. Belotti - BNDE, Rio
steel manufacture.
800 TPD N 2 . Oxygen for N z combined with H z in coke
plant gases to make NH 3 . Hydrogen available, now used as fuel, is good for 160 TPD NH 3 . ProjeCt only at very preliminary talking stage. Status:
Preliminaary pla.nning
A-3
Sponsor:
USIMINAS
Location:
Belo Horizonte
Contact:
Carlos C. Castello Branco Companhia Siderurgica Nacional
Product:
7, Z00 TPY ammonium sulfate
Element:
1, 475 TPY nitrogen
Timing:
Produced Z, 400 T ammonium sulfate in 1963
Remarks:
Production of NH 3 by USIMINAS was very low because they are just getting started, are having trouble with unavailability of cruzeiro working capital. steel.
In 1963 they produced 500, 000 tons of At the most this represents 2, 400 tons of
ammonium sulfate, or about 500 tons of nitrogen. They probthbly will not be an important factor in the near future. Status:
In production, will increase slowly
A-4
Sponsor:
COSIPA
Location:
Sao Paulo
Contact:
C. C. Castello Branco Cia. Siderurgica Nacional
Product:
Z0, 000 TPY Ammonium Sulfate
Element:
4, 500 TPY nitrogen
Timing:
Steel plant just getting under way, four years or so for full production.
Remarks:
Small tonnage of fertilizer but useful.
Status:
Just starting
A-5
Sponsor:
Petrobras
Location:
Bahia, Salvador
Contact:
Sylvio Glauco Nieto Gama Heitor Coutinho
Product:
70, 000 TPY NH 3 82, 500 TPY urea
Element:
55, 300 TPY nitrogen
Timing:
Plan operation by 1967
Remarks:
Construction of new NH 3 plant at Bahia for 200 TPD NH3,
250 TPD urea, 50 TPD excess NH 3 for others
ready by two years; operation on natural gas; contractor Foster Wheeler. Industrial consumption of NH 3 production planned at 10 percent of capacity actually now less - used mostly for refrigeration. Feel that is enough natural gas in Bahia for about 1, 000 TPD NH 3 . Status:
Uncertain at the present time, but if natural gas can be made available -- uld be economic and worthwhile.
A-6
Sponsor:
Petrobras
Location:
Capuava, Sao Paulo
Contact:
Sylvio Glauco Nieto Gama Heitor Coutinho
Product:
Increase capacity to 49, 000 TPY N't13
Element:
40, 300 TPY nitrogen
Timing:
Plan operation by 1968
Remarks:
After construction of new plant at Bahia, in two years remodel existing plant at Cubatao to 140 TPD NH 3 from 70 TPD.
The Calnitro plant to
use 115 TPD; other 25 TPD for sale as NH 3 . Status:
Probable but should be scheduled much sooner.
A-7
Sponsor:
Nitrobrasil
Location:
Jacarei, Sao Paulo
Contact:
P.V. Belotti - BNDE
Product:
35, 000 TPY NH 3 54, 500 TPY urea
Element:
Z7, 500 TPY nitrogen
Timing:
Unknown
Remarks:
Have plans for 100 TPD
NH 3 and 165 TPD urea at
Jacarei, near San Paulo on Petrobras Bunker C. oil.
Well-developed project proposal has been
approved by BNDE provided certain conditions - wouldn't say what -- are met.
This means BNDE
would put up collateral to guarantee loans obtained for purchase of foreign equipment. Financing to be by IRI (an Italian organization).
Behind the project are Mr. Capua and "STER"1, both in the construction business. Status:
Project now three years old, may or may not be pushed forward by the promoters.
A-8
Sponsor:
State of Sao Paulo, Department of Agriculture
Location:
Capuava, Sao Paulo
Contact:
Oscar Thompson filho, formerly Secretary of Agriculture, S. P., now Minister of Agriculture, and Fernando Cardoso, now Secretary of Agriculture, Sao Paulo
Product:
1, 200, 000 TPY mixed fertilizer
Element:
100, 000 TPY
N
100, 000 TPY PZ0
5
84, 500 TPY KZO Timing:
Uncertain
Remarks:
A preliminary report, primarily market-oriented, shows a near future requirement for the State of Sao Paulo for fertilizer of roughly the order of magnitude indicated foc this plant.
The estimated capital
required was given in the report at $60, 000, 000. More detailed feasibility studies are now under way and various requests for bids for construction and, separately for operation of such a plant are being studied.
The plant for mixed fertilizers is probably
too large for serious consideration at the present time and, in any event, sheer complexity will present
A-9 many road blocks.
The basic plan is to produce NH 3 ,
HNO 3 and nitrogen via the CO 2 process, using import ed or domestic rock as determined by availability. No sulfur would be required.
Products would be
process mixtures of dicalcium phosphate ammonium nitrate and potassium chloride with very low content of water-soluble P,0
5.
The plan for this plant is
now shaping up as follows: a. Montecatini has guaranteed a loan of $25, 000, 000 at a reasonable interest for ten years. b.
The State of Sao Paulo would provide $10, 000, 000.
c.
The fertilizer industry would provide $15, 000, 000 and have operational control.
d.
It is now planned to build the 300 TPD NH 3 plant but no firm plans are yet made for the additional facilities except that there is a general feeling that the original nitrofos unit was much too large.
Status:
Because of size of the whole complex, probably some time away from reality but NH 3 plant may well move ahead first.
A-1O
Sponsor:
Prosul
Location:
Charqueada, R. G. do Sul
Contact:
Mario da Silva Pinto - Consultec, Rio
Product:
70, 000 TPY 16-14-0
Element:
11, 200 TPY N 9, 800 TPY P20
5
Timing:
Uncertain
Remarks:
Prosul was formed by CRA, French, German and Italian groups.
Principal technical guidance on
project by Italian De Nora firm. Present plan calls for manufacture of NH
3
from
either oil or local coal, plant equipped to run on either or both.
Taking part of NH 3 to HNO 3 for acidulation
of phosphate rock to complex fertilizer with CO 2 , KCI, NH 3 and up to 5 percent MgSO 4 .
Products would
be primarily made up of NH 4 NO 3 , CaHPO 4 , KCI and CaCO 3 .
Production rate 70, 000 TPY of 16-14-0 with gran ulation facilities large enough for addition of KC1. Plant capital $14, 000, 000, of which $8, 000, 000 foreign equipment and $6, 000, 000 in cruzeiros.
The latter
figure was estimated at the free dollar exchange rate.
A-I1
The foreign groups involved in this project are approaching it with caution because local conditions are uncertain. President of Prosul is Luis de Simoes Lopis. Technical feasibility of the project is reasonable; economics are not as clear. Nearly 100 percent of the rice grown in this state is irrigated rice.
Fertilizer practice in Korea and
other parts of the world indicates that the preferred form of nitrogen for this crop and method is ammonical and that nitrates should be used with caution.
The in
formation from the experiment station at Pelotas tends to confirm this.
Therefore, the products contemplated
for this plant would be unsuited for the rice in this state.
It is not possible to produce a product with only
NH 3 nitrogen by the process selected; in fact, practically all the nitrogen produced will be in the form of NH 4 NO 3 . Out of some Z, 654, 000 hectares, some 377, 500, or 14 percent, of the total cultivated land may perhaps be eliminated from the market for this large fertilizer plant.
In addition, the largest cultivated area in the
state (51 percent) is devoted to wheat and severe
A-12
problems due to the mismatch between climate and variety are resulting in a marked decline in the production of wheat. Status:
When asked to give an opinion on the probable date for construction for the project, Sr. Pinto said, "The project is a well-planned dream".
A-13
Sponsor:
Ferticap
Location:
Capuava, Sao Paulo
Contact:
Fernando Cardoso, Manah, S.A., now Secretary of Agriculture, S.P.
Product:
30, 000 TPY NSP and Mixed Fertilizer
Element:
6, 000 TPY P 2 0 5
Timing:
Operation in August 1964 Plan to produce 15, 000 tons NSP in 1964
Remarks:
Plant includes 50 TPD HZS0 superphosphate
4
plant, 15 TPH
den, both by St. Gobain, also
mixed fertilizer facilities for ungranulated N-P-K proc.ucts. Status:
Certain operation in 1964
A-14
Sponsor:
CAMIG
Location:
Araxa
Contact:
Dr. Moacyr Carneiro
Product:
150, 000 TPY thermofos
Element:
27, 000 TPY P 2 0 5
Timing:
Plan to operate 50, 000 TPY by 1965-66
Remarks:
Detailed proposal being studied by AID for loan consideration; all indications are that project is sound and approval will be forthcoming.
Present
plan is to start with one-third of capacity first year, then add units to full capacity as market develops. for Also plan to continue production of phosphate rock process direct application at 35 to 40, 000 TPY. Basic similar to Japanese fused phosphate; product a fused
and available magnesium silicate tricalcium phosphate.
Project is probably best solution to utilization of
large reserve of high impurity phosphate rock.
Status:
Practically certain
A-15
Sponsor:
Elekeiroz
Location:
Jundiai, Sao Paulo
Contact:
A. Martins
Product:
Expand to 70, 000 TPY NSP
Element:
14, 000 TPY P 2 0
Timing:
Plan this for 1964-65
Remarks:
Present production (1963)
5
33, 600 tons NSP.
to double output in next two years.
Plan
Also, thinking
about 120, 000 TPY TSP but active planning not started yet, however, includes plan for use of pyrites from coal washing plant for CSN. Status:
Probable NSP, possible TSP
A-16
Sponsor:
Cia. de Superfosfatos e Produtos Quimicos
Location:
Capuava, Sao Paulo
Contact:
Robert Rommel
Product:
40, 000 TPY
TSP
Element:
18,400 TPY
P20
Timing:
Uncertain
Remarks:
Plant designed but action delayed because of
5
uncertain conditions Status:
Presently unknown but with current change in general atmosphere,
a possibility
A-17
Sponsor:
Quimbrasil
Location:
Jacupiranga, Sao Paulo
Contact:
J.A.P. Ramos, P.A. Andery
Product:
300, 000 TPY phosphate rock
Element:
120, 000 TPY P205
Timing:
Plan 100, 000 TPY in 1965 300, 000 TPY in 1966-67
Remarks:
Pilot plant work looks promising for new flotation process, full-sized float cells ordered for develop ment program with preliminary mining now going on. Large reserves well-drilled and confirmed.
If full
scale float cell program proves out, program would be to build phosphate rock concentration plant, ultimate
capacity 300, 000 TPY rock at 40 percent
P20_,, total capital $6 - 6, 500, 000, of which $2 3, 000, 000 would require exchange cover.
Present
plan is to start with 100, 000-ton capacity at total capital of $3, 500, 000 ($2, 000, 000 foreign exchange at most). Status:
Looks very promising,
could well become reality
A-18
Sponsor:
Quimbrasil
Location:
Jacupiranga, Sao Paulo
Contact:
J.A.P. Ramos
Product:
100, 000 TPY Triple superphosphate
Element:
46, 000 TPY P 2 0
Timing:
Plan for 1965-66
Remarks:
With an assured source of phosphate rock, they
5
plan to build a 100, 000 TPY triple superphosphate plant which would include a sulfuric acid plant to operate on local pyrites or imported sulfur, built for both; a phosphoric acid plant and TSP granulation for
unit plus storage, shipping, rock grinding, etc., total capital of $6, 500, 000-7, 000, 000, of which perhaps 3, 000, 000 might require exchange cover. Status:
This plan could be an alternate to the operation of Secretary Thompsonts nitrofos plant in some form, or the construction of a smaller nitrofos unit. phase of over-all plan now under study.
This
A-19
Sponsor:
INBASA
Location:
Santa Catarina
Contact:
Mario Pinto, Consultec, Rio
Product:
60, 000 TPY
Element:
27, 600 TPY P.0
Timing:
Unknown
Remarks:
This organization is connected with the Montecatini
lr
TSP 5
group from Italy, who spent some 20 to 30 million cruzeiros on research trying to develop plants for the production of acid and triple superphosphate. The idea originally was to use pyrite (reject from coal in the Rio Grande do Sul area) for the production of acid.
However, Cia. Siderurgica Nacional, which
consumes the coal from Rio Grande do Sul would not agree on a permanent supply of pyrite, mainly because there is not much pyrite available from the coal.
The
Italian group is still trying to recover the millions of cruzeiros spent and therefore keeps a close eye on other groups to prevent them from starting similar operations in this area. Status:
Uncertain
A-20
Sponsor:
ICISA
Location:
Rio Grande, R. G. do Sul
Contact:
Dr. F.
Product:
26, 400 TPY
Element:
12, 200 TPY P 2 0
Timing:
Delayed,
Remarks:
Have plan (inactive due to business climate) for
A. Torres TSP 5
decline in wheat crop
80 TPD TSP plant with 110-120 TPD rock at 33-34
percent PzO 5 , 34 TPD P 2 0 H 2 S0
4
5
at H 3 PO4 , 90 TPD
(30 TPD sulfur) to cost $1, 100, 000 in 1961.
Plant was based on wheat grown in state which was to use capacity but failure of wheat due to wrong type or other causes made new plant unattractive. Status:
Doubtful
A-21
Sponsor:
Fertilnor
Location:
Recife
Contact:
Albert Hahn
Product:
143, 000 TPY 7-14-7
Element:
10, 000 TPY N, Z0, 000 TPY P 2 O5 , 10, 000 TPY K2 0
Timing:
Planned for late 1965
Remarks:
Fertilnor is in the early stages of planning a well conceived plant to produce a nominal 143, 000 TPY of 7-14-7 by using imported NH , Olinda rock and KCl for the first stage, making H3 PO
4
as the second
improvement and finally making NH 3 as the market develops. a.
The first phase would require about $6, 100, 000 for a HzS0
4
plant, granulation unit, NH 3 terminal
and superphosphate plant. (Foreign exchange cover $750, 000). b.
The second phase of the project would require about $4, 000, 000 for a H 3 PO 4 plant and an increase in the HzS0
4
capacity and perhaps as much as
$1,000, 000 in exchange cover. c.
The third step would require some $6 to 7, 000, 000 with 2 or 3, 000, 000 in foreign exchange.
If
ag~r ,
A-22
adequate NH 3 capacity existed elsewhere in Brazil, of course, this step might not be necessary and the NH 3 terminal in the first phase could be used. Status:
Possible
A-23
Sponsor:
P rofertil
Location:
Recife
Contact:
Severino Alrneida
Product:
Z4, 000 TPY
Element:
4, 800 TPY P 2 0
Timing:
Planned for 1964-65
Remarks:
1963 output 12, 100 tons NSP from two HzSO4
NSP 5
plants, 20 TPD and 10 TPD. TPD H zS4 plant.
Building new Z5-35
Plan is to double output NSP
to 24, 000 TPY. Status:
Probable --
1963 mixed fertilizer sales 4, 700 tons;
plan to double in 1964-65.
ag r
A-24 Sponsor:
Cia. Agro Industrial Igarassu
Location:
Recife
Contact:
P.V. Belotti - BNDE, Aroldo Borio - CAll
Product:
12-15, 000 TPY Dical
Element:
5-6, 000 TPY P 2 0
Timing:
Plan to operate by August, 1964
Remarks:
Caustic plant now running.
