Music at Home: A Portrait of Family Music-Making By Patricia Gingras Submitted in Partial ...

Music at Home: A Portrait of Family Music-Making By Patricia Gingras

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Supervised by Professor Donna Brink Fox Music Education Department Eastman School of Music University of Rochester Rochester, New York 2012

ii

I will sing to the Lord, because he has dealt bountifully with me. Psalm 13:6.

iii Biographical Sketch Patricia Gingras graduated summa cum laude from the University of New Mexico with Bachelor of Music Education and Master of Music (Music Education) degrees before pursuing doctoral studies in music education at the Eastman School of Music. She was awarded the University of New Mexico Music Education Recognition Award for Excellence as an Undergraduate Music Education Major and the Rochester Area Colleges Continuing Education Outstanding Adult Student Award in 2008. She is also the Scott Wilkinson Composition Winner for Cummings and Goings composed for woodwind quintet, percussion, and soprano. Ms. Gingras holds both Kodály (Hartt School of Music) and Orff Schulwerk (Southern Methodist University) certifications and is a frequent presenter at local, regional, and national music education conferences and professional development seminars including: Music Educators National Conference, American Orff-Schulwerk Association Professional Development Conference, New York State School Music Association Summer and Winter conferences, Texas Music Educators Conference, New Mexico Orff Schulwerk Conference, Duquesne University Early Childhood Initiative Conference, Sociology of Music Education Symposium, MAYDAY Group, and Rochester City School District (NY) Professional Development Seminars. Her written works have appeared in The Instrumentalist, School Music News, and Perspectives. Currently, Ms. Gingras serves as director of RocMusic, a non-profit community collaboration that offers intensive after-school music instruction to urban

iv youth, and as coordinator for the Eastman Community Music School Early Childhood Music Program. She is a teaching artist in residence for the Rochester City School District’s Arts Education Model Development and Dissemination program where she designed and teaches an integrated arts music curriculum. Ms. Gingras also teaches Elementary Music Methods and select graduate level courses at Houghton College.

v Acknowledgements My earliest and strongest musical memories are intertwined with the presence of family members. I spent warm summer evenings in my grandparents’ backyard lying on a blanket under the stars as I listened to guitars and mandolins accompany immigrant voices singing folksongs from “the old country.” At Christmastime my mother and I played duet versions of Christmas carols while family members and close friends gathered around our piano to sing along. When, in elementary school, I discovered my father’s original fake books tucked away in a closet, I dragged them to the piano and began to pick out melodies with my right hand. It did not take long for him to wander into the room and tell me, “If you’re going to play these songs, you might as well learn to play the chords, too. Here’s what you do!” These experiences and many others like them shaped my belief that music connects families and families make music meaningful to children. This belief was further strengthened by the participation of the five families that, without whom, this research could not have been completed. I extend my thanks and gratitude to the Ritter and Phillips families whose warmth and openness allowed me feel as though I were a family member; the Ramirez family for their patience towards my innumerable questions about the accuracy of Spanish transcriptions and contemporary Christian recording artists; the Petrov family for their faithful participation; and the Campbells, who never shied away from candidly admitting their very humorous foibles. Thank you, also, for sharing your daughters with me. They are truly the “stars” of this

vi work. Savannah, Elizabeth, Mika, Carly, and Macy, you have enriched my life with your wit, wisdom, and candor. Dr. Donna Brink Fox, my advisor and mentor through this process, set the groundwork for this research many years ago when she created the Early Childhood Music Program at the Eastman School of Music from which the participating families were drawn. She, along with Dr. Elizabeth Marvin, Dr. Philip Silvey, and Dr. Anne Marie Stanley offered advice and guidance that turned a complex research design and many hours of collected audio and video into a document that reveals the essence of musical life in five families. There were many along the way that made this long journey possible. Percussionist Dr. Peter Tanner once took a chance on a student who asked, “What’s a marimba?” That act of taking me under his wing when I truly did not deserve it has been one of the great guiding lessons of my life. The music faculty at the University of New Mexico, specifically Dr. Bruce Dalby and Dr. Ellen McCullough-Brabson, provided me with the skills I needed to prepare for and survive the past eight years. My time in Albuquerque will always be the cornerstone of my music career. Finally, I must acknowledge my own family for their love, quiet encouragement, and unwavering acceptance of the family time that was “lost” while this project consumed me. Know that I have missed you.

vii Abstract Family musical life is the first musical environment a child encounters. The richness and depth of that experience, or lack thereof, affects a child’s musical aptitude, development, and future behavior. This qualitative study examined the musical lives of five families. The guiding precept of the investigation was to learn about the activities that comprise family musical life. What are the activities and their frequency? Where and when do they occur? Who participates? How are the participating families’ musical lives similar or different? As past research about this topic has always been conducted from an adult point of view, the research design also included strategies to elicit and include the perspective of children. After their parents completed a Parent Questionnaire and an inhome Parent Interview, a 6-year-old girl from each family became an active participant in the research process. The children attended three focus groups where they discussed family musical behavior; video recorded family musical activity for one week; and described, explained, or clarified family musical behavior while watching their video recordings during an individual interview. Two forms of data were collected: (1) Reported data that revealed who participates in family musical activity, what the activity is, when the activity occurs, and its frequency; and (2) Reflective data that provided context and meaning for the activities as described by children. Both data sets were coded and analyzed for themes and patterns from which emerged an in-depth portrait of the musical lives of the five families. The data suggested that parents and older siblings influence the emerging musical identity and behavior of children–first as musical guides and later as musical co-players. The families’ musical activities, sprinkled throughout the