5
Missing are 16 cells
which are already in Sao Paulo. 100 percent.
HCL plant built
Dical plant build 80 percent, remaining
equipment already in Sao Paulo.
Everything scheduled
to be in operation in August, 1964. 45 54 10 27
TPD TPD TPD TPD
Dical NaOH NaOH Na OCl
Plan:
38 percent P20 5 (as 50 percent solution) flake
Dical will be 0. 5 percent F, sell in Northeast for fertilizer.
Fluorine could be lowered later to make
feed grade for most of product. Israeli Dical process piloted in S.P. at "Nitro quimica" which is 50 percent owned by Moraes.
Used
rock from Congacari, near Olinda, which belongs to Moraes.
Plant will use Olinda 32-33 percent P 2 0
5
rock, because Moraes has low reserves in his deposit; might use own reserves, though.
A-25
Status:
Reasonably certain, could provide feed grade phosphate in future.
A-26
Sponsor:
Fosforita Olinda
Location:
Recife
Contact:
Dr. Brito Passos
Product:
200-250, 000 TPY rock
Element:
60-75, 000 TPY P205
Timing:
Design capacity five to ten years
Remarks:
a.
Present capacity of operation 200 to 250, 000 TPY of product of which 50 percent is fine material at 24-25 percent P 2 0
5
and 50 percent, 33-34 percent
P205, 33-34 usually sold dry, unground for acidulation and low grade blended with high grade to make 28-30 percent PO5, bagged and ground for direct application. b.
Process and plant almost exactly as built and previously reported.
Fine low-grade product
obtained by classification and high grade by flotation, major contaminant silica (8 percent in final 33-34 percent P 2 0 5 product). c.
Sales in NE about 25, 000 TPY for direct application (28-30 percent P 2 0 5 ) and 3-5, 000 tons to Profertil, balance to south when ships are available on back haul basis.
A-27
d.
Reserves now estimated to total less than 50 million tons, probably nearer to 30.
Of this,
five to ten years at 100 to 200, 000 tons per year of 28-30 percent P 2 0
5
product (about 5 million
tons of ore) can be mined by present open pit methods with present equipment.
After this
(about five years or so) it will be necessary to obtain new and larger mining equipment.
They
have estimated that a suitable bucket wheel excavator from Germany would cost $1 to 1.5 million.
They are now experimenting with under
ground mining to develop other approaches to the problem of high overburden for the future and high water table plus rainy season cause problems. e.
Equipment is on hand, but not installed, to provide for a reverse float and also to increase the plant output in the wet section.
The cutback in operations
to match the low sales has prevented the completion of this expansion and possible grade improvement. f.
In the opinion of all concerned with Fosforita Olinda the primary problem is one of high transport costs which knock them out of sales anywhere but in the
A-28
Northeast because foreign rock can be purchased in the South cheaper.
It is our opinion that grade
and reserve problems are almost as serious problems. g.
As an example of the transport costs the following information was provided: Sales price 33-34/ton bulk, dry,
FOB plant Less export discount Truck freight to port Port authority expenses Freight + unload Santos
Cr$ 17,500 ( 4, 500) 700 1, 850 12, 500 Cr$ 28,050
Total
and another example for bagged 28-30 percent PO5, ground for direct application: Sales price FOB plant Truck freight to port Truck unload to port Port authority expense Freight to Santos + unload
Cr$ 15,000 550 530 2, 300 22, 500 Cr$ 40, 880
Total
less subsidy at $Z8/ton at 22, 500 Cr$ 650 Cr$
h.
Present plant breakeven said to be 80-100, 000 TPY products, and they can hold out for several more years.
They are not going to lose control
or shut down in foreseeable future.
They have
A-29
tightened operational costs, sold three small draglines (not needed anyway) now operate one shift per day.
Expect rise in export rate from
present 620 to free rate plus subsidy on freight, if necessary, will solve their problems. i.
Fosforita does not plan to go ahead with their former plan for TSP plant ($3, 000, 000 equipment - $6, 500, 000 total cost) any time in near future.
j.
Solution of problems proposed to Dantas Borges make their freight rate $10/ton for 33-34 percent PZ05 and $14 for bagged Z8-30 percent P.05 equal to the average freight on rock imported from either U.S.
Status:
or Africa.
The full use of this operation will depend on developing a local market and the solution to the problem of the low-grade product.
A-30
Sponsor:
Fosforita Olinda
Location:
Recife
Contact:
Dr. Brito Passos
Product:
25, 000 TPY NSP
Element:
5, 000 TPY P 2 0
Timing:
Planned for 1965
Remarks:
Plan calls for CODEPE (now Fertilnor) to supply
5
HzSO 4 from new plant.
Fertilnor has changed plan
and probably will not have excess HZS0 near future. Status:
Doubtful
4
any time in
A-31
Sponsor:
Superfosfato Jacupiranga
Location:
Jacupiranga, Sao Paulo
Contact:
Baron Paul E. J. J. Riottotde Riotterie R. Goldman
Product:
24, 000 TPY HZS0
4
48, 000 TPY NSP Element:
9, 600 TPY P 2 0 5
Timing:
Plan to start HzS0
Remarks:
Report having deposit of rock, 6-700, 000 tons
4
plant in 1964
suitable for acidulation; plan to start with HzSO4 plant and imported rock for NSP. own rock and use this for NSP. Serrana deposit. Status:
Possible but doubtful
Later beneficiate Operation near
A-3Z Sponsor:
Companhia Nacional de Fertilizantes Potassicos Rua Muniz Barreto 74 - S/201, Rio de Janeiro
Location:
300 km. from Natal, Rio Grande do Norte
Contact:
Moacir D. Pereira (23-6189-Rio)
Product:
100, 000 TPY KZS0
Element:
50, 000 TPY K 2 0
Timing:
Plan production 1966
Remarks:
The basis of this project is the manufacture of KzS0
4
4
from feldspar.
The ore is reported to be
200, 000, 000 tons of high potash feldspathic material at 11-14 percent K 2 0.
The plan is to mine the ore,
some 300 km. from Natal, crush it to -100 mesh and transport it in trucks to the port area at Natal.
The
processing plant would be located at Natal and the process would involve H 2 SO 4 from imported sulfur, calcination, recovery of SO z , leaching of KZS0 crystallization and drying of the product.
4,
(It might
include recovery of the aluminum silicates for cement or other uses.)
USAID is reported to have a study on
a similar process with Checchi and Co., 843 Third Avenue, New York City, and this process is reported as originating with Lurgi in Germany.
A-33
Allis Chalmers would furnish the crushing plant, the trucks would be imported as would a large part of the other equipment.
The required funds for the
total cost, including working capital, are reported to be available and 84. 5 percent would be U.S. money and 15. 5 percent Brazilian.
The capital cost of the
plant is presently estimated to be 18-20 million dollars but a more precise estimate is now being prepared and will be ready in July of 1964. The ratio of concentration is 5 to 1 and Sr. Pereira provided the following estimate of operating costs:
$13.30
5 tons Feldspar at $2. 66 Grinding to -100 mesh
1.50
Bags
4. 00
Sea transport to market
19.00
38, 000 tons sulfur at $28/T
10.64 $48.44
Other costs $10-12/ton
Total Status:
$60.00/ton
Preliminary engineering and feasibility studies; costs are high but project may be possible ultimat6ly.
APPENDIX B
DATA RELATING TO:
AREA OF CROPS CULTIVATED
YIELD OF CROPS PER HECTARE
VOLUME OF CROP PRODUCTION
LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY NUMBERS
Area of ,e.Lns Table 1. Brazil, by Statc3 ar.,
Cultivated 2errItories. 194
t&ui1953-1962
(.:ectares) State or Torritory BRAZIL NORTH Rondonia Acre Amazonas Rio Branco Para Amapa
1945 1953 1954 1915 l9G . 1,19,d49 1,995,136 2,199,055 2,226,539 2,257,2ou 2,323,473 2,125,703
14,955
4,114 663 6b7 6 2,754
14,353 22 1,604 430 2,230
-,372
31 1,590 460 2,301 6,623
4
1,725
1,950
NORTHEAST Maranhao Piaui Ceara Rio Grande do N. Paraiba Pernambuco Alagoas
282,174 16,633 47,052 50,7o5 62,665 53,720 43,633
497,218 23,17 26,692 130,466 54,250 52,306 114,300 66,017
590,232 23,950 47, 006 167,3-6 72,162 7,244 124,176 76,20
IAST Ser--gipe Bahia Minas Gerais Espirito Santo Rio de Janeiro Guanabara
509,571 5,586 75,304 374,678 29,396 24,107
622,474 16,556 103,061 446,550 35,026 21,281
610,509 15,503 101,916 464,739 36,459 21,592
SOUTH Sao Paulo Parana Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul
562,7o4 264,021 132,417 46,462 139,884
CENTRAL WEST Mato Grosso Goias & D.Federal
7,475
-
-
785,691 273,421 309,436 52,28 145,746
li, 52u 4,1,613 506 71 6,643 655
10,295 226 1,o67
6,713 371 1,1490 , 22 b,136
50 7,79) 2o
9,036 369 1,5,-3 962o
35 U,,C
_9 1'..
1960 19bl 1962 2,'oG,2oi 2,o0,567 2',37,,774 2,716,257
9,-,94 373 1,c552 o57 102 7,'-3;
1,530 590 1,505 616 i14i 7,303
10,46
b3
1,729 717 74 7,025 96
10,t347 921 2,122 1,103 73 6, h 64
845
49
45
646,232 03c,245 22,590 23,501 4o,491 46,736 200,762 215,907 63,007 b1,403 101,062 103,371 122,163 111,433 6 4,049 55,014
ool,u4b5 24,292 43,0'39 223,'194 66,474 97,7.9 132,3.o 72,o:9
42,059 24,4u2 33,296 74,775 51,113 50,705 126,7'13 72,91
o9u,272 3o,(4b 44, 70.2 212,096 92,755 92,530 135,o32 7o,h09
7o0,521 37,-97 40,u76 22b,031 103,544 105,661 lrO,9b0 77,710
790,590 40,505 52,333 235,734 110,210 112,L25 150,1ol 60,614
o61,7b2 42,bl2 b4,21L 247,2b3 111,363 116,002 173,5b7 bb,677
596,353 14,U24 66,729 456,1O 36,685 20,007
664,249 17,602 92,Lc02 502,037 49,ul6 22,19?
697,556 1,417 11(,tuO 497,496 49,477 21,2ob
677,702 13,314 102,C42 490,567 40,793 19,966
737,431 17,955 121,291 520,306
710,631 19,323 10b,303 503,306 60,462 19,237
723,141 21,439 131,171 4d5,762 67,614 17,135
-
-
-
616,b59 10,720 65,801 47c,93 44,116 20,229 -
-
-
So,941 20,936 -
847,722 306,,50 334,335 65,124 141,413
b51,035 304,96 331,o02 6B,977 145,467
04d,496 300,109 330,191 67,830 it0,366
874,995 203,530 369,924 67,6 1 151,6 .0
000,997 266,b76 304,957 70,454 166,910
919,022 2o9,427 3b2,4d6 76,927 170,180
925,889 265,777 382,743 80,927 176,442
963,158 276,43S 410,716
41,206 75,170 89,857 124,704 8,807 27,931 30,643 3,,065 32,399 47,239 59,214 08,u39 Source:-ANUAIiIo GS2AT1S'T1C- WJ iXAS1L
140,826 35,005 104,91
100,550 40,719 59,o31
102,057 37,5 5 64,472
112,009 47,314 64,695
132,769 53,9o6 78,603
142,971 55,077 b7,894
17,319 62,bOL 94,515
655,502 295,496 362,477 61,78d 135,741
55,88 190,144
w
Area of Cocoa Cultivated
Table 2. Brazil, byv States and -erritor'es, 1945 and 1953-19o2
(Hectares) State or Territory BRAZIL NORTH Rondonia Acre Amazonas Rio Branco Para.
267,920
340,462
13,752
7,937
20 2,405
Amapa
-
NORTHIAST Maranhao
-
Piaui Ceara Rio arande do Norte Paraiba Pernambuco Alagoas
5,432
5,470
5,b32
25
30
32 20
35 23
25
7,751
7,397
7,37u
6,735
27
27
1,u71
1,hul
35 25
37 26
35
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
.-
-
EAST Sergipe
254,143
332,493
315,171
3b0,064
Bahia
250,266 24 3,853 ......... ..........
Sao Paulo
..
Parana Santa Catarlna Rio Grande do Sul
........
321,355
15 11,120
SOURCF.:- ANbARIJ 'STATISIICu
-
-
L BRASIL
-
36 2c
3' 30
3c 3C
,9C: 165
-
-
t
8 -
307,910
376, 90
443,4u
45L, 773
'07,466 16 15,9" 6
16
45 ,019
406,70"
404,009
-
-
-
-
3b1,371 42 14,477
1,577
-
-
356,303 42 11,565
1 ,.6b
-
36 26
-
4r,1-30
3',890
17,o7
W6,373 16 17,020
lb 1L, "72
lu el, 113
2
24
24
24
0
1
1
1
1
441,17-' if
-
0
0
0
0
0 -
345',47o 42 1544 11,
-
-
-
-
CENTRAL IWk.ST
333,u36 15 11,52
42
95
-
-
-
-
1,3-,3
77
5,
1
10
10
11
10
12
12
25
798
77
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5,cC9 177
5,
25
7,419
-
-
-
-
-
. 1,i 6 9
4)oa, 762
1474,270 -
-
-
92
-
Mato Grosso Goi~s & D.Federal
470,506
3,9o1 92
-
SOU nh
466,209
5,9b2 92
-
Minas Gerais Esp{ritc. Santo Rio de Caneiro Guanaba.'a
460,917
-
-
-
3o6,67U -
27 1,bb7
27 2,247
2,210 -
7,96b -
-
2,4b0
11,327
5,196
7,718 -
375,915
366,297
352,924
1962
1961
1960
1959
19
19U7
1956
195.
195 4
1953
1945
-
0
0
0
Area of Coffee Cultivated
Table 3. Brazil, by States and Territories, 1945 and 1953-1962
(Hectares)
State or Territ.ory BRAZIL
1945
NORTH
703
Rondonia
-
Acre Amazonas Rio Branco Par r23
49 ....
195L.
764
1955
-1957
1956
631
-
1959
1958
1960
1961
1962
52,211 18
Piaui
-
Ceara Paraiba Pernambuco Alagoas EAST
-
Bahia Minas Gerais Espirito Santo Rio de Janeiro Guanabara
SOUTH Sao Paulo Parana Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul
CENT-AL W"EST Mato Grosso Goi'as & D. Federal
711
624
-
839
-
-
970
1,092
-
573 91
496
422
362
86
354 76
355
87
459 82
242
51
6
70
83
112
135
170
194
531
66 549
498
-
57,132 40
13,694
-
57,576 50 -
-
-
-
57,609
59,010
45
49
-
13,486
-
-
13,205 -.
432 38,932
435 39,564
440 39,76
2,621
4,034
4,041
4,133
897,958
643 -
706
620 35,604
Sergipe
695 -
50 54
-
13,348
Rio Grande do N.
-
660
-
NORTHEAST Maranhao
747
827
-
Amapa
SOURCE:-
1953
2,381,561 2,913,919 3,004,585 3,265,541 3,411,651 3,672,325 4,078,501 4,296,645 4,419,537 4,383,820 4,462,657
-
59,293
77,553 60
,6 -
13,364
-
-
14,209
-
13,629
157
-
79,063
81,144
84,025
53
75
77
-
-
454
-
-
13,328 -
75
-
14,193 -
83,397
79 -
15,152 -
15,893 -
40,992
473 40,321
484 59,194
97 60,R25
509 62,113
520 64,081
526 63,452
4,151
4,224
4,186
4,360
4,254
4,195
3,447
989,493 1,045,618 1,073,545 1,094,327 1,137,733 1,266,528 1,258,001 1,275,638 1,265,564 1,293,221
220
450
459
427
414
389
405
423
422
490
441
54,900
64,050
67,790
72,202
80,005
86,098
99,393
97,928
99,865
103,791
104,354
552,892
623,635
657,1434
675,473
66,686
711,510
761,735
790,623
798,967
802,364
812,380
225,419 64,527
244,290 57,068
265,133 55,002
270,146 55,295
271,925 55,297
261,670 58,066
321,697 63,595
299,150 69,877
306,372 70,012
287,977 70,942
306,553
69,493
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1,420,605 1,836,220 1,861,366 2,085,332 2,196,990 2,405,567 2,657,489 2,877,399 2,975,553 2,937,560 2,990,758 1,302,981 1,458,911 1,4o6,437 1,513,022 1,550,846 1,593,226 1,619,520 1,647,034 1,635,187 1,521,58B 1,365,136 113,277 372,233 389,793 567,472 635,427 607,5 5 1,032,776 1,225,676 1,335,601 1,41-1,227 1,620 798 4,347 5,076 5,136 5,033 4,717 4,786 5,193 4,639 4,765 4,745 4:824 -
10,084 2,242 7,842
-
35,310 6,103 29,207
-
36,998 6,o00 32,198
ANUARIO ESTATiSTICO DO BRASIL
-
48,108 9,530 36,578
-
60,629 9,875 50,754
-
69,089 10,211 58,878
-
75,920 12,877 63,043
-
81,558 17,492 64,066
-
86,363 21,128 65,235
-
95,701 26,081 69,620
-
94,189
24,442
69,747
w
Area of Corn Cultivated
Table 4. Brazil, by States and Territories, 1945 and 1953-1962
(Hectares)
State or Territory BRAZIL
L945
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
4,055,680 5,119,609 5,528,338 5,623,134 5,997,876 6,095,085 5,790,370 6,159,107 6,681,165 6,885,740 7,342,795
NORTH Rondonia Acre Amazonas Rio Branco Para Amapa
19,821
15,711 36
30,020 96 3,673 661 92 23,399 2,099
33,643 102 3,601 782 121 26,653 2,184
33,511 104 3,662 033 100 27,527 1,265
485,208 14,930 22,715 96,385 89,165 83,675 115,425 62,913
754,534 109,91o 37,659 180,585 63,757 113,647 172,050 76,920
883,719 124,414 39,735 224,024 77,476 134,276 195,885 87,909
907,251 126,789 57,514 224,355 89,317 14,742 11,426 53,078
2,837 1,237
NORTHEAST Maranhao Piauf Ceara Rio Grande do N. Para{ba Pernambuco Alagoas
35,806 3b3 3,o000 bb1 240 29,9b 1,200
39,b30 500 3,290 1,170 4-5 32,o91 1,504
40,49 1,115 3,L,07 965 625 32,747 1,410
913,662 1,002,663 124,396 131,249 54,269 54,602 251,639 270,b39 66,339 09,991 152,367 1i0,037 182,045 213,539 62,405 94,4o6
655,0-0 l3o,6c9 h3,746 70,460 50,441 77,370 177,531 96,071
41,069 1,162 3,334 L,021 4o0 33,992 1,120
44,644 1,074 3,428 1,144 121 36,500 977
44,o60 2,116 3,340 1,094 610 36,515 990
45,743
2,367
3,395
1,209
610
37,467
695
994, ]l1,077,283 1,lb5,997 1,251,559
169,066 160,601 201,2u8 234,906
66,755 57,967 06,096 89,426
253,L79 279,005 300,763 317,357
96,992 102,238 98,150 102,483
129,272 160,451 173,670 178,229 t 187,67c 219,305 212,621 219,536
113,379 100,979 107,696 109,622
EAST Sergipe Bahia Minas Gerais Esp{rito Santo Rio de Janeiro Guanabara
1,310,417 1,429,687 1,452,575 1,476,"03 1,51u,954 1,657,59- 1,65o,131 1,67o,535 1,4S,;82 1,898,204
1,57,z1& 18,786 34,910 33,104 32,0,2 2b,716 34,14 33,022 34,279 33,437 35,014 36,35
84,962 119,959 125,259 95,0:7 67,142 133,- ) 12c,160 16t),304 156,103 131,u26 165,268 1,000,149 1,072,801 1,107,544 1,153,746 1,196,Ld14 1,243,16o 1,239,075 1,243,305 1,320,232 1,314, 56 1.381,397 92,295 68,371 94,3-)1 :8,741 10b,47o 1'O,Sl( 142,520 145,146 163,286 109,321 171,851 114,225 113,276 98,267 99,437 99,732 105,395 113,03k 115,795 144,773 153,174 141,300 300 250 270
SOUTH Sao Paulo Parana Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul
2,120,794 2,757,656 3,000,368 2,997,00 3, 24,968 3,109,300 3,2l-, 707 3,230, o45 3,425, 173 3, 492,523 3,770,255 798,705 883,487 991,243 943,236 1,007,024 964,219 991,276 954,970 1,045),330 1,013,'417 1,116,940 439,702 694,05' 818,522 836,051 954,965 870,173 833,579 234,796 074,894 950,065 043,932 193,018 233,241 245,516 259,479 2o2,5o7 246,234 2o3,32 295,753 319,363 322,6b05 341,719 689,369 946,B72 944,369 972,283 1,063,500 1,072,321 1,100,320 1,145,127 1,21b,353 1,2bl,604 1,361,531
CENTRAL WEST Mato Grosso Goias & D.Federal SOURCE:-
119, W0 49,405 70,035
147,710 50,974 96,736
158,033 54,730 103,303
ANUARIO ESTATISTICO JO BRASIL
208,783 53,710 155,073
244,4814 53,77d 190,706
205,693 64,222 141,o71
223,963 70,691 133,072
24b,524 66,090 160,434
285,576 93,106 192,470
324,734 o5,667 239,067
377,034 114,056 262,978
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Area of Potatoes Cultivated Table 6. Brazil, by States and Territories, 1945 and 1953-1962 (Hectares) State or Territory BRAZIL
1945
1954
1955
1956
1957
1959
l9 d
1960
1961
1962
115,600
163,047
165,265
178,614
185,314
189,603
191,952
187,889
198,772
191,255
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NORTH Rondonia Acre Amazonas Rio Branco
1953
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Para
-
196,198 -
...........
Amapa
-
-
2,068
NORTHEAST Maranhao Piauf
3,151 -
3,638 -
6,048
3,633 -
-
5,U16
5,904
-
6,836
-
6,132
-
-
7,104 -
..........
Ceara
36
Rio Grande do N.
279
-
1,817 215
EAST
5,527
Bahia Minas Gerais Espirito Santo Rio de Janeiro Guanabara
16,'.)8 341 1,846 -
CENTRAL WEST Mato Grosso Goias & D. Federal
-
337 4,625 1,046
20,599
22,035
249 -
4,650 699 21,23b
-
820 17,334 272 1,519 -
776 id,563 257 1,593 -
iIb5 17,175 239 1,765
45b -
4,747 873
251 -
35
5,471 949 42
4,o3o 1,005 35
5,915 896 42
24,546
26,972
26,043
27,053
1,Lj8 22,364 264 1,925
1,347 21,880 243 1,9149
1,460 22,195 235 2,104
,...
.,
848 17,429 270 1,988
374 -
45
40
-
21,034
222 -
-
2,440 966
-
20,053 460 771 16,787 351 1,664
549
227 -
2,520 1,007
-
20,358 424
359 4,032 370 639
SOUTH S-aoPaulo Parana Santa Cxtarina Rio Grande do Sul
1,970 925
-
7
311 -
1,605 773
-
Sergipe
256 -
Paraiba Pernambuco Alagoas
SOURCE:-
2,657
1,277 20,L34 245 1,530
,
-
-
-
-
-
106,180 45,764 14,418 6,592 39,106
139,398 44,675 30,179 11,.216 53,328
1L 57 4' 73 29,408 12,270 52,706
151,796 51,327 28,474 12,327 59,668
160,288 57,025 31,761 12,639 59,863
160,693 52,749 35,821 13,965 58,156
163,976 54,001 34,785 14,048 61,142
156,639 48,163 35,365 14,673 55,218
164,476 50,906 36,369 16,790 60,393
158,736 46,225 36,179 17,971 58,361
161,696 53,669 30,334 19,372 58,121
1,825 1,600 225
634 62 572
604 63
1,946 85 1,861
794 74 720
827 195 632
922 216 706
800 89 711
486 59 427
34h
345
ANUARIO ESTATISTICO DO BRASIL
541
45
45
299
300
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Area of Tobacco Cultivated Table 9. Brazil. by States and Territories, 1945 and 1953-1962 (Hectares) State or Territory BRAZIL
1955 4
1>ri3
1956
1957
1956
1959
1960
101,321
190,981
213,203
227,04,5
232,297
3,197 11 321 322 30 2,477 36 21,725 3,259 1,390
3,412 10
3,533
3,445
12
20
3,895 20
339
366
376
385
361
405
8,777
390 2 2,727 28 40,153 4,641 1,755 1,634 114 6,205 16,900 8,904
2,613 31 43,216 5,736 1,835 1,723 107 5,902 17,053 10,830
2,946 34 33,526 6,547 2,148 1,8OO 104 6,207 4,392 12,328
72,460 3,515 35,436 32,604 214 691
76,241 3,280 38,466 32,867 210 1,410
80,199 3,722 42,290 32,546 212 1,429
90,996 4,347 53,383 31,617 208 1,441 -
140,880
168,400
183,627
190,054
179,326
17o,962
NORTH Rondonia Acre Amazonas RioBranco
5,918 -10 192 90 50
3,48L
3,463 10
3,323 10
3,39b 10
339
3,079 10
336
303
315
276
296
Para.
5
5,544
277 70 2,732 56 16,211 2,011 1,049 1,351 226 4,739 763 4,019
6
2,742 94 2C,209 2,751 1,222 1,547 235 5,309 2,340 6,305
2,u13 91 20,619 2,507 1,324 1, o1 296 5,659 2,6353 u,017
325 39 2,647 62 18,990 2,571 1,336 1,721 314 5,440 2,922 4,b36
296 30 2,362 65 22,012 3,048 2,424 1,285 238 5,413 3,264 3,720
71,7L4 2,,41 38,531 30,266 206 340
'3,b3
54,003 20,314 161 225
69,b52 1,776 37,305 30,07E 216 277
2,341 37,007 33,7-0 195 332
7.,352 2,711 42,053 33,0o 237 295
73,300 3,1u2 3o, 55, 32,996 256 328
SOUTH :M aulo ParanA Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul
38,269 i,5"383 404 3,309 32,673
75,246 1,719 1,136 27,344 45,047
83,981 1,925 1,134 30,240 50,662
94,149 2, 92 1,322 32,439 57,,96
74,368 2,2b5 2,263 11,952 .7,..o
76,142 2,014 2,070 13,290 58,706
51,334 1,047 2,764 lo,374 00,349
84,5b8 1,719 2,305 16,467 64,077
CENTRAL JiEST Mato Grosso Goias & D.Federal
3,052 177 2,905
3,b07 310 3,497
4,190 34o 3,544
4,036 234 3,504
4,395 306 4,090
4,449 316 4,133
4,57b 300 4,276
5,505 291 5,217
A-mapa NOR TEEAST Maranhao Piauf Ceara Rio Grande do N. Par-aba Pernambuco Alagoas
12 14,33 666 1,021 1,961 779 3,32r 2,472 3,629
7TAST Sergipe Bahia riinas Gerais Espfrito Santo Rio de Janeiro Guanabara
79,2;6
SJURCE:-
I
1945
4,335
-
ANUARIO ESTATISiiC0 DO BRASIL
-
31
-
2,672 30 25,013 3,961 1,650 1,560 123 5,635 3,307
845 126 5,509 105 o,1ll 70,4b9 3,519 33,942 32,496 252 280 -
-
-
87,395 1,496
1961
1962
-
-
510 -
l0,118 64,403
94,807 2,001 2,136 20,762 69,908
98,128 1,679 3,461 22,162 70,826
5,obl 304 5,577
5,378 395 4.983
5,752 340 5,412
3,378
Area of Wheat Cultivated Table 10. 1jr-zil, by States and Territories, 1945 and 1953-1962 (Hectares) State or Territory BRAZIL
1945
1954
1953
305,135
1955
1956
910,414 1,081,397 1,196,063
NORTH Rondonia
-
Acre
-
-
-
-....
Amazonas
-
-
-
-...
Rio Branco Para, Amapa
-
-
-
-....
-
-
-
-... -....
0
NORTHEAST
0
Maranhao Piau{ Ceara Rio Grande Paraiba Pernambuco Alagoas
0 -
do N.
0
0
0
0
0
-...... -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1961
1962 743,4518
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
35
312
521
84
129
343
255
57
266
255
Bahia ?inas Gerais
-
Espirito Santo
-
-
J an e i r o
-
-.......
35
64 65 -
Guanabara
SOUTH Sao Paulo Parana Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul CENTRAL WEST Mato Grosso Goias & D.Federal
305,09n -
13,807 40,591 250,701 1 1
40 25 15
ANUARIO ESTATISTICO DO BRASIL
55
65 -
65
22 62
55
4g7
42 264 37
.-
38 79
1 239
12 102 94
368 -
-
-
216
222
8
70
-
99 109
218 185
351 132 219
52 100
-
885,271 1,152,823 1,444,783 1,184,798 1,140,458 1,020,591 4,653 7,706 7,805 7,274 5.162 8,246 70,377 85,325 91,435 85,699 82,495 79,724 91,453 110,248 116,790 113,734 111,692 100,445 7.8,268 949,544 1,226,753 970,091 941,109 832,176
3
-
208
-
-
909,553 1,081,020 1,195,579 3,825 2,863 3,489 72,117 75,755 70,331 150,404 146,436 139,575 683,507 855,964 982,464
485
1,167
-
SOURCE:-
1960
........... ...-.......