viii day and often embedded in family routines or prompted by the environment, included singing, playing instruments, and listening to and moving to music. Family members also composed their own songs and created new lyrics for familiar melodies. Musical choices ranged from popular music and Broadway show tunes to songs that expressed spiritual beliefs and/or family cultural connections. Results of this study indicate that musicmaking is a well-integrated element of the participating families’ daily lives. The information gleaned informs music educators about children’s home musical experiences, the music-making activities with which they are already familiar, and how they are perceived and valued by children. Music educators can utilize these findings to create curricula that link home and school music-making.

ix List of Tables Table 1. Research Time Table ...........................................................................................37 Table 2. Instruments in Families’ Homes ..........................................................................81 Table 3 Children’s Video Submissions...........................................................................201 Table 4. Families’ Video Recorded Musical Activities ...................................................217 Table 5. Parents’ Musical Backgrounds (formal musical study) .....................................221 Table 6. Parents’ Likert Scale Response Interpretations .................................................225

x List of Figures Figure 1. Wendy the Brave ..............................................................................................112 Figure 2. Joanne Phillips’ improvisation. (Video 003-037) ............................................114 Figure 3. Irene’s singing directions. (Video 005-016) .....................................................128 Figure 4. Peter Ritter’s toothbrushing song. (Video 001-121) ........................................148 Figure 5. William’s toothbrushing improvisation. (Video 001-121) ...............................149 Figure 6. Jorge Ramirez’s toothbrushing song. (Video 002-046) ...................................151 Figure 7. Jorge Ramirez’s handwashing song. (Video 002-046).....................................152 Figure 8. Jorge Ramirez’s song for Elizabeth. (002 PI) ..................................................156 Figure 9. Jorge Ramirez’s song for Rhianna. (Video 002-080) .......................................157 Figure 10. Amalia Ramirez’s song for Rhianna. (Video 002-080)..................................158 Figure 11. Joanne Phillips’ spontaneous song. (Video 004-008) ....................................163 Figure 12. Lila and Macy Campbell’s Jack-o-fross: Part 1. (Video 005-034) ................168 Figure 13. Lila and Macy Campbell’s Jack-o-fross; Part 2. (Video 005-034) ................168 Figure 14. Lila and Macy Campbell’s Jack-o-fross: Part 3. (Video 005-034) ................169 Figure 15. Rhianna’s Deer are Sleeping (Video 002-068) ..............................................196

xi Table of Contents Biographical Sketch ........................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments................................................................................................................v Abstract ............................................................................................................................. vii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ......................................................................................................................x Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1 Music and Parenting .........................................................................................................2 Family and the Transmission of Musical Culture ........................................................4 Family and Musical Development................................................................................6 Status of Family Music-Making .......................................................................................9 Historical Documentation of Family Music ...............................................................11 Music Education Investigations .................................................................................13 Family Music-Making From a Child’s Perspective .......................................................21 Need for the Study..........................................................................................................24 Purpose and Questions ...................................................................................................26 Chapter 2: Methodology ....................................................................................................28 Participants .....................................................................................................................28 Participant and Researcher Relationship ....................................................................29 Institutional Approval and Participant Recruitment ...................................................32 Participants .................................................................................................................32 Data Collection ...............................................................................................................33 Parent Questionnaire ..................................................................................................34 Parent Interview..........................................................................................................35 Children’s Research Activities ...................................................................................36 Focus Groups .........................................................................................................39 Focus Group One: Secret Mission ....................................................................42 Focus Group Two: Mission Report ...................................................................46 Focus Group Three: Mission Completed ..........................................................47 Video Recording Project .......................................................................................47 Video Camera ..................................................................................................49 Mid-week Meeting ..........................................................................................50 Individual Interviews—Instant Video Review ................................................50

xii Data Analysis .................................................................................................................53 Reported Data .............................................................................................................53 Reflective Data ...........................................................................................................55 Children’s Interpretation ........................................................................................56 Instant Video Revisiting for Researchers ...............................................................56 Chapter 3: Meet the Families .............................................................................................58 Family 001: The Ritter Family .......................................................................................59 Family 002: The Ramirez Family ..................................................................................64 Family 003: The Petrov Family .....................................................................................68 Family 004: The Phillips Family ....................................................................................72 Family 005: The Campbell Family ................................................................................76 Discussion ......................................................................................................................80 Chapter 4: Music Around the House .................................................................................87 Music in the Kitchen ......................................................................................................87 Glee ............................................................................................................................88 Castle on a Cloud........................................................................................................89 Music in the Family Room .............................................................................................93 Music in the Home Office ..............................................................................................99 YouTube .....................................................................................................................99 Uploaders ..............................................................................................................100 Surfers...................................................................................................................100 Starfall Songs............................................................................................................102 Music in the Bedroom ..................................................................................................106 My Music Box ..........................................................................................................107 Story .........................................................................................................................108 I Want to Reach That Number..................................................................................112 Discussion ....................................................................................................................115 Chapter 5: Tickling the Ivories ........................................................................................119 Playing Piano with Dad ................................................................................................120 Playing Piano with Mom ..............................................................................................126 Playing Piano Together ................................................................................................132 Playing All by Myself ..................................................................................................138 Discussion ....................................................................................................................142 Chapter 6: Music and Family Routines ..........................................................................144 All Washed Up! ............................................................................................................145 Brushing Teeth with Mom........................................................................................145 Brushing Teeth with Dad..........................................................................................148 Los Dientes y las Manos...........................................................................................150