Sergipe
de
1959
-......
-
EAST
R io
1958
885,573 1,153,517 1,446,334 1,185,661 1,141,015 1,022,234
0
0
1957
384 374
378 344
10
34
349
1 ,427
309 40
1,385 42
741,886 8,256 85,000 104,097
544,533 1,350 1,340 10
Table 11. Brazil,. b _tatesM_ and State or Territory
19A.5
1953
.70
.70
.70
.66
.61
.68
.68
.65
.68
.68
.63
.66 .93 .98 .87 1.17 .53 1.00
.78 1.00 1.10 1.08 .84 .60 1.18
.78 .81 1.11 1.03 .84 .62 1.10
.73 .75 1.09 1.14 .31 .64 .64
.78 1.13 1.08 1.03 .70 .68 .73
.83 1.12 1.07 1.05 .60 .74 .60
.81 1.12 1.10 .91 .66 .72 .56
.84 1.13 1.14 1.24 .68 .73 .57
.76 1.13 1.11 1.35 .63 .60 .53
.85 1.06 1.17 1.32 .69 .70 .89
.85 1.15 1.06 1.21 .59 .68 .79
BRAZIL NO H Rondonia Acre Amazonas Rio Branco Parm Amapa
2253s-J.24a
jt
.94
1.i5 .
.
i2 6 .
. 157 .
.1
8
i95.2 .
NORTHEAST Ma ra o Pinui Ceara Rio Grande do Norte Paraiba Pernambuco Alagoas
.55 .51 .80 .41 .44 .65 .55 .61
.46 .57 .42 .37 .1-0 .45 .52 .58
.51 .55 .48 .54 .39 .52 .59 .39
.44-. .46 .65 .53 .39 ./.5 .39 .25
.42 .54 .66 .5 .35 .39 .38 .29
.51 .40 .81 .54 .34 .. 1, .1.9 .54
.36 .52 .37 .15 .33 .31 .34 .60
.52 .61 .74 .53 .47 .46 . 6 .54
.52 .54 .59 .52 .46 .54 .51 .50
.52 .65 .92 .52 .42 .48 .4 .57
.51 .61 .70 .54 .41 .46 . .53
EAST Sergipe Bahia Minas Gerais Espfrito Santo Rio de Janeiro
.71 .93 .77 .70 .70 .64
.66 .67 .56 .69 .67 .58
.63 .62 .63 .63 .66 .55
.63 .31 .51 .76 .65 .57
Guanabara
.62 .35 .80 .59 .69 .59
-
.69 .49 .88 .73 .68 .59
.67 .54 .74 .67 .67 .61
-......
.57 .60 .73 .54 .59 .55
.68 .49 .77 .67 .68 .57
.64 .50 .68 .64 .63 .54
.55 .62 .71 .50 .56 .44
SOUTH Sao Paulo Parana Santa Catarina
.73 .59 .82 .96
.86 .72 .93 1.o6
.79 .68 .82 1.12
.73 .65 .68 1.04
.77 .74 .72 1.05
.83 .71 .82 1.04
.79 .62 .80 1.o6
.76 .62 .78 1.02
.80 .62 .84 1.05
.78 .57 .83 1.01
Rio Grands do Sul WEST Mato Grosso
Golas & D.Federal SOURCE:-
.83
.84 .69 .95 1.05
.82
.88
.82
.86
.81
.92
.93
.85
.86
.86
1.00
1.01
1.07
.70
1.02
1.03
1.12
.82
.86
.95
.97
.89
.78
.74
.67
.91
1.04
1.17
.98
1.08
.91
1.04
.93
1.19
.75
1.09
1.03
.71
.98
.87
.74
1.16 1ENTRAL
Adapted from ANUAIO ESTATISTICO DO BRASIL
.71
Yield of Cocoa ker Hectare
Table 12. Brazil, by States and Territories. 1945 and 1953-1962
(Tons per Hectare)
State or Territory BRAZI NORH
Iondonia
1945
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
162
1962
.45
.40
.46
.43
.43
.43
.36
.38
.35
.33
.30
.21
.21
.24
.26
.30
.29
.32
.32
.30
.36
.33
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
.32
.41
.18 .41
.18
.18 .97
-
.69
.19 .74
-
.62
.76
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.27
1.05
Acre Amazonas Rio Branco Par; Amapa
1.14 .49 .15 -
.17 ..3
.16 .36
.20 .13
.17 .20
.17 .14
.16 .16
.14 .17
.18 .19
.30 .22
.22 .25
NOlCHEAST -ao
.71 -
.90 .50
.80 .34
.68 .31
.70 .30
.71 .27
.77 .38
.92 .57
.55 .20
.55 .20
.34 .19
Ceara
........... ........... .....71 1.57
1.64
1.60
1.80
1.80
1.88
1.13
Rio Grande do Norte Paralba Pernambuco Alagoas EAST Sergipe Babia Minas Gerais Espfrito Santo Rio de Janeiro
CE
MatS
SUFRCE:-
-
-
-
.36
.38
.35
.33
.30
-
-
-
-
-
.41
.47
.43
.43
-
-
-
-
.44 .71 .32
.44 .71 .29
-
-
-
.46 .53 *40
.1 1.25 .32
.47 1.25 .28 -
-
-
0
0
0
0
0 -
0
0
0
-
-
-
.55
.42
.54
.58
.55
.42
.54
.58
0
0
0
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
.45 .45
-
0
0
0
-
.30 1.25 e25
-
-
-
-
Adapted from ANUARIO ESTATISTICO DO BRASIL
.33 1.25 .29
-
-
-
.35 1.25 .34
.39 1.25 .29
-
-
-
-
-
-
.36 1.25 .33
-
-
LWE
Goias & D.Federal
-
-
0
Grosso
-
.46
-
Parana--Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul
1.88
-
.43 .43 .71 .40
Guanabara Q= Sao P lo
2.13
-
1.64
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Table 13. Brazilg. State or Terrioy
1953
195_4
BRAZIL
.35
.38
.35
.12
.29
NO_H
.37
.49
.47
.35
Rondonia
-
-
-
Acre Amazonas
.37 .25
.52 .22
.51 .22
-
-
.53
.33
-
--- 195L
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
.38
.42
1.02
.94
1.02
.98
.36
.34
.39
.75
.76
.55
.56
-
-
-
-
-
.37 .18
-
.41 .17
-
.39 .22
-
.50 .17
.90 .27
-
-
.40 .18
.40 .16
-
-
-
.33
-
.33
-
.28
-
.28
-
.20
-
.67
-
.69
-
.69
-
-
-
-
-
.70 .65
.50 .38
.40 .50
.50 .34
.48 .47
.54 .46
.51 .44
.34 .31
.47 .72
.53 .65
.33
.30
-
-
.56 .46 .42
.54 .43 .52
.47 .57 .10
EAST Seripe Bahia Minas Gerais Espifrito Santo Rio de Jvneiro Gunnabara SOUTH S-o Paulo Parana Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul CLINTPAL WEST Mato Grosso Goias & D.F.
Para Amapa MOJIHEAST Maranhao RCeara Rio Grande do Norte Paralba Pernambuco Alagoas
.22
-
-
-
-
-
1.07 .19
-
.19
.33
.34
.21
.30
-
.36
-
-
.71 .43 ..8
-
.71 .59 .46
-
-
.75 .57 .47
.75 .61 .46
-
.75 .57 .47
.76 .35 .44
.43 .27 .41 .?8 .53 .52
.39 .31 .33 .38 .41 .55
.37 .?14 .?.4 .35 .?9 .18
.z. .28 o35 .38 .42 .46
.?3 .29 .37 .30 .36 .44
.4.0 .48 .36 .37 .46 .51
-
-
-
-
-
-
.29 .28 .47 .56
.37 .33 .54 .59
.32 .?3 .30 .58
.43 .36 .60 .57
.25 .28 .18 .59
.37 .38 .34 .63
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
.91 .87 .93
.63 .60 .63
.64 .64 .64
.60 .51 .62
.61 .23 .69
.61 .45 .64
.55 .. 8 .56
SOUPCE:- Adapted from ANUARIO ESTATfSTICO DO BRASIL
C1
*Tons prHectare9) 1956 _1957
_190
Ro Branco
P)
Yield of Coffee ectare yStat s and Ter jtories, 1945 and 1953-1962
-
-
1.25 .49 .73
1.27 .55 .75
1.43 .58 .60
1.30 .54 .57
.39 .1O .36 .36 .47 .43
.75 .63 .62 .69 .96 .77
.70 .48 .61 .62 .93 .77
.71 .50 .49 .68 .89 .77
.68 .37 .47 .61 .96 .71
-
-
-
-
-
.43 1.00 .49 .57
1.14 .89 1.46 .98 -
1.51 1.37 1.55
1.05 .71 1.46 1.02 -
1.38 1.26 1.41
1.14 .83 1.48 1.05 -
1.54 1.58 1.53
1.1i .55 1.58 1.04 -
1.47 2.09 1.26
Yield of Corn per Hectare
Table 14. Brazil , by States and Territo-ies, 1945 and 1954-1962
___-Tons per Hetarg._ 1955 1956 1957
State or Territory
19L5
1953
1954
BRAZIL
1.18
1.17
1.23
1.19
1.17
.90 0.93 1.54 1.20 1.11 0.77 1.12
.87 .92 1.62 1.26 .70 .74 1.10
.89 1.]5 1.56 1.05 .63 .83 1.02
.83 1.09 1.53 1.11 .66 .75 .58
NORTH (a) Ibndonia(a) Acre (a) Amazonas (a) Rio Branco P0r (
-
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1.27
1.27
1.26
1.30
1.31
1.30
.70 1.12 1.55 1.22 .71 .59 .72
.72 1.10 1.52 1.36 .71 .61 .58
.76 1.10 1.62 1.45 .70 .65 .50
.76
.76
.95
.89
1.67 1.48
1.59 1.50
.69
.69
.64 .55
.66 .77
.79 .. 89 1.61 1.46 .52 .69 .79
.66 .64
.73 .94 .79 .37
.72 .75 .90 .83 .53 .64
.77 .78 .79 .79 .59 .80
.50 .46
.81 .75
.69 .60
.82 .67
.80 .83 .98 .88 .54 .76 .80 .75
.79
.82 .83 .48 .70
.57 .64 .63 .20 .29 .50 .67 .75
1. '1 ,Z5 .75 1.08 .81 .80
1.28 .72 1.02 1.37 97 1.02
1.23 .72 .89 1.34 .92 .88 1.20
1.12 .7, .85 1.23 .83 .78 1.20
1.26 .87 .93 1.39 .91 1.20
1.22 .67 .68 1.37 .89 .89 1.20
1.21 .74 .80 1.35 ,90 .86 -
Amapa
1.56
NORTHEAST
.75 1.18 1.05 .63 .63 .84 .75 .76
.57 .69 .56
.74
.67
.65 .87
.48
.68
.a8 .54 .57 .72
.52 .82 .76
.68 .94 .79 .50 .79 .56 .46
EAST Sergipe Bahia Minas Gerais Espfrito Santo Rio de Janeiro Guanabara
1.32 1.04 1.12 1.39 .95 1.16
1.13 .99 .66 1.25 .81 .70
1.09 .87 .78 1.20 .76 .66
1.18 .8 .65 1.30 .88 .85
SOUTH S71-o ulo Parana
1.19 1.25 1.41
1.?3 1.24 1.31
1.42 1.37 1.37
1.34 1.33 1.14
1.38 1.27 1.36
1.L3 1.?9 1.37
1.43 1.42 1.38
1.8 1.45 1.46
1..8 1.51 1.54
1.52 1.55 1.53
1.49 1.54 1.56
Santa Q tarina Rio Grande do Sul
1.52 .90
1.90 1.29
1.77 1.41
1.86 1.35
1.91 1.36
1.93 1.38
1.93 1.34
1.93 1.40
1.87 1.30
1.91 1.38
1.81 1.37
CE2TRAL WEST Mato Grosso Goias & Distrito F.
1.3/. .Q8 1.62
1.67 1.64 1.69
1.73 1.81 1.69
1.1 1 12
1.28 1.56 1.20
1.60 1.37 1.71
1.56 1.27 1.69
1.51 1.22 1.67
1.52 1.21 1.67
1.56 1.29 1.66
1.50 14-2 1.54
Maranh Piau4 Cear Rio Grande do Norte Paraiba Pernambuco Alagoas
-
87
-
a) No dcto availble for 1945 SOURCE: Adapted from ANUARIO ESTATISfICO DO BRASIL
-
-
.66
.71
-
.89
.89 .83
.93 .54
.71 .70 .67
Table 15. Brazil.
State or Territory
Yield of cotton Per Hectare by States and Territories. 1945 and 1953-962
1945
1953
1954
1955
BRAIL
.41
.41
.46
.47
mm Rondonia Acre Amazonas Rio Branco
.20
.23
.25
.20
.23
Amnapa
-
--------
NOTHAST Ma
.34 .32
Piaui Ceara
(Tons oer aHectare) 1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
..5
.42
.42
.51
.55
.56
.55
925
.23
.26
.28
.23
.21
e20
e22
.25
.25
.23
.26
.28
.23
.21
.20
.22
.23 .39
.31 .38
.33 .38
.32 .37
.32 .36
.20 .35
.31 .36
.36 .37
.18 . 7
.35 .30
.32
.34 .37
.26 .34
.31 .37
Rio Grande do Norte
.36 .38
.46 .39
.30 .18
.30
.35 .37
.38 .41
.18
.23
.30
.42 -.
.42 38
.29
.27
oO
.28
Paralba Pernambuco Alagoas
.31
.29
.34 .38 .31
.23 .19 .29
.25
.36 .28 .33
.36 .18 .31
.31 .22 .32
.31 .28 .3]
.22 .19 .36
,32 .25 .37
.40
.34
.34
.33 .24
.40
.32
.30
Sergipe Bahia
S.54 . 9 .58
.48 .31 .39
.47 .37 .48
.42 .24 .13
.43 .34 .36
.50
.49 .34 .45
.44 .31 .44
.47
.47
.49
.55
.48
.46 .76
.53 .30
.50 .30 .47
Eapfrit Santo Rio de Janeiro Guanabara
.56 .27
.47 a34 .47
.34
Minas Gerais
.43 .28 .45
.50
.58
.55
.40
.33
.23
.64 .37
.66 .33
.61 .31
.71
.47
.31 .33
.61 935
.64 .34
SOUTH SaoFPulo
.45 .46
.60
.66 .66
.69 .69
.65 .66
.60
.61
Paran Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul
.;08
.84 .83
.97 .93
.45 .18 -
1.01 1.00
o54 .19
1.07 1.01
.64 .18
1.08 1.02
.63 .27
.69 .25
.88 .24
1.17 .25
.50
1.02 .25
1.29
.50
.69 .28 .33
.24
1.28 .23
-
-
-
CENTRAL ,sT Matq Grosso
.57 .58
.62 1.16
.54 .73
.55 .68
.63 .51
Goias e Diastrito F.