xiii Early to Bed and Early to Rise .....................................................................................152 Reveille .....................................................................................................................153 A rru, rrú ...................................................................................................................156 Lullaby and Goodnight .............................................................................................158 Singing Myself to Sleep ...........................................................................................160 Conversing in Song ......................................................................................................162 Making Music with Pets ...............................................................................................164 Singing to Bonnie .....................................................................................................164 Jack-Jack...................................................................................................................166 Dancing with Rocky and Raquel ..............................................................................169 Birthdays ......................................................................................................................171 For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow ..................................................................................173 Happy Birthday to William ......................................................................................173 Discussion ....................................................................................................................175 Chapter 7: Music on the Go .........................................................................................179 My Music, Your Music ..............................................................................................179 Children’s Music ........................................................................................................185 Real Men Sing in the Car ...........................................................................................187 Boot Ballet..................................................................................................................190 Singing Siblings .........................................................................................................191 Backseat Singers ........................................................................................................194 Discussion ..................................................................................................................197 Chapter 8: Family Portraits and What They Communicate .............................................200 Family Musical Behavior .............................................................................................201 The Children’s Voice ...............................................................................................204 Cultural and Religious Connections .........................................................................209 Media Influences ......................................................................................................211 Are We Musical? ..........................................................................................................213 Connections to the Literature .......................................................................................219 Issues with the Research Design ..................................................................................223 Parent Questionnaire ................................................................................................224 Groupthink ................................................................................................................227 Focus Group Three ...................................................................................................230 Video Challenges......................................................................................................231 Research Recommendations ........................................................................................239 Recommendations for Parents ..................................................................................241 Recommendations for Educators ..............................................................................243 References ........................................................................................................................247

xiv Appendices .......................................................................................................................272 Appendix A: Institutional Approval of the Study ........................................................273 Appendix B: Initial Family Recruitment Letter ...........................................................276 Appendix C: Information Letter ...................................................................................278 Appendix D: Parent/Child Participant Permission and Consent Form ........................282 Appendix E: Photography, Video, and Audio Recording Release (Adult) ..................288 Appendix F: Photography, Video, and Audio Recording Release (Children) .............290 Appendix G: Parent Questionnaire ..............................................................................292 Appendix H: Postcards for Focus Groups ....................................................................304 Appendix I: Secret Agent Kit .......................................................................................308 Appendix J: Secret Agent Badge .................................................................................310 Appendix K: Opt Out Postcard ....................................................................................312 Appendix L: Secret Agent Handbook ..........................................................................314 Appendix M: Mission Begins Parent Letter .................................................................325 Appendix N: Mission Completed Certificate ...............................................................328 Appendix O: Data Flow Chart .....................................................................................330 Appendix P: Coding Example ......................................................................................332 Appendix Q: IVVR Example .......................................................................................336 Appendix R: Notation for Schlaf, Kindlein, Schlaf ......................................................341 Appendix S: Family Videos .........................................................................................343

1 Chapter 1: Introduction Jihane Moussalem sits in the church lobby and sings The Itsy Bitsy Spider–a song she purposely chose for its “American-ness.” While the spider climbs the water spout, Jihane gently pushes fussy baby Michael back and forth in his stroller in an attempt to coax him to sleep. Inside the sanctuary, the Hughes family unpacks their instruments–a fiddle, double bass, guitar, mandolin, and a banjo. What started 10 years ago as a family jam session has blossomed into a musical calling. This family of five (parents and three sons) often provides worship music for churchgoers and performs at local community events. Down one level, in the fellowship area, 9-year-old Amber and 7-year-old Serena teach their grandmother a newly-mastered handclapping song and game while coffee percolates behind them. Five blocks away, the Marshall family is running a bit late. On the spur of the moment, Brad (the middle child, cramped as always in the middle of the back seat) belts out a boisterous chorus of Get Me to the Church on Time, which he sang in a recent show choir concert at his high school. The rest of the family loudly joins in and much merriment ensues. Across town, Jim Sidey, under hospice care at home, will not attend church services today. His daughter, Libby, sits beside him. “Libby,” he whispers, “sing me a song.” She holds his hand and with tears in her eyes softly croons her dad’s favorite hymn, “Softly and tenderly Jesus is calling . . . Come home. Come home.” The family, as one of the oldest and perhaps most important of all human institutions, is still considered to be the fundamental unit of society (Zabriskie & McCormick, 2001). It is to the family that we each owe our existence, our physical and personal characteristics, and our connections both to the past and to the future. Our families also lay the foundation for our musical identity, ability, achievement, and future. Family settings are where children first hear and participate in the music of their culture and where infants and toddlers meet their first musical role models and learn the social precepts of music making. Family members are key in determining our musical