.57
.64 .58
.51 .71
.54 .76
1.16 1.89
.51
.82 1.10
.54
.76 090
.63
.65
.51
.52
.64
.56
.55
1962
-......... ----------
-......... -....
.29
e34
-.........
.49
SOURCE: - Adapted from ANU/RIO ESTATfSTIZ3 DO BRASIL
.38
.47 .42
Yield of PotAtoes per hectare
Table 16. Brazil. by States and Territoes. 1945 and 1954-1962 State or Territory BRZIL
(Tpnex O He t. /Lr
1945 5.14
NORT' Rondonia. Acre
0 .......
Thdo Brancoo
....... -o,---------
Amapa
-
______
S
195/
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
5.00
4.93
5.0?
5.13
5.27
5.30
5.45
5.60
5.65
5.78
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
-
_
_
_
-
_--
0
....
Amazonas
Marshao
1953
5.32
-
-
-
_ 3.24 -
3.15 -
!.86
1.07
2.01
-
2,76 -
7.18
2.77
3.06
3.12
3.06
29
2.04
1.7 167 3.48 2.3L 8.30 4.97 7.19 3.1o 5.05 8.35 3.0
.52 _" 3.00 1.92 2.66 5.6
1.86
1.76
1.49 1.
1.5
3.39 1.69 2.20 5.99
3.50 1.55 2.]. 5.73
3.51 1.03
3.13 171
2.-13
2.0
2554 3.05 5.62 8.71 05 1
7. 3 3.85 6.23 8.26 3.85 5
8.82
13.99
10.20
3.31 6.28 8.66
4.03 6.23 8.80
5./0 6.89 4.82 3.67 4.82
6.59 7..9 5.00 3.48 4.57
5.68 8.6 5.16 3.40 4.55
5.68 8.68 5.25 3.38 4.67
5,86 8.02 5.42
5.75 6.30 5.58
4.88 1.86 5.41
4.36 1.416 4.51
4.14 1.39 4.60
495 .9 5.52
4.16 2.1?
3.76 2.37
1.85 .. 3.98 2.40
8.95 5.L1 -
5.28 9,13 2.85 5.1. 7.94. 3.81 -
5.7 8.96 2.67 5.26 8.60 2.67 -
5.35 7.7? 2.13 5.61 7.01 2.13 -
5.38 7.37 2.05 5.63 7.77 2.05 -
90UT SaPaulo Parana Santa CatRi rino S.68 1.o Grande do Sul
5.08 4.58 7.98 3.9 4.88
4.99 6o24 4.27 3.67 4.62
4.93 6.16 4.28 3.41 4.55
5.00 6.?9 4.13 3.31 4.1.,
5.48 6.34 5.3. 5.13
5,/.0 6.89 4.68 .45 4.94
C7,NTRAL WST Mato Grosso Goias & D. Federal
3.95 3.60 6.10
5.59 2.33 5.97
5.59 2.56 5.94
6.65 2.86 6.8s
4.31 2.50 4.50
4.71 3.61 5.06
A/ego. s EAST Servipe Bhi CO.I, Minn Ger is Esprito Santo io de Janeiro Guanabera
..
5.55 3.59 ..... 6.64 5.96
6.86
SOURCF: - Ada.ted from ANUAPrO ESTATfSTICO DO BRASIL
-
.......
3.4. -
-
Piaui
Cenra Tio Grfnde do Norte Para~ba Penambuco
0 _
3.09 %,1?
-
-
3.21 5.94 8.42 3.213.2
6.1
6.06
326
2.97
5.06
a'
.
23t,-te or
.
.
.e.t
..
..
.
LPJ7_.1L
Ac.'
;'- -
0
Tdc r-rnnco
Nfl1il T . rnnhi o Pi~u
_
..
.
-
.
.9
...
.
191 .
9
2 .
1.52
1.53
1.62
1.7C
1.66
.85
1.02
1.70 1.19
1.,03 1.07 1.?6
1.0O 1..1
."6 1.13 1.46
.95 1.!4 1.43
.9(, 1.15 i.?1
.88
I.15 1.80 .95 1 lo
1.13 1.8c .93
.81 .97 1.34
1.4,6 1.50 .89
1.35 1.0
.91
.83 93 1.43
.84
1.05 2.-O .97 %17
.94 1.15 1.5
L.Y6 1.56 .87
1.44
1.28
.84
.63
.92
!.?6 1.50 .90 .90
1.29 .86 ./5
1.2 1.21 .78 .44
1.39 1.31 .79 .67
1.26
1.03
.0
.;5
1.24
i.11
1.32
1.29 1.2 1.23 1.50 l10 1. ',2 1.16
1.1c
1.10 1.20 .93 .1 .7C; .62 1.0
1.39 1.45 1.o6 1,66 1.081 .84 1.59
i.1i 1.05 .91 1.62 1.07 1.02 2.CI
1.51 1.56 1.22 1.82 1.12 1.06 1.41
1.52 1.59 1.37 1.79 .98 1.13 1. 3
1.51
1.96 1.41 2.27 1.27
1.68 1.31 2.27 1.?(
1.72 1.62 2.14 1.4,
1.60
1.40
1.52
1.47 2.25 1.05
.86 1.7?
!.69
1.7?
1.58
1.21,
PPie
1.25 1.(S i.29
.92
1.23
1.63 1.21
1.31 1.12
1.62 1.1 2.20 1.1/.
1. 5 1,1L,
1 .10 1.20
1.20; .98 .55 1.,2
.07
.96
2.02
.92 1.25 1.,12
1.23 1.24.
Pio de inn-im
.
1.6/.
r
7.)nto
9
.
1.37
1.1
ospirito
.
1.49
1.24
;*inos Gtris
8 .
1.39
.22 1.19
____
...................
J.48
1.26 1.28 1.19 1.03 .99 1 .16 .
P1-c Grninde do ,corte P ';ibi P1.3mburI
t
. .9 .. 1957 .9
1.43
E0_TH
Fonlionia
..
9_53 .. L94
1.39
Guam: bara
.91 1.23
1.Lr
.67
-
-
1.29 1.2? 1.50 1.06 1.55 1.29
].12 -
1.29 1.30 1.29 .9? 1.04. 2.36 1.1p
1.49 1.22
1.8 .. I.Z7 1.6? -
1.J ].1].S
.99 1.36 l.4
1.31
1.57
1.16
1.62 1.50 1..47
1.50
2.43 1.21
1.52 1.60 1.49
.91
1.48
1.61
1.42
1.51
1.50
1.52
: o F"uic
l.r? J'12 ].-j9
1.71 1.25
1.68 .23
1.65
1.52 1W .16
1.85 1.65
1.76 I.4i
1.74 1.40
1.82 1.51
Parcn rnnta CatrrJL o Grn'-.'4o
1.99 1.52
1.98 1.51
1.24 2.43 1.69
1 .29 2.51. S6
.
.92 2.6, 2.72
1.21 ;'.h 2.65
1.il. 2,7 2.81
1.3Z 2.F3 ?.41
1.30 2.20 2.60
1.35
2.89
!.15 1,7C ..
2.78 3.07
1.30 2.30 3.09
1.78 1.23
1.5 1.51
1.5' 1 .68
1.64 1.60
1.31 1 .47
1.69 1./5
1.42 1.37
1.50 1.54
1.64 1.41
1.52 1.48
1.47
1.30
].95
1.
I.44
1.65
.?1
1.61
1.43
1.48
1.72
1.60
1.53
'
CIP-5AT ' .to Gro.'oo "
Gois h D F
"
Sul
'.T-.TST OraiT
r
7
B$.T
Yield of Suj-- Cane Per Hectare
Table 1 8. Brazil. by States a.
Territories, 1945 and 1953-1962
(Tons per Hec are)
State or Territory
1945
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
BRAZIL
38.00
38.69
39.23
38.16
39.12
40.69
41.41
1.45
NORTH
31.97
25.33
26.47
24.69
26.11
25.37
25.36
25.38
1961
1962
42.48
43.45
42.64
24.68
22.02
23.98
Rondonia
21.03
11.92
12.57
15.76
16.51
12.97
14.36
13.93
15.02
16.50
16.62
Acre Amazonas Rio Branco Par1 Amapa
43.00 36.00 38.00 30.00 19.00
39.18 33.98 60.00 22.69 -
40.09 34.61 75.00 23.54 -
40.77 32.84 20.00 21.97 -
43.85 33.82 16.OO 23.07 29.54
45.47 31.65 50.06 22.41 28.04
45.81 31.31 50.00 22.16 23.78
44.99 31.99 50.00 22.65 25.45
47.00 29.43 47.;0 22.02 24.27
44.42 30.98 19.21 25,45
47.29 33.75 28.89 20.57 26.58
NOR ;AST Maranhao Piau, Ceara Rio Grande do Norte Paraiba Pernambuco Alagoas
36.88 20.0 26.00 41.00 42.00 39.00 34.00 47.00
36.59 27.30 27.81 35.17 48.01 39.42 35.82 40.12
37.55 28.20 27.33 39.11 50.67 42.54 35.96 41.45
38.54 30.33 27.33 40.49 51.20 50.45 35.23 42.30
40.22 29.33 28.72 41.95 52.97 51.25 37.46 43°22
EAST Sergipe Bahia IMin-s Gerais Espirito Santo Rio de Janeiro Guanabara
43.15 35.00 50.00 37.00 29.OC 58.00
39.73 40.16 44.59 34.89 30.35 46.56
38.19 42.00 47.53 4.05 28.79 40.83
37.20
35.62
39.32 30.54 29.93 41.85 47.65 45.30 37.30 43.22 36.78
38.59 29.07 27.45 29.05 48.69 42.50 37.35 45.81 37.85
39.76 25.63 2 .37 40.52 50.95 45.53 38.14 44.64 38.24
40.78 27.79 30.30 40.17 53.14 45.41 39.86 44.23 37.08
41.02 27.77 34.69 41.05 49.99 46.87 41.14 41.24 38.00
40.99 28.07 34.88 41.03 50.21 47.21 40.13 43.58 35.34
40.50 42.99 32.79 28.09 42.13
-
-
-
39.61 37.96 32.00 29.U1 40.96 31.32
42.28 37.91 33.03 30.09 42.41 31.66
37.91 44.71 33.81 29.06 42.63 33.33
37.32 42.81 32.75 30.30 41.00 31.60
38.05 45.90 -2.26 28.08 41.96 32.00
41.63 43.12 34.20 28.34 41.92 31.93
41.20 32.60 32.48 26.11 42.25 32.00
SOUTH Sao Paulo Parana Santa Catarina
34.53 43.00 42.00 28.0C
40.48 45.90 52.59 32.71
42.45 47.34 56.22 31.47
39.03 .4.01 55.68 24.58
41.63 46.17 58.66 28.02
46.01 51.12 61.07 31.55
47.54 52.36 61.97 30.76
47.08 51.69 60.64 33.22
48.65 53.54 58.98 33.65
50.54 55.44 64.98 31.07
50.33 54.95 65.64 27.70
Rio Grande do Sul
16.00
17.84
19.43
16.18
17.80
17.80
18.41
17.66
17.74
18.87
20.14
CENTRALTWEST Mato Grosso Goias & D.Federal
42.57 46.00 36.00
36.33 44.39 33.61
38.01 46.44 35.15
38.54 43.7,2 36.86
p9.20 46.12 36.94
41.88 48.96 39.71
42.08 46.02 40.72
44.47 44.58 41.29
43.12 43.62 42.95
44.55 46.03 44.09
46.24 45.19 46.56
SOUFCE:- Ada ted from ANUARIO ESTATfSTICO DO BRASIL
-
cc
Thb19. B
Yield of Tobacco oar Hectare zi_.j _/,States and Territories. 1945 and 1953-1962 (Tons
State or Territory BRAZIL NORTH Rondonia Acre Amazonas Rio Branco Pnrs Amap R HEAST raQho Pi.nui Cear' Pio Grxnde do Nortp Pa Ar '- rnbuco
Santa Cet-ninn P.io OGrnir do :ul CLN:TPAT ,' OF' ise ,o:1 Gois R-Fivtrito F.
.-
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
.79
.78
.80
.76
.80
.78
.79
.79
.76
.74
.81
.48 1.27 .48 1.08 .71 .47 .75
.72 1.20 , .69 1.08 .71 .91
.71 1.20 .67 .74 1.00 .71 .75
.74 1.20 .65 .77 1.38 .75 .67
.71 1.20 o62 .77 .54 .71 .74
.74 1.2C .64 .72 .60 .76 .44
.73 1.27 .63 .83 .50 .71 .38
.79 _..30 .64 .80 .81 .33
.77 1.33 .63 .79 .50 .79 .28
.75 1.35 .63 1.30 .69 .26
.71 1.35 .61 .80
.58 .O .. .43 .7 .36 .51 o .60
.69 .61 .52 .50 .32 .1 7
.70 .)8 . ,4 .54 .7
.711 .55 .60 .52 .33 .82
.67 .•9 .58 .58 .32
.60 .59 .63 .68 .39
.67 .58 .39 .3q .34
.71 .62 .45 .66 .50
.54 .64 ,41 .68 .55
.56 .64 .43 .64 .60
.?6
.73
.69 .65 .41 .65 .61
.L9
.83
46 . .74
.62
.58 .82
.48 .85
.30 .79
.29 .86
.57 .85
.61 .85
.68
.1
.68 .90
.66 .99
."5
.81 .4
.78 .56
.71
.59 88
.82
.59 .83 .59 .56 s?
.11 .57
.50
.L5
.49
.92 .75
099 .59 1.40 1.11 .9. .76 .60 .77
07
75 .6
.F2
3
.66
.76
.95
,9]
.02
.6. .6?
.80 .55
.&'
*
.7? .5
.75
.R2
.5 .F7
.8
.72
.e]
IP
.5° .84 .52
.98 .59 .51 1.22 1.02
.04 .?a 1..7 .75 1.0"7
.01 .q 1.34 .75 1.(:2
.1 .?5 ]1.6 .7? .s6
.Q6 .61 1.38 ].](0 .0-
88 .59 1.2 149 .81
.92 .59 I.1 1.09 .87
.95 .56 1.40 1.19 .89
1.16 .86
.94 .62 1.34 1.17 .86
.89 .5) .9:,
.6Z ./6 .65
.78 .58 ,8
8 .50 .85
.85 .77 .89
.89 .65 .90
.88 .58 .90
.77 .58 .78
.73 .56 .7/
.76 .59 .78
S4.8 ". t" ..r.to i.de .ni
Hectare)
1953
65.70 :
oer
1945
.97
.5
SOUVCF: - Adapted from
ANUfFTO FSTkfTS-TCO DO BPJMS!J
.80 .6?
.89 .50
.83
.95
-
.70 .26
59
.54 .79
.
TableZO. Brazil
,
Yield of Mieat per Hectare by States and Territories. 1945 and 1953962 (Tons per Hectare)
State.
9
_Territ-o ry ...
BRAZIL
_
.74
.85
0
NOW_ Rondonia Acre Am zonas Rio Branco Parr.
........... ........... ........... .........
Aimp "
...........
NO =TFTFAST Piaul
...........
Pio Grz.nde do Norte
........... ........... ...........
zo
Bnhia Min Grr-is
C7,r71PIfI VFST M-ito Grost
Goi4c & D.F.
0 -
0
.97
0
.68
0 -
-
.41
0 -
0
_1958
i99
0 -
196._
.52
.62
0
0
0
.95
0
-
0
1962
.53
0
-
0
1961
-
0
-
0 -
0
0
1.23 -
.?5 -
.61 -
.75 -
.81 -
.93 -
.66 -
.36 -
.75 -i...
.74
.66
1.23
.19 .50
.98 .52
.86 .6L
.7? .83
.1? 1.1L
.25 .80
.21 .65
.50 .79
.50 .68
.85 .21
.-
-
.2?
.32
.67
.80
.75
-
-
-
Frpl.-Ito S'-nto Rio de Jiniro Gunnabera
SOUTH Sno Paulo Parana Santa Cotarina Pio Gninde do Sul
.92
0 -
0
...........-
19.55------ 1...... 19_57
.81
0 -
l.nmranha o
Par- ba Pernrb
I954......
_95
-
-
..-
.74 -
.62 .96 .'/1 1.20 -
1.20
.85 .81 .7 .92 .85
.81 .81 .76 .76 .82
-
.92 .8? .7e 1.02 .92
.30
.22
.7?
.32
-
-
.25
.22
.73
SICTtV :- Adapted from ANUdAPZO r.-TfTfST-ICO !1 BRASTL
-
.q7 .98 1.06 1.00 .95
-
.68 .74 .79 .85 .65
-
.41 .77 .85 .83 .33
-
.52 .63 .89 .96 .1*.
.62 .77 .82 .98 .57 1.19
.53 *74 .76 .79 .48
.95 .84 .83 1.01 .96
.55
.77
1.12
1.14
.65
1.33
1.00
1.47
1.14
1.14
1.19
.63
1.34
.47
.35
.60
1.38
1.18
1.19
.60
Tab ID.,_Byz~_b . . .. . .. . ..
Sto
.
8_I.XL NOIT Rond.-nin cr Am.-ons Rio Branco Par,
.
. .
. . . . . .. . .
.
,945
1.-
..
.
S ta. ad T
h
. . (T
. ..
-1954 .....
19,55..
-iVres.19A5
.s..
-
.
I..3..o62-
. ._
_
7......95.
.
12 6
195.9
_ _
161
1962_
1,022,/.46
1,,86,600
1,544,228
1,L74,985
1,379,325
1,582,017
1,453,613
1,549,644
1,730,795
2,718
1,744,561
1,708,983
11,294
ui,696
8,177
7,982
7,266
7,354 413
8,251
675
1,73.4 451
1,776 812
8,038 668 2,005 832
8,909 898 2,017 949
1i 4,537 29
23 4,708 25
9,204 1,056 2,252 1,341
70 5,129 43
89 4,1-00 44
51 4,909 85
43 4,4.61 51
;8
22
652 600
1,769 /.66
7 1,L47 4
1,872 5,036 2,029
155,709 1,844 13,524
228,195 13,252 11,257
'03,1-94
1,211 22,791
268,284 12,787 0,816
145,810
19,450 22,536
1,309 35,279
47,946 21,598
157,054 12,822 12,262
90,918 28,( 4C
357,775 21,951 32,861
99,119 29,'67
97,172 28,573
3Q2,051 20,528 28,888
P1" a P-rnambucc
120,502 29,325
4'11. .16 26,141 48,188
439,501
0 i Rio r:nnde do Norte
285,179 12.1/0 11,614
10,993 16,910
40,4-31 29,465 26,.09
113,108 44,016
77,012 59,075 38,055
117,869 47,7C7
45,114 73,764 29,654
4 9,11H 47,026 16,782
123,607 46,092
40,747 42,005 16,184
43,308 64,860 39,227
18,015
133,010 45,856
/-,650 4,Z02
42,'14 62,343 41,182
56,720 82,723 38,516
53,658 66,094 50,636
52,783 76,967 4C,065
411,510
401,965
5,20C 57,870
33,092
11,201 57,6?5
4.7/,540
9,585 61,109
469,191
3,938 -6,574
503,537
29.,252 ?3,9zS 1 ,C72
9,266 82, "64
396,084
"07,049 2"1,4W,2 12,32
8,662 81,"49
/.56,105
260,593 20,919 50 15,
3,7/5 52,935
388,375
298,305 2I ,295 21,511
9,287 75,5317
28,91 30,566 11,912
8,831 93,149
347,806 1'1,771 12,993.
9,730 73,316
331,498 73,023 !3,0C0
13,385 93,138
263,925 28,597 11,029
350,909 38,635 12,013
324,280 BS,312 10,167
244,193 37,853 7,515
A c--
1.Mn rn-ho PF iu't
359,93
perc £ Kirn-s Gorr" Fspirito &S.nto Rio de Jnnpiro Gu-nnber
-
25
30
258
416
474
1,763 579
1,596
1,933 5,257 2,148
2' 5,562 121
1,807 540 35
1,759
-
-74,71.
5, 2 19
-
421
26,031 58,789
-
-
-
-
-
SIT?_ F Sno" P~uo P1ren" Srnta C.tarirm Rio Grande do Sul
-
434,879 155,71S 118,387 44,647 116,127
66o, 7CO 190,852 05,296 55,012 119,540
736,058 213,943 "'6,964 65,685 119,1.66
67 ,076 209,992 274,264 73,365 115,455
6?,4/3 198,143 227,050 71,601 125,649
652,21k 221,336 238,345 71,323 121,21/.
714,923 201,Z.02 304,197 70,160 139,164
702,881 165,513 306,997 74,,74 155,297
700,237 178,139 298,780 72,713 14,305
737,665 178,952 322,789 84,953 150,971
CEI. kRST Mato Grosso Goins & D.Federal
747,338 158,145 339,301 86,528 163,364
49,188 11,212 37,976
75,001 24,106 50,895
Q3, 015 29,656 61,359
133,640 28,23; 105,407
98,524 24,217 71,-07
1C2,183 ?7;02. 65,165
105,091 38,903 66,188
92,?62 46,146 46,216
126,032 49,123 76,909
127,466 51,048 76,418
116,856 47,032 69,824
SOUrCF:-
ANU4PJ0 ESTATf.TICO rn BPAST
T
-
IBGE
-
Table ZZ.Brazil State or Territory BRAZIL NOPT
19
__53
119,656 2,933
Rondonia
Acre Amazonas
Rio
Branco
Pars Amapa NOWHEAST Nnranhn
157,921
161,093
1,706
1,819
2,091
2,35/
-
-
-
21 1,168 -
-6
4.
___
-
1959 _
1961
1962
164,186
177,834
163,223
155,901
10,363
?,273
2,393
2,372
2,052
2,655
2,522
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
912
898 3-
896 11
1,152 12
1,027 19
1,015 13
962 13
810 13
29 10
'8 8
24 8
26 8
?5 7
28 10
33 16
-
Ceara Ri o Gr ande do Nor te
-
-....... -.......
P p r l Da
- ....--
-
-
5 1,240
-
-
-
1960
164,556
1957..
5 1,303
-
18
l
5 922
797
1,742 -
-
-
oroes194..a
(Tons) 1956
_
162,947
-
Sprgioe Bahia Ydnas Gorais F.spirito Santo Pao de Janeiro Guanabe ra
errt
136,970'
-
__T_
by St aa .. i
Pif
P..rnambuco a~oas
,
5 1,413
-
-
1,1549
-
-
1,010
-
-
-
-
834
1,201
1,024 18
1,782 39
1,274 47
21 6
21 6
17 8
-
-
-
- -
18
19 20 -...... 135,235 161,1oo
116,705 -
-
-
115,149 13 1,549
131,694 19 3,522
157,84 19 3,237
-
-
16
18
18
18
17
15
15
9
155,806
158,713
162,258
161,756
175,419
161,137
153,210
137,812
155,293 30 A,390
156,436 30 5,792
-
-
-
-
156,503 20 5,233
170,327 20 5,072
155,109 20 6,008
147,812 20 5,378
-
-
-
-
-
-
152,105 30 3,671 -
-
-
132,4.86 20 5,306 -
...........
SOUT?
......
9
10
13
114
1
SIo Pnulo
......
9
10
13
14
Ui
1
1
1
1
Santa Catarina
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Rio Grande do Sul
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
C!'NTRAI . ST Rat Grosso Goias & 0. Federal
-
-
SOUCE:- Adayted from ANU A IO ESTATfSTICO 00 BRAST.
-
-
-
-
-
-..
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Production -f
Table 23. Brazil,
State or Territory BPAZIL
1945
1953
1954
1,110,606
1,036,987
1,369,759
979,278
259
375
394
254
247
Rondonia
-
Acre Amaqonas
-
235 12
-
346 11
Para
Rio Grande do Norte
PnrAba Perinambuco AIagoas
EAST Ser Bahia 1i.vas Ger-,is i.apfrito Sinto Rio de Janpiro
Gunnabsra OUT Sno Paulo Pa-rann Santa Cetarina
12
18
-
1,409,304
201 15
-.... -
27,679 21
-
4,174
-
2,556
-
30,039 29
-
4,812
-
289 20,423 1,046
308 16,673 1,949
310 23,406 1,855
330 22,845 1,927
342 25,048 1,923
385,445 60 22,719 20,902 19,12 33,622
3 '0,223 138 21,118 238,OO 99,382 31,282
382,305 157 2 ,?04 229,790 102,814 26,340
425,017 118 25,318 259,311 114,657 25,613
357,331 119 P2,990 204,912 97,813 ?4.,497
-
357 22,851 1,990 453,204 17 10,708 262,311 130,309 29,659
-
-
-
-
-
-
413,882 358,382 53,075 2,425
674,675 470,024 201,643 3,008
600,706 480,187 117,563 2,956
&8,129 542,944 342,308 2,877
552,753 43,,946 115,026 2,781
883,675 602,879 277,780 3,o16
-
9,225 1,950 7,275
-
22,209 3,689 18,520
-
25,041 4,370 20,671
-
28,680 4,859 23,821
-
37,252 2,255 34,997
26,059 19
68
258 13
141 3Z
143 12
366 -
-
379
-
350
-
-103
37,383 38
43,083 49
46,695 36
45,055 34
3,942
5,066
6,338
8,277
-
2,853
3 ---
366 20,976 1,845
621 29,600 3,182
646 34,139 3,183
745 37,065 2,511
682 34,094 1,968
495 682 161 36,191 280,218 151,633 27,479
945,616 266 60,562 543,502 287,571 53,715
895,559 204 60,696 496,276 284,730 53,653
903,986 247 50,709 542,270 256,283 54,477
883,360 161 48,777 492,301 293,037 49,084
1,132,200 620,399 508,835 2,966
3,290,156 1,462,133 1,823,-127 4,596
3,111,468 1,157,989 1,948,637 4,842
3,358,397 1,269,699 2,083,722 4,976
3,312,663 752,495 2,555,155 5,013
-
42,165 4,596 37,569
532
-
131
-
-
4,359
637
4,380,607
-
35
-
31,695 23
-
2,953
-
-
1962
4,457,409
319 21
-
1961
4,169,586
-
228 14
38
1960
471
-
164 19
31
-
28,541 17
-
4,339
27
1959 4,396,844
277
-
-
-
23,124 20
19 8 1,695,855
221
-
211 16
23
-
26,104 7
1io Grande do Sul
CE9 RAL ST Mnto Grosso Goias & F. District
197_
-
Amapa
Ceara
-
360 11
Rio Branco
Piu
1956 1__5
834,916
NOM
NORTEAST la. 6
Cof
States and Te2rto ies1945 and 1953-1962
41,637 6,141 35,496
-
123,213 23,894 99,324
-
118,839 26,549 +,,290
-
-
147,799 41,239 106,560
138,921 50,996 87,925
I
Production of Corn
Table 24. Brazil. by States and Territoriez 1945 and 1953-1962 (Tons)
State or Territor
.
4
.
. -A 5_3
_195 1....
.1956
. . .
...... ].
.957 .
198 .
BRAZIL NORM Rondonia
4,846,557 19,099 -
5,984,284 27,103 89
6,788,794 29,1,05 9.
6,689,930 29,981 120
6,999,320 29,853 418
7,763,439 27,785 559
7,370,089 29,340 128
7,786,739 31,189 1,280
8,671,952 33,720 1,783
9,036,?37 34,137 1,883
9,580,385 36,139 2,105
Acre Amazonas
4,830 1,514
5,646 791
5,846 988
5,727 899
5,516 977
5,087 1,1.14
5,493 1,337
5,386 1,/M8O
5,713 1,692
5,314 1,635
5,461,766
102 18,130
85 19,981
63 21,860
158 2,091
38 19,798
444 20,022
320 22,159
289 21,712
420 2.,127
316 25,943
RioBranco Para
-
12,699
Amapa NORT'EAST Maranho PiaUf Ceara Rio Grande do Norte
.-
.
.