2 development (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1997). The musical values and beliefs of family members across generations often guide and support us as we make our own musical journey. If our goal as music educators is to contribute to lifelong musical learning and participation, we must learn more about the musical lives of our students. Music and Parenting Musical interaction between parents and their children has existed throughout all of history (Trehub & Schellenberg, 1995). Lullabies and play songs, which form intimate musical experiences, are common family practices (Custodero, Britto, & Brooks-Gunn, 2003) and a traditional part of family life around the globe (Trehub & Schellenberg, 1995). Before infants understand speech, parents comfort them with lullabies, arouse them with play songs, dance with them, and play simple rhyming games (Scott-Kassner, 1999). Through these initial parent-child activities, the child learns that her1 environment is secure and that the parents are communicating experiences of love, joy, and delight (Start the Music, 2000). “Music takes on meaning in the intimate, emotive interactions between [parent] and infant, believed to be the earliest form of musical expressiveness and human communication” (Littleton, 2002, p. 40). Research on the musical qualities of parent-infant communication (Dissanayake, 2000; Rock, Trainor, & Addison, 1999; Trevarthen, 1999/2000) led some to believe that there is a musical aspect of parenting that is intuitive (M. Papousek, 1996) and biologically programmed (Trehub, 2000, 2001).2 Infant-directed speech (IDS, the “coos,”

1

“Her” and “she” are used as generic terms and include “him” and “he.” For some parents, this comes somewhat as a surprise. Reshna Yaquib (2004) wrote that one of the “unexpected joys of being a parent” is that “you’re no longer embarrassed by your singing voice” (p. 132). 2

3 vocal glissandos, and sing-song alterations of regular speech patterns) is found in all cultures (Fernald, Taeschner, Dunn, Papousek, Boysson-Bardies, & Fukui, 1989; Grieser & Kuhl, 1988; M. Papousek, 1996). The expressive melodic and rhythmic characteristics of IDS, sometimes peppered with non-verbal utterances, form the core of early family interactions and communication (Dissanayake, 2000; M. Papousek, 1996; Trevarthen & Malloch, 2000). Parents employ infant-directed speech, singing, and rhythmic games to elicit infant responsiveness and thereby enter into a reciprocal musical interaction with their young child. As parents engage their child, ensuing musical activity is made in response to what the parents observe. The reciprocal nature of parent-child musical dialogues creates “mutuality”–a manner of communication between the two that jointly influences the actions of each (Dissanayake, 2000). Young children, likewise, are predisposed to musical behavior (Trehub, 2001; Trehub, Schellenberg, & Hill, 1997). Infants are quite receptive and responsive to musical activities directed toward them. Babies have musical preferences and make them known by being more attentive to maternal singing than maternal speech (Trehub, 1999). When given a choice, they prefer infant-directed singing (singing conducted toward an infant) over non-infant-directed or “infant-absent” singing (singing conducted without an infant present) (Masataka, 1999). Their responses to music in their environment include synchronization of their movements to the rhythm of their mother's voice (Condon & Sander, 1974; Stern, 2000; Trevarthen, 1999/2000), alteration of their moods in response to singing (Trehub & Trainor, 1998), and the ability to match their vocalizations to the

4 qualities they hear in their parents’ voices (Fox, 1990; H. Papousek & Papousek, 1984). These early experiments with vocal inflections form the foundation for singing (Palmer, 1993). The give-and-take parent/child musical experience reflects the social nature of music-making. Social scientists maintain that initial family music-making is an intersection between “biological predispositions and the social world” (Hargreaves, Miell, & MacDonald, 2003, p. 6), which jointly shape musical development. Trevarthen (1999/2000) labeled the musical interaction and attunement between parent and child as “communicative musicality” and described it as “the dynamic sympathetic state of a human person that allows coordinated companionship to arise” (p. 22). This manner of musical behavior has the power to align “the emotions of participants and thus promote conjoinment” (Dissanayake, 2000, p. 390). This musically-generated emotional bond between parent and child forges a relationship of trust and guidance, which has farreaching effects. De Grätzer (1999) reported that parents enrolled in music classes with their pre-school children “began to relate to their children in a dimension far beyond music” (p. 51). The creative companionship that emerges from emotional bonding through music-making creates a safe and nurturing environment that supports the gradual process of enculturation through family interactions (Bornstein, 2002). Family and the Transmission of Musical Culture Early childhood educators have long recognized that early childhood is a period of socialization. During this time, children learn their culture’s values, traditions, and expected behaviors. Culture-specific knowledge and skills are transmitted to children

5 through a chain of learning that begins with a social process (Day, French, & Hall, 1985). Children emulate the shared social understandings that they observe in others and in which they participate. In most theories of socialization, parents, as the providers and instigators of social experiences, are considered to be the primary source of influence (Garbarino, 1989; Zigler & Seitz, 1978). Children of all generations have learned to speak, received encouragement for physical development, and learned social values and skills from their parents (Levinowitz, 1993). Parents and key caregivers have the critical role of providing stimulating experiences to develop necessary neurological networks (Healy, 1999) and promote growth in a child’s first few years (Bjorklund, Yunger, & Pellegrini, 2002; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Activities conducted under parental supervision, termed “guided participation” (Rogoff, 1990), direct a child’s development and enable her to make sense of the world (Vygotsky, 1962). Musical culture is transmitted to children by parents who also serve as co-players and practice partners. These adult roles contribute to children’s internalization of musical culture through social processes. Kelley and Sutton-Smith (1987) observed that musical interactions between parent and child communicated musical elements (or “signs”) to the child that were later observed in the child’s independent music-making efforts. Children who did not have musical interactions demonstrated no independent music making or performance. Umezawa (1990 as cited in Adachi, 1994), noted that children and parents contributed equally to improvisatory play. Adults, by interacting with children, became “co-players” in a musical duet. Adachi (1994) wrote that adults who provide opportunities for musical dialogue serve as a practice partner. In these practice sessions,

6 children are able to utilize knowledge and skills and master and internalize musical behaviors that they cannot do alone. By engaging in musical interactions, families transmit not only social practices and musical culture (Kelley & Sutton-Smith, 1987), but also attitudes and beliefs, which influence the values and behaviors of children (Radford, 1990). Parents who provide a musical home environment, bring their children to musical events, and support them in later music-making efforts model a value of music which is presumably passed on to the child (Scott-Kassner, 1999). The socio-cultural musical activities and behavior that a child experiences in the “intimacy of the family” may be the “origin and function of a sense of ‘musical identity’” (Trevarthen, 1999/2000, p. 32). Our identity is gained from our shared awareness of the world (Barnes, 2000) and maintained through shared actions, emotions and experiences–among the most intimate and powerful of which, are music, song and dance (Dissanayake, 2000). Family and Musical Development Music-making in the home environment is vital to musical growth and development (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1997; Feierabend, 1990; Howe & Sloboda, 1991). A child’s progress through the various stages of musical growth is dependent on the musical support she receives from the environment (Valerio, 1997). Bloom (1985) and Howe and Sloboda (1991) suggested that a stimulating environment, which encourages first musical responses coupled with appropriate musical opportunities, may be the most important factor in developing a child’s musical talent. Families that provide musical experiences for children throughout early childhood lay a foundation for

7 lifelong musical understanding and enjoyment (Palmer, 1993), allow children to musically flourish, and prepare them well for formal musical study. Gordon (2003) wrote, “The home is the most important school that young children will ever know, and their parents are the most important teachers that they will ever have” (p. 3). Learning music is similar to learning a language; young children engage in a stage of babble as they make their first attempts at speech (Oller, Wieman, Doyle, & Ross, 1976). As children hear parents and siblings speak, they eventually “break the code” of their language and begin to imitate words and phrases. Children learn music in much the same way. They need to be “immersed in a rich music environment in order to develop a listening vocabulary in music and subsequently to begin to ‘play with’ the sounds of music” (Taggart, 2000, p. 23). During these activities, children learn to decode the aural images of music and mentally process them in order to organize the music of their culture (Levinowitz, 2001). This period of musical interaction and play spawns a child’s natural progression toward a desire to learn music (Manturzewska, 1990). Family members serve as a child’s first musical model. “Parent interaction and musical modeling, even if it is unintentional, has a tremendous impact on the musical behaviors of children” (Fox, 1991, p. 21). When children observe the musical activities of their parents, they imitate them (A. Reynolds, 1995). If a model of music is absent, children have nothing to imitate and are left to “reinvent the wheel” of music learning (Valerio, 1997). Haphazard musical experiences lead children to fall behind in their musical development (Kelley & Sutton-Smith, 1987; Wendrich, 1981). For example,

8 children who do not experience participatory experiences in vocal exploration are unable to find their singing voices (Carlton, 2000). Investigations into the relationship between a home musical environment and children’s musical development and achievement have consistently identified links between the two. Kelley and Sutton-Smith (1987) observed and documented family musical interaction and infant responses (specifically the nature and quality of the children’s vocalizations) over a period of 2 years. At the end of the study, strong differences emerged between the music developmental levels of the children, which corresponded directly with the amount and quality of the musical activity they had experienced with family members. The same pattern has been noted in research that investigated what role the musical influence of family members has on the development of musical behaviors and the achievement levels of infants and toddlers (Jenkins, 1976; Kelley & Sutton-Smith, 1987), preschoolers (Doxey & Wright, 1990; Gawlick, 2003; Kirkpatrick, 1962), elementary-aged students (Brand, 1986; Gordon, 1967; Moore, 1982; Persellin, 2006; Shelton, 1965), and middle/high school students (Kehrberg, 1984; Zdzinski, 1994, 1996). The home musical environment is part of a cycle that affects the musical development and participation of each successive generation. Family therapists refer to this cycle as “script theory” or “family script” (Atwood, 1996). Family script is evidenced by attitudes, expectations, legacies, values, and patterns of behavior exhibited and embraced by one generation that has been transmitted to them from the established patterns of previous generations. A scripting framework is initially constructed in a