... 1961
56
2,345
2,411
1,312
693
1,079
816
564
753
547
363,607 17,551 23,783 60,881 56,411
428,563 75,350 21,233 86,867 30,490
651,382 80,375 34,640 151,351 39,930
611,028 80,804 54,049 177,097 44,787
601,945 79,832 U.,588 208,897 41,675
72,31.' 86,925 51,277 213,768 32,923
372,613 84,042 27,1 1 15,667 14,406
713,100 126,360 51,245 210,814 51,4.36
825,48? 11.7,327 45,968 221,030 60, Inx
937,121 166,707 64,645 265,995 5z,2736
985,892 209,337 7-4,092 293,735 55,564
5/
Paralba
70,044
61,208
116,924
115,402
106,678
14,338
38,621
83,078
128,165
131,322
126,.16
Pernambuco Alagoas
86,889 48,043
98,248 55,167
161,519 66,643
100,442 38,1!j,7
91,61. ?8,614
171,350 70,761
119,1.1.7 73,019
129,868 60,299
180,576 72,312
170,61C, 84,606
153,595 73,123
1,726,219 19,490 95,549 1,391,-J7 87,593 132,280
1,610,384 34,539 78,984 1,345,629 72,114 79,118
1,584,200 28,807 97,670 1,325,056 67,1.21 65,246
1,7.1,766 13,964 61,687 1,498,14.2 85,104 82,86c
1,i85,024 l,4,922 11,4,C03 1,533,119 122,455 90,165
2,320,802 28,990 173,3? 1,840,725 )148,6vO 128,675
2,'62,693 21,.97 105,005 i,8/.6,1r,7 150,1' 1P6,,5
2,304,622 28,391 131,!,96 I ,868,357 155,156 V1,722
5,057,771 1,582,1.79 !1,796,559 5-;6,b97 1,582,136
5,294,833 1,574,651 1,339,953 615,213 1,765,OA
5,687,304 1,721,937 1,4,77,855 616,922 3,870,590
507,453 110,767 396,686
566,428 162,327 404,101
EAST Sergipe Bahia Minas Gerais Enpfrito Santo Rio de Janeiro Guanabara Sao Paulo Parana Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul CNTRAL Mato Grosso Goia's & F. District
-
-
-
-
1,538,435 11,974 65,665 1,294,576 86,656 79,564, -
2,125,/,68 24,643 136,57o 1,720,467 136,289 107,.99 -
2,029,625 23,774 114,430 1,66(,200) 1,1,398 1Wt,02 -1C-,
'C'O-in
2,573,007 994,827 665,018 293,130 620,032
3,671,092 1,099,823 906,328 4..,800 1,222,141
4,250,197 1,359.831 1,123,602 434,778 1,331,986
4,012,076 1,259,8?3 072,34,8 457,404 1,322,491
4,516,837 1,176,590 1,301,704 494,559 1,443,984
4,547,545 1,371,158 1,193,245 506,790 1,476,352
4,589,719 1,404,435 1,153,222 548,287 1,433,775
4,784,78C 1,303,3714 1,220,779 571,061 1,604,574
164,625 51,307 113,318
247,142 83,781 163,361
273,610 99,224 174,386
295,079 69,517 225,562
12,259 83,946 228,313
33O,299 9'7,('212,646
/.3,792 89,960 258,832
172,638 104,8.2 267,796
SOURCE:- ANUXRIO ESTATfSTICO DO BRASIL
434,087 112,376 121,711
71Ij
In
N 41)
~
0012
'2 3'
) C)4
C I-
'o
'C
No 3'~~~~
~
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II
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zf 7)n
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24
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(
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r' H I' Il
I1
II
I-.n
-..
N
H
I
co) .7) lo - '
'2z
C-I
4)cc--'
4nc)
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(7) -I
C-i
01t
(' 41
I
I~
'2
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I
'
Hi
"t(
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4
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I
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4C 1-
,
7
14
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.C
H) H -4)(C)~ J
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-4
-4
-
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IN
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H
W
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f) co CT', -1 In 4 'OHr CO-'
1
I
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- )-(
I-
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04)'
'-
77'-
i-
1~S-''2-) 4) 114)
c
0
'L
L)HIN
-H H
N
m
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HC---)H
'2
'C
W
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'7\1H4 -1
f
0
H
w lo N qL,(
'n
o
Hr.
)
'DNl" -T r- -i
'
t- c-O, -1 In 4)\1Q)4
,c
H4D
,-4)I
U,"C[- (-
01'2(\I )-In-.U '
-1
N
-' r-''
U) U)I77£
-
1 10 0 rm ; m i u) t C 4 H E) f.
-. ,J> -1)- CI
-1u(
C2-7-
.1-1O?)c'd
H cu J
-q
14
C,7
C
.'
[
oo4(1
-4
17
H,
L.
,2-)7)
-j
0()
.
CICO2NL7 9,17h
7,956 5,L23
3
195 175 1,000 52 1,575 l,4o3 1,562 572 861 1,217
563 670
3,030 1,268 1,377
9
,99
1,506 1,484 9,304 ,15 9,040
,171
1,810 1,h±46 529
799
1'13.,597470 16,051,,17116,21
10
10
11
1l
9,9-! 1,oo0 1,510 9,1±19 6,932 6,305
10,197 1,625 1,576 9,403 9,957 b,674
10,301 1,904 1,604 9,491 9,860 6,756
10,394 1,955 1,664 9,611 10,061 6,360
201 175 970
53 1,670
1,681 1,665 590 1,049 1,191
5,965
16
-
1952-1962
Table32.Nuirber of !iead. 3razil. by States and '.err-torles. (1000 head) State or Territory TOTAL BRAZIL Rondonia Acre Amazonas Rio Branco
Para
1952
1953
30,915
32,721
13
12
59
59 110
135
8 339
45.,2 6
19o1
1962
4 b,J23
47,944
50,051
52,941
13
14
14
15
16
17
19
04
b7
ol
"3
6b
101
-
143 10
202 12
232 13
265 15
341
-
464
9
-70
13
-
-'1 21 2,303 1,395 1,06 353 2 726 322
13 8 12 512 211 2,321 1,566 1,069 357
319 630 21
8
Sao Paulo Parana Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul Mat 9 (rosso Goias & D.Federal
3,937 2,4.1 2,358 4,530
4,027 2,899 2,847 4,b43 914 2,711
2,360
'.,190
1'-ioU
77
4,693
315
41,!!16
1959
09
5,139 750 595 -
35,555(2) 38,606
191d
ii
Minas Gerais Espirito Santo Rio de Janeiro Guanabara
197
-
Alagoas Sergipe Bahia
1'ernambuco
1956
-
9 1,660 1,151 914 273 368 6k5 21 130 2,055
Amapa Maranhao Piaui Ceara Rio Grande do Aorte Paraiba
1955
1954(1)
1,694 1,171 890 275 3b0 6)2 292 138 2,128 770 674 -
SOURCE:- ANU.ARIO -:STATfSTICO DO BRASIL (1) Data by state for 1954 notavailable (2) Banco do Brasil S/A. Relatorio 1956
-
-
154
-
933 760 4,552 3,302 3,218 5,063 1,333 3,362
4,620 3,672 3,496 3,278 1, .'12 3,776
15
1 1,146 UO6 2,
27 "25127: 2,121 1,11.94 7ob 340
555 61)5 36.
475
544
763
797
176 ,74
1 5,020 4,0C 3,732
lo 3,036 ,90 1,062 731 1l 3,103 4,3:j5 3,972
o, I7b
-,534
1,3 3,o56
1,7-u 3,533
353
157 2,711,L u,3-2 u.,952 9o9 1'45
-
l,:bl VJg 3',
75
2, ,92
-
2 -,11-
531
-
-
-3L3
7, 1,u32
33
3 214
,'C ',. 1,0
i21 1 -,5
1,',7u 4,100 o,305 1,911 3,o09
, ,
Y,: 7 7*
11
795 2323
1, o96 399
671
.579 132b 1,011 421 741
".9
234 3 , -99 110 (12
1, 4,92, "o0 ",319 5,a72 1,(65 3,476
414
11
3,'
231
1,%169 1,112 L L2
6" 250 9,331
1,.49 7 i
1,1;'4 7-6 2 ,1
,.
0
o,192
4,;70
4,.43
6,007 1,U40 3,705
5,960 2,036 4,136
!
She ep Table33.Number of '{ead, Brazil, by States and Territories. 1952-1962 (lOgO head)
State or Territory TOTAL BRAZIL Rondonia
Acre Amazonas
Rio Branco Para Amapa i.aranhao Piaui Ceara Rio Grande do ! orte Paraiba P-ernambuco Alagoas Sergipe
ah-ia Tinas aerais Espirito Santo
Rio de Janeiro
auanabara Sao Iaulo rarana Santa Catarina Rio ]r.rnde do Sul .ato 3rosso *oias & D.?ederal56
1952
1953
16,264
16,796
1954(1)
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
17,503(2) 18,4b4
18,065
20,164
19,921
13,995
18,162
19,168
19,718
2
2
10 11-
11 9
-
5
5
-
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
12
13 14
15
14
15
19
22
19
22
26
15 31
36
42
4
5
5
7
12
4
34
31
-
37
3o
40
42
46
50
56
64
2 127
1 137
-
2 167
2 190
U67
2 209
1 230
-
b43
2 198
751
75
2 182
O83
864
899
945
1,027
1,019
-
1,095
464
1,153 499
1,193 530
659 39b
985 437
1,095 1424
1 241 991 1,203 75
2 261 1,021 1,272 536
-
559
433
645
766
o56
490 665
584
706 241
694
256
27b
?94
664 312 215 2,145 359 28
734 319 222 2,229 378 25
40
40
124 251 210 10,755 283
1 124 271 210 10,764 312 92
434 353 567 171 171
U.14 362 592
12 168
1,567
1,567
294
300
35
40 49
46 ......
103 159 127 9,966 224
109 170 135 10,397 228 63
SOURCE:- ANUARIO TST.,TISTICO DO '.ASIL (1) Data b y state for 1954 not available (2) Eanco do Brasil S/A. Relatorio 1956
-
509 636
565 667
216 15L 1,693 343 26
230 162 1,735 365 26
172 1,ixl 304 25
176
187
1,997 427 29
2,055 450 29
212 2,165 37b 29
-
9
49
47
50
46
42
130 208 173 12,399 275 76
1 136 218 179 12,597 282 78
1 140 220 193 11,235 266 82
1 130 193 203 :0,088 271 77
-
-
-
125 162 151 11,436 22b 72
123 193 166 11,483 252 75
-
84
U
'AI
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Horses, Asses & hules Table35.Number of Lead, Brazil, by States and Territories, 1952-1962 (1000 head) State or Territory TOTAL BRAZIL Rondonia Acre Amazonas Rio Branco Para Amapa Maranhao Fiauf Ceara Rio Grande do Norte Paraiba Iernambuco Alagoas Sergipe Bahia Minas 3erais -spirito Santo Rio de Janeiro Guanabara Sao lulo Parana Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul 1.ato Grosso Goias & D.Federal
1952
1953
11,937
11,802
2
5
2 6
8
7
8
95
8 88
2 266
313
45
3
776 217
465 773 211
351
371
520 153 96
532 162 95 1,513 1,523 287 269
1,)96 1,860 262 276
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
12,201(2) 12,728
13,385
13,855
14,048
14,411
14,534
14,835
15,506
1 6
2 7
10 19 100
2 10 14 1 ill
2 10 17 12 110
3
8
2 9 14 19 108
3
16 98
2 8 12 21 106
13 19 13 112
15 22 13 107
621
-
4
4
4
350
371
536
396
-
815 232
571 853 24
-
381 5W0 170 100 1,634 1,703 24c 305
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1,492 570 301 1,269 369 600A
1,532 591 504 1,262 390 52
-
1,621 660 473 1,362
SOURCE:- ANU.I AO ICO 23 .)JST.TS 3RASIL (1) Jata by state for 1954 not available (2) Banco do Brasil S/A. Relatrio 1956
Iq
1954(1)
-
-
457 963
4
5
455
4 515
4 551
605 877 256
125 563 723 226
607 783 236
3 4
634 835 251
394
663 900 261
373
399
565 177 109 1,707 1,091 251 313 2 1,659 710 503 1,401 490 1,022
L
613 iL9 113 1,7 i 1,979 262 317 2 1,o77 762 504 1,436 533 1,004
617 197 123 1,633 2,191 269 324 2 1,b69 794 506 1,460 536 1,036
471
636 207 132 1,909 2,223 277 323
220 140 2,012 2,241 287 314
1,666 626 506 1,454 522 1,055
1,610 b64 506 1,374 531 921
3
3
693 239 143 2,032 2,294 259 295 6 1,617 865 511 1,347 556 936
4 696 961 271 529 723 251 148 2,106 2,397 296 296 6 1,616 910
499 1,402 621 993
W
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Poultry - Roosters. Pullets, Cockerels
Table37.Number of dead, Brazil, by States and Territories, 1957-1962 (1)
(1000 head)
State or Territory
TOTAL BRkZIL
Rondonia
Acre
Amazonas
RioBranco
Para
Amapa
l;aranhao
1-iaui
Ceara
Rio 3rande do Norte
Paraiba
Pernambuco
Alagoas
Sergipe
Sahia
*inas Ierais
-syirito Santo
Rio de Janeiro
iuanabara
Sao Paulo
Parana
Santa Catarina
Io 3rande do Sul
5rosso
9 $at
Goias & ).Federal
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
62,118
63,314
66,099
69,089
73,016
78,268
53
54
56
62
69
71
202
252
9
193 280 11
196
232
250
283
344
367
441
584
72
580
308 14 60
55
75
15 624 50
19
728
52
1,743
1,228
1,571
19
795
56
1,773 1,150
1,011
1,977 1,237 1,200
460
816
1,55
345
2,112 1,285 1,475
387
2,216
1,383
1,666
434
2,424
1,509
1,766
469
742 1,460
509
773
1,542
664 1,622
895
1,662
678
1,044
1,802
921
1,lOo
1,134
1,237
471
505
998 502
2,841
13,211
1,740
2,956 13,543 1,622
3,231 13,861 1,934
3,456 14,208 2,095
3,577
14,183
2,151
15,221
2,181
3,945
3,44
3,120
3,235
370
11,2:9
5,105
2,b68
5,256
2,183
3,317
332 12,007 5,577 3,096 5,495 2,334
3,574
400 12,307 6,010 3,226 5,610 2,690
450 12,o17 6,622 5,919 2,389
376
12,877
8,026
3,650
6,656
2,602
600
13,499
8,664
3,625
6,981
2,913
3,397
3,576
3,837
3,947
4,126
4,718
SOURCE:- A~UARI0 7STATISTICO DO BRASiL
(1) Data for 1952-56 not available
549
3,345
56
621
3,715
Poultry,- Ducks, Geese & Other 4ater Fowl Table38.iNunber of Head, Brazil, by :itates and Territories. 1957-1962 (1)
(1000 nead) State or Territory
TOTAL BRAZIL
Rondonia
Acre
Amaze nas Rio Branco
Par ,
Amapa
Maranhao
Piaui
Ceara
Rio Grande do Norte
Parafba
Pernambuco Alagoas
Sergipe
Bahia
Ainas Gerais
1957
1958
1959
5,635
5,14
4 34
5 37
19o0
19bl
1962
5,:63
5,954
6,353
b,748
5 39
7 14.