9 child’s early life and is the product of her parents’ own childhood (Carter & McGoldrick, 1989). Steiner (1974) wrote that a parent becomes a “play-back of a video tape recording of his parent or whoever was or is in place of his parents” (p. 29). Parents with a musical background are more likely to provide a home environment where musical development tends to be nurtured (Bowles, 1991; Custodero & Johnson-Green, 2003; Sundin, 1997). Conversely, parents who have anxiety in matters of [music] learning may perpetuate those anxieties and contribute toward inhibiting the initiatives of the child (de Grätzer & Lopez, 1992). The results of the Parents Use of Music with Infants Survey (PUMIS) (Custodero & Johnson-Green, 2003) supported family script in regard to parents and singing. PUMIS, part of the nationwide Smart Symphonies™ - Project (a project that distributed Classical music CDs to parents of newborns as they left a hospital birthing center), collected data about musical parenting practices and attitudes from parents of 4- to 6month-old children. The survey revealed that parents who recalled that their own mothers had sung to them were significantly more likely to sing to their own children. Borthwick & Davidson (2003), when looking for clues to musical identity, likewise found evidence of musical family scripting during their investigation of 12 families. All the parents in the study had been affected by ‘scripts’ during childhood within their respective families of origin. It seemed that the degree of importance given to music by members of their immediate and extended family influenced their decision to accord music a particular status and role, and this had a direct influence on their current family lifestyle. Many parents saw their own parents as key players in their children’s current musical identity: If their grandparents hadn’t been into music then there wouldn’t have been anything to pass down and they’d more than probably not be playing today (p. 63).

10 Music educators who are alert to the inherent positive aspects of music-making in the family should take note of the cyclic pattern of music participation. Status of Family Music-Making Music educators have expressed concern about what has been perceived as a decline in family music making. As early as 1947, Herbert Zipper, first executive president of the National Guild of Community Schools of the Arts, claimed that America3 was no longer a “singing nation”–family groups were singing less with each passing generation (Cummins, 1992).4 Others have since taken up his call, likewise declaring that family music-making, is in decline (Feierabend, 1990; Gembris & Davidson, 2002; Walters, 2000). The blame trail has been wide and encompassed changes in social mores and the emancipation of women (Loesser, 1954), changing patterns of American life (Crawford, 2001), a decline in the oral tradition (Clift, 2002), the proliferation and convenience of recorded music (M. Papousek, 1996; Small, 1999; Walters, 2000), waning participation in singing at home (Kramer, 1985), and the loss of childhood repertoire (Suthers & Larkin, 1997/1998; Trehub & Trainor, 1998). The claim is that families have moved away from active music-making to more passive, consumption-oriented musical activities and are losing the ability to make music on their own. Family musical activities have been replaced by the products of a burgeoning music industry. Music is no longer an “activity,” but rather has become a “thing” (Small, 1999)– CDs, music videos, MP3 downloads, and point-scoring video 3

For the purposes of this study, “America” includes the United States and its North American neighbor, Canada. 4 It is likely that Herbert Zipper was not the first to sound the alarm . . . his is one of the first recorded claims.

11 games. Nursery songs and rhythmic and rhyming games, once found to be the most frequent and universal forms of musical experience, appeared on the decline (Suthers & Larkin, 1997/1998). Gordon (2003) wrote that musical parenting was in a dire state and described it thusly: Most parents are more capable of guiding and instructing their children in the development of communication and arithmetic skills than of music skills. That is not necessarily because parents do not have high levels of music aptitudes. It is probably because most parents were not guided and instructed in developing music skills when they were children. Thus they become unwitting participants in an unfortunate cycle. (p. 3) Cutietta (2001) suggested that parents needed intervention musical training to make up for their lack of natural ability to create musical experiences in the home. While the claims continue, there has been little documentation of family music-making patterns on which to base these claims, and there is no “firm evidence to support this view of a lost tradition of singing” (Young, 2007, p. 257). Historical Documentation of Family Music Historical documentation of music-making within the context of American families is “sparse” (Crawford, 2001). Small bits and pieces of information can be gleaned from literature that targets music in America, but these works provide mostly details about musical composers, genre, and the rise and fall of professional musical entertainment. We do know that music-making was an integral part of early 20th century home life. Post (2004), in her collection and analyses of New England folk songs, included descriptions of families who sang while performing farm and household chores and vignettes about how they passed songs from one generation to the next. Music

12 “interwoven with the ordinary avocation of everyday life” was also noted by the founding father of British folklore revival, Cecil Sharp, during his 1916 visit to Appalachia (Crawford, 2001, p. 602). Instrumental music had a firm foothold in American family life. At the turn of the century, when pianos were no longer exclusive to the affluent, music in the home was a “cozy” activity centered around the piano (Loesser, 1954). The proliferation of pianos in homes was revealed in survey results, which were intended to determine socio-economic factors affecting the school performance of all students at New Haven academic high school [sic] (Chapman & Sims, 1925). The survey revealed that out of 3,153 students 78% reported having a piano in the home. There is an indication of home instrumental music-making activity in Zanzig’s (1932) survey (N=3,200), which revealed that 20% of students enrolled in school orchestras or bands played at home in family groups. Zanzig further elaborated: The happy balance of instruments in some family ensembles makes one suppose that on the birth of a child in one of those families, only the question as to whether it is a boy or a girl is more eager than the question as to what instrument it will play (p. 402). Indicators of family music-making activity were also evidenced by the proliferation of publications such as Mrs. Satis Coleman’s Creative Music in the Home (1922) and Schirmer’s Rhythmic Ensemble Band-books for Children (1929) both intended for family use. Much of what little we know about specific 20th century family musical practices is derived from researchers in the leisure and family study communities. Mothers were often responsible for music activities in the home (Bowers, 2007), and fathers and

13 daughters hummed and danced (Greenlaw, 2008). Families sang in various places and for various functions: around the campfire (Bernardy, 2000), at bedtime (Engle, 1998), and as part of birthday celebrations (Lee, Katras, & Bauer, 2009; Otnes & Nelson, 1995). Music Education Investigations Music educators began investigating home musical environments in 1938. In a study of the development of the ability to carry a melody at the preschool level, Drexler (1938) noted that one of the purposes of her investigation was “To find the relationship between the children's home musical backgrounds as well as the abilities of the parents to sing, and the ability of the children to carry a melody” (p. 321). Information about the home environment was collected through a questionnaire distributed to the parents of the children in Drexler’s study. While Drexler did not publish the questions that she posed, she did report that the information gathered included “the type of music generally listened to in the home, the amount of time spent by the parents singing with their children, [and] the amount of time spent by the children listening to the radio, piano, etc.” (p. 330). Interestingly, at this early date in home musical environment research, Drexler found the correlation between the children’s home environment (as determined by answers to her questions) and the children’s ability to carry melodies relatively low. She attributed this finding to the homogeneity of her subjects’ home backgrounds. Drexler did, however, note: The fact that the relationship which existed between the abilities of the mothers and those of their children to sing was almost twice as great as that between the fathers' and children's abilities suggests strongly the importance of the role played by environment in the learning process of this function. The mothers supply most of the musical environment for their children, and thus the child learns from the examples of the mothers' singing (p. 330).

14 With a connection made, investigations into the effects of the home musical environment upon a wide range of musical aspects were underway. Researchers looked for links between the home and children’s overall musical development (Jenkins, 1976; Kelley & Sutton-Smith, 1987), specific musical skills (Brand 1986; Kirkpatrick, 1962; Persellin, 2006; Shelton, 1965), and achievement (Bonifati, 1997; Zdzinski, 1992, 1996). Once music educators adopted a belief in the theory of music aptitude, investigations were conducted in an effort to determine if that, too, was influenced by the home musical environment (Brand, 1982; Gordon, 1967; Mallett, 2000). Inquiries often relied on a self-reporting questionnaire (or an interview using directed questioning) that was distributed to the parents of the children in the studies. The questionnaires primarily targeted two areas: parents and musical objects in the home. Researchers devised questions that sought to develop a picture of parents’ past and current musical behavior (Bonifati, 1997; Brand, 1982, 1986; Mitchell, 1985; Moore, 1982; Shelton, 1965; Zdzinski, 1992) by collecting data about their out-of-home musical experiences. A home’s “musical-ness” was determined by the answers to questions that took inventory of the home’s musical objects such as instruments (Brand, 1982; Mitchell, 1985; Moore, 1982; Shelton, 1965) and devices that could play recorded music (Bonifati, 1997; Brand, 1986; Doxey & Wright, 1990; G. Reynolds, 1960). A review of the questionnaires revealed a lack of questions that inquired about musical activities in which family members participated together. While this missing aspect of the questionnaires may currently seem odd, there are some considerations to note about much of this research that may clarify some of those intentions.

15 The research utilizing the questionnaires was not intended to document home musical activity for posterity. Research efforts were investigating the existence of links between home musical environments and the primary focus of the research project. Consequently, there were little to no inclusions of questions about the who, what, where, when, and why’s of reported music-making activity in the home. Family music-making is only one specific aspect of the home musical environment. Studies that investigated this environment did not necessarily seek out or inquire about family music-making activities. For example Gordon’s (1967) Interview Questionnaire Employed to Obtain Information Pertaining to Environmental Factors and Brand’s (1982) Music Environment Questionnaire contained no questions about interactive music experiences in the home (singing, moving to music, playing instruments or musical games, or conversing in song or rhythmic speech.). Questionnaires that did inquire about such activities offered only “yes” or “no” responses or asked respondents to note the frequency of the activity. For example Kehrberg (1984) asked if families sang and/or played instruments together or for each other at home. Respondents were offered frequency choices of “Never; About once a year; About once a month; About once a week; 2 to 6 times a week; Every day” (p. 404). There were many broad definitions, categorizations, and manners of reporting about the “home musical environment.” Brand’s (1985) Home Musical Environmental Scale (HOMES) sought to elicit information about parental attitudes towards music, and their efforts to provide a musical environment and musical experiences for their children. Zdzinski’s (1992, 1996) Parental Involvement Measure (PIM) sought to determine