7 49
105
117
127
144
167
1
1
2
2
4
8 52 199
237 16 254 87
268 17 269 90
293 14 325 91
324 15
34a 16
359
404
23
260
39
304
35
251
92 279
177
130
157 130
161 136
15 154
210 164
183
23
282
192 27 294
19;j 2C
209 40
217
212 15 253 102 346
49
42 168 1142 200 32
.7
95 45
334
316
45 375
695
764
b02
266 314 21
274 309 25
287 312 17
694
713
301 746
Espirito Santo
Rio de Janeiro Guanabara
252
297 21
250 305 19
256 325 lb
Sao iaulo Parana
592
364
500
59
432
445
477
539
Santa Catarina
760
575 364 795
32u
652
916
932
423
469
474
Rio 'rande
do Sul
Mato "Irosso Golas & ,).-oderal
11.43
2 214
SOURCE:- AMUARIO --,;fATISTICO DO BRASIL (1) Data for 1952-56 not available
44-
90 202
7u 197
74 197
74 177
92 207
Poultry - Turkeys Table39.Number of Head, Brazil, by States and Territories, 1957-1962 (1) (1000 head) State or Territory
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
TJTAL BRAZIL
2,572
2,517
2,665
2,793
2,941
3,202
1 1 6
1 1 8 1
1 1 10 1
1 1 11 2
1 1 2
58 1
1 1 17 2
61
71 1
89 1
Rondonia Acre Amazonas Rio,5ranco
-
14
Para, Amapa
45 1
Aaranhao
50 1
65
Piaui
62
67
54
73
57
82
60
90
66
105 73
141
163 68 ISO 230 218
204
54 443
185 74 207 231 233 68
225 82 2k6 26 302
472
311 98
453
82 497
306 106
87
310 109
78
81
334 110
Ceara Rio Grande do IHorte Paraiba Pernambuco Alagoas
221 76 187 232 190
Sergipe
46 392
Bahia 4inas 3erais Espirito Santo
Rio de Janeiro
57 167 235 196
50
275 92
421 291 97
79
61
193
54
122
127
90
94
129
4
Sao Paulo
191 39
204 42
202
54
57
135
57
136 73 81
128 86
86
95
Sarana
Santa Catarina Rio ;rande do Sul Mato Srosso aoias & D.Federal
76
102
SOURCE:- A.URIO TS3TA STIC3 DO BRASIL (1) Data for 1952-56 not available
5 47
76
81 2 196 61
Guanabara
5
215 250 264
5 191
50
2
606 85
75
114 110
APPENDIX
C
COST OF RAILROAD CARS
COST AND FLOW DIAGRAM FOR FERTILIZER
GRANULATION PLANT
C-I
Table 1.
Estimated cost of railroad cars, 19641
Type of equipment
Cost (U.S.$)
10,000 gal. anhydrous ammonia car
$15,000
(50 ton trucks) 8,000 gal. anhydrous ammonia car (50 ton trucks)
$14,000
2,600 cu. ft. hopper car (70 ton trucks)
$11,500
2,000 cu. ft. hopper car (70 ton trucks)
$10,400
1 Estimated cost in the United States
C-2
Table 2.
Summary of cost information fertilizer granulation plant
1. Process Equipment Raw Materials Equipment-Dry Raw Materials Equipment-Fluid
47,700 16,500 64,200
Total-Raw Materials 101, 100
7,200
Processing Equipment Parting Agent Equipment
108,300
Total-Processing and Parting Equipment 10,200
21, 600
Utility Equipment Fluid Storage
31, 800
Total-Utility and Fluid Storage
204,300
Total-Proces sing Equipment 2.
77,900
Building
282,200
Total-Proces sing Equipment and Building 3. Labor-Excluding contract for building siding, 24, 962 man hours at $2.00 per hour 4.
49,900 25,000
Engineering
367, 100
Total Cost
Detailed Cost of Fertilizer Granulation Plant Equipment Title Process Equipment Dry Raw Materials Clod Breaker Raw Materials Elevator Raw Materials Conveyor 4-Way Butterfly Valve Air Cylinders (3) Limit Switches (6) Recycle Hopper
Size
55' 70T/hr 20" x 34' 2 1/2" Dia. 25T
Cost
$ 1,322 3,600 1,300 460 164 72 2,000
C-3
Table 2.
Summary of cost information fertilizer granulation plant
(continued)
Title Amm. Sulfate Hopper Potash Hopper Superphosphate Hopper Triple Super Hopper Recycle Gravimetric Atm. Sulfate Gravimetric Potash Gravimetric Superphosphate Gravinietric Triple Super Gravimetric Common Conveyor Tramp Magnet (2) Dry Mix Elevator Raw Material Screens (2) Hammer Mill Chain Mill
Size 5T lOT 15T 1OT Model Model Model Model Model 20" x
GB-44-30 GB-44-20A GB-44-20 GB-44-30 GB-44-20 59'
68' 70T/hr Model 81 Size 220
Cost $ 1,000
1,200
1,500
1,200
4,869
2, 68Z
2,682
4.869
2, 682
1,900
644
3,800
5, 395
3, 134
1,271
$47,746
Total Dry Raw Materials
Fluid Raw Materials Ammoniating Solution Pump Sulfuric Acid Pump Anhydrous Pump Solution Rotameter Annhydrous Rotameter Sulfuric Rotameter Steam Rotameter Water Rotameter Valves & Piping Pipe Insulators
Type G Unipump Model BR 515 Model BR 515-4 Size 9 Fig. 736 Size 5 Fig. 52-OM Size 5 Fig. 52-OM 52-560-OM Size 4 Fig. 52-OM
364 253 590 330 121 435 187 125 14,000 14 16,419
Total Fluid Raw Materials Processing Equipment
Ammoniator Granulator Ammoniator Exhaust Fan Ammoniator Blower Roll Crusher Dryer (complete) Dryer Cyclone Dryer Fan
7' x 8" 25 MW 25 - V 18" Dia. x 2' 8 x 40 # 26A # 70MW 895 RPM
9,779
295
411 1,472 30,000
C-4
Table 2.
Summary of cost information fertilizer granulation plant
(continued) ---------------------------Title
Size
Cooler (complete) Cooler Cyclone Cooler Fan Finished Product Elevator
7' x 30' # 24 # 55 1080 RPM 60' 70T/hr
Finished Product Chain Mill Finished Product Screen Finished Product Conveyor Finished Product Weighbelt Electrical & Wiring Chutes & Ducts
1030 RPM Model 52 Model CFAS
-
--
-
-
Cost
$22,000
3,700 1,261 4,335 4,000 2,943 18, 522 1,100 $101,083
Total Processing Parting Agent Equipment
2,319
Parting Drum Parting Feeder Return Elevator Parting Agent Bin Dust Collecting Fan
F-I 45' 70T # 23V
149 3,600 900 232
$ 7,200 $108, 283
Total Part ing Equipment Total Processing & Parting Utility Equipment Steam Plant Boiler Feed Water Pump Air Compressor Pneumatic Hopper Unloaders Bin Level Indicators (10) 6 Point Recorder Thermoindicator Thermocouples & Leads
55 HP 140 CFM
Model 9335Nr O- 000 ° F. Iron-Constantan
4,000 182 3,000 1,629 340 809 85 175 $ 10,220
Total Utility Equipment Solution Storage Ammoniating Sol'n Storage Sulfuric Acid Storage Anhydrous Ammonia Storage
7, 277 3,000 11,345
Total Solution Storage
$ 21,622
Total Process
$204, 290
C-5
Table 2.
Summary of cost information fertilizer granulation plant (continued)
Title
Size
Cost
Building Structural Supports, Control Room & Tankhouse Siding and Windows Roof Ventilators (4) Air Conditioner
$68,952 7,781 427 737
Total Building
$ 77,897
Total Building and Process
$282,187
JD
ID'
~
MO~-ap gWMZqy MA~h
___________________________
STAM
AW AWWAMM&SAA=
C 5flZ4GE
*#AI'Sra"#ArM
or~wr
M~'1f0RAG 0
Figure 1.
Flow diagram fertilizer granulation plant
Source: Spencer Chemical Company
APPENDIX
D
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF LIMESTONE IN BRAZIL
D-1
Geographic Distribution of Limestone in Brazil
Amazonas There probably
Limestone deposits in the state are not well known.
is some carbonic limestone along the Paranari river, such as that
found in Itaituba in the state of Para.
Para
There are some large deposits of carbonic limestone in Itaituba,
Tapajos and Monte Alegre, near the left side of the Amazon river.
In Monte Alegre some 30 million tons of limestone were tested and
can be utilized for cement production.
In the counties of Salinas and
Copanema there is some limestone of tertiary nature, with little Mg.
and which will be used in a cement plant being built.
In Maraba there
is also some limestone, but comparatively little is known concerning
the deposits in that vicinity.
Maranhao
It is known that there are some deposits in Aarao Reis, Codo and Barra
da Corda.
Along the coast there are small sambaquis and shell beds.
Piaui
Along the coast are some tertiary formations in Uniao, Jose de Freitas,
Buriti dos Lopas and some counties in the South.
Limestone is not
Source: Sylvio Froes Abreu, Recursos Minerais do Brazil
Vol. I - Materias Nao Metalicas.
D-2
abundant in Piaui. Ceara There are some arquean formations (Acarape, Paracatuba), crystal limestone, magnesium, and dolomite in Jose de Alencar, Iguatu, Lavras, and some indications of limestone in Santanopolis, Crato, Barbalha, Russas and Limoeiras do Norte. Rio Grande do Norte There is a large area in Mossoro, Macau, Lages, Baixa Verde, Ceara Mirim, Macaiba e Pedro Velho, comprising the formations that go through the coast of Pernambuco.
In Caico, Arari, Currais Novos,
Augusto Severo there are some small deposits of metamorphic lime stone.
In Apodi there is some sedimentary limestone.
Paraiba In several counties of the interior there is limestone mixed with gneiss and schist.
There are many deposits of limestone located
near Joao Pessoa where some Gramame was used for cement manufacture. Pernambuco Some sedimentary limestone is being explored in Itapessoca and Paulista.
In the interior there is some limestone in Caruaru, Sao
Caetano, Aguas Belas, Floresta, Sertania, Inaja, Jativa, etc. Araripuri there is limestone of cretaceous formation.
In
D-3
Alagoas Small deposits of limestone of the Alagoas Series are found in the coast (Marajoji, Passo de Camaragibe,
Maceio,
etc.).
In the interior
there is some in Palmeri dos Indios, Batalha, Quebrangulo, Pao de Acucar, Mato Grande, etc.
Along the coast there are some spots of
shell beds and coral. Sergipe In the middle of Sergipe there are important deposits of limestone in Riachuelo, Maroim, Laranjeiras and Cotinguiba. deposits in this area.
Tests show large
There is dolomitic in Porto da Folha but the
other deposits have little magnesium. Bahia The large formation of the Sao Francisco series exists in the valley of this river and its tributaries.
Deposits are known to exist in Born
Jesus de Lopa, Xique-Xique, Santa Fe, Barra, Santa Maria da
Vitoria, Carinhonha, Maranbas, Oliveira dos Brejinhos, Paratiniga, etc.
In the north and northeast there are several deposits of dolomite
in Gloria, Euclides da Cunha, Tucano and pure limestone in Joazeiro, Jaguarari and Varea.
In the Diamantina tableland there are deposits
known in Ituacu, Brumedo, Barra de Estiva, Andarai, Palmeiras and Jacobina.
Along the coast there is dolomite in Cairu, Camamu, Marau
besides several coral and shell deposits in the Bay of Todos os Santos,
D-4
and Itaparica island, and along the coast from Sao Paulo hill down to the bottom of Mucuri river. Espirito Santo There is some pure limestone as well as some dolomite in Cachoeira do Itapemirim and Sao Jose do Calcado.
There are some shell beds
in Vitoria, Guarapari and Anchieta and some reefs in the north coast. Rio de Janeiro There are large deposits of pure limestone and dolomite in Itaperuna, Campos, Cambuci, Itaocara, Cantagalo, Cordeiro and smaller ones in Marques de Valenca, Barao de Vassouras, Barra Mansa and Paraiba do Sul.
In Itaborai there is some pure limestone from river water
which is being used for cement production. In Cabo Frio, Sao Pedro da Aldeia, Araruama, Saquarema and Itaguai there are several shell beds. Sao Paulo The Sao limestone area goes from Sao Roque towards south extending
into Parana. The dolomites haverparts of pure limestone for use in
cement production.
There are deposits known in Santa Ania do Parnaiba,
Franco da Rocha, Sap Roque, Sorocaba, Arcoiaba da Serra, Capao
Bonito, Itapeva, Guapiara, Iporanga, Apiai, and Ribeira.
Limestone of this geological formation is used for the production of
cement.
Limestone mixed with gnelss are dolomites (Bananal, Taubate,
D-5
Campos de Jordao, Itapira, Cruzeiro, Guaratingueta.
In the central
part of the State there is dolomite in Piracicaba, Limeira, Rio Claro, Itapetininga, Angatuba and Tatui.
Along the coast, the natural shell
beds and sambaquis are deposits of secondary importance. Parana Rocks of the Acungui series in the Ribeira basin in the northeast of the state have large limestone deposits. According to Bigarella, with regard to the location of deposits, there are three main areas.
Northeast - dolomite with some pure dolomite;
Central - pure limestone and dolomite.
The most important deposits
are located in Cerro Azul, Rio Branco do Sul and Almirante Tamandare,
in Rio Branco they are used for cement production.
There is some
paleozoic limestone in Tomazinho, Imbituva, Irati, Sao Mateus do Sul,
etc.
Some natural shell beds and some baquis occur in the low sea
coast and are used for feed and paving of roads.
Santa Catarina
There is some dololmite marble being explored in Camborin.
There
are important deposits in Brusque which are used for cement in Itajai.
In the Permian strip there are several deposits in Correa Pinto, Lages,
Perimbo, Ituporanga, etc.
Along the coast there are natural shell beds
and sambaqui which have been used for lime and for paying roads
(S.
Francisco do Sul, Imbituba and Saperra).
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Rio Grande do Sul There are deposits known in Bage, Piratini, Cacapava do Sul, Encruzilhada do Sul, Rio Pardo, and Arroio Grande, which are mixed with other rocks.
The two cement plants in the state use better lime
stone from Vacacai and Arroio Grande. There are few deposits of pure limestone in Rio Grande do Sul.
Such
limestone, of little value, is found in Sao Gabriel. Minas Gerais The large limestone area of Minas Gerais is in the Sao Francisco river basin, with large deposits in Bambui.
There are deposits in
Santa Luzia, Pedro Leopoldo, Matosinhos, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo, Parnopeba, Curvelo, Corinto, Buenopolis, Bovaiuca, Montes Claros, Francisco Sa, Sao Romao, Jamaria, Manga, Bambui, Arcos, Formiga, Paius, Presidente Oligario, Vazante, Joao Pinheiro, Paracatu and others.
A strip of rocks ci the Minas series, including pure limestone and
dolomites, occurs in Pratopolis, Itau de Minas, Passos, Jacui,
Alfinas, Lavras, Prados, Sao Joao del Rei, Tirandentes, Barroso,
Carandai, Sabara, Ouro Preto, Congo Soco, Barto de Cocaes and
Santa Barbara.
Pure limestone is found in Pratopolis, Lavras,
Tiradentes, Barroso and Carandai.
In the Mata zone, Barbacena,
Antonio Carlos, Mar de Hespanha, there are some dolomites
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explored as white marble and for the production of lime. Doce Valley there are few deposits.
In the Rio
There are only small deposits
of dolomite near Santa Barbara.
Goias There are some deposits known in Ipameri, Caldas Novas, Goiania, Corumba de Goias, Pirenopolis, Anicurus, Niquelandia, Rio Verde and Brasilia.
In Formosa, in the Parana river valley and on the
eastern part of the state there are large deposits of Bambui limestone. Mato Grosso The largest limestone area is located between Miranda and Corumba with some exploration for cement in Corumba. deposits in Caceres,
There are smaller
Cuiaba, Alto Garcas and Paranaiba.
Territorio do Acre In the northwest of Acre there are small horizontal deposits of limestone with silica and marga from the Moa river, with little value today.
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