16 selected aspects of parental involvement and their effects on student cognitive, affective, and performance outcomes. The PIM asked if parents attended concerts and school meetings, and how many books and classical music recordings were in the home; the PIM did not inquire about home musical activities other than the student’s practice habits. When categorizing data about family musical activities, Kirkpatrick (1962) and Shelton (1965) assigned each family to a general category: musical, average, or unmusical and did not include the individual activities in their final reports. Shull (1953) created a questionnaire that provided a glimpse of family musical interaction and in an effort to determine the importance of the home environment in shaping a child’s musicality. Shull mailed her questionnaire to the parents of 71 kindergarten children. While many of the questions were similar in nature to those of the other studies, Shull also included (numbered as they appeared in her survey document): 3. Have you taught [your child] singing games, which you play and sing together? 4. Do you teach the child to sing songs, deliberately helping him with difficult places and correcting his tones? 5. Has he learned songs by listening to and imitating you? 10. Is the child permitted to experiment on the piano? 11. Do you ever give him help? (on the piano) 14. Have you ever accompanied on an instrument the child’s rhythmic movement? 19. Do you have musical gatherings at home, or guests who perform musically? Part II of Shull’s survey asked parents to note the average amount of time they sang with their children, conversed in song, told stories with rhythmical refrains, played games such

17 as Pat-a-Cake, and recited nursery rhymes together. Shull’s results contained, almost as a side note, the frequency and percentages of the activities that occurred in homes. A case study that chronicled the early stages of musical development in infants presents a more detailed portrait of music-making in the lives of three families. In their study of infant musical productivity, Kelley and Sutton-Smith (1987) chronicled the musical lives of three children during their first 2 years. The children were observed during regularly scheduled visits in a variety of settings and times of day. Families held, rocked, and sang to babies, engaged in singing conversations, and played piano and sang together. There were family musical performances that featured the child’s newly emerging skills. Songs included traditional childhood songs, nursery rhymes, and holiday/celebration songs: Baa, Baa Black Sheep; Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star; Old MacDonald; Muffin Man; Silent Night; and Happy Birthday. Details about day-to-day family-music across three generations are embedded in Littleton’s (2002) first-hand account of the musical development of her granddaughter, Gabriela. Littleton had the opportunity to visit Gabriela’s home every day when the child was between the ages of 18 to 36 months old. Littleton reported that Gabriela’s mother often sang to her. During bath time, Gabriela was engaged with renditions of Splish Splash and Rubber Ducky. Parents and grandmother danced with Gabriela, often following her lead as she moved to the music. Dance music choices ranged from Argentine tangos to the music of Bartoli, Rossini, and the Andrews sisters. The “dancers” often sang along to the recorded music. Both parents and grandmother read storybooks to Gabriela that included rhythmic rhymes (i.e. Chicka Chicka Boom Boom and Mad About

18 Madeline). They played child-sized tambourines, drums, and maracas together and laughed during dancing games . . . “round, and a-round, and a-round, and stop!” (p.35). During toddlerhood, a favorite activity was the “Carry-Me Dance.” Gabriela would demand that her parents pick her up and twirl her around to music. Grandmother joined in the fun and was also on hand to “carry-me-dance” to the music of The King and I. When she was 2½ years old, Gabriela and her grandmother engaged in musical play as they acted out the storylines and sang and danced their favorite parts of Mary Poppins and The Sound of Music. Singing activities took a featured role in the musical activities documented by both Kelley and Sutton-Smith (1987) and Littleton (2002). Zipper’s fears about waning American singing might have had valid roots, but the emerging results of investigations that have targeted musical interaction between infants and parents reveal that while possibly less frequent than in the past, singing in America (at least between parents and young children) is still a common occurrence. Data from the Smart Symphonies ™ Project (Custodero, Britto, & Xin, 2002) revealed that out of 2,250 parents of 4- to 6month-old children, 69% reported that they sing to their children daily and 19% reported singing to their babies one to three times per week. Trehub, Unyk, Kamenestsky, Hill, Trainor, and Henderson’s (1997) diary study of 60 families revealed that mothers sing to their children at least once a day, and 75% of them reported singing often throughout the day (Trehub, 1999). When asked what they usually sing to their infants, parents reported singing lullabies, popular songs, and creating their own songs (Custodero, 2006). Mothers were

19 more likely to choose songs from standard children's repertoire; fathers often sang pop or folk songs (Trehub et al., 1997). According to the results of the “Toddler Top 40” survey, parents reported that Itsy Bitsy Spider (also known as Eentsy Weentsy Spider) is the favorite song of their babies and toddlers (Johnson-Green & Custodero, 2002). Mothers and fathers sing to infants during play activities, when changing, bathing, traveling with, and feeding them, and at nap and bedtime (Trehub et al., 1997). The times of day that these musical activities occur reveal how much of family life is punctuated by routines and rituals. In fact, 20 percent of the parents responding to a web-based survey discussed the importance of music in their daily routines (Johnson-Green & Custodero, 2002). One parent observed, “Songs flow in and around our playtime, routines and stories” (p. 48). It seems that daily tasks are made special through musical practices that foster social interaction (Trehub, Hill, & Kamenetsky, 1997). Singing in these situations can take on a utilitarian role, especially with young children (Sims & Udtaisuk, 2008). Singing and musical speech is often used to manage children’s behavior (Blacking, 1995) and social skills (Trehub & Schellenberg, 1995). Kerrie O'Reilly, a mother of three children, Mitchell (5), Kylie (3), and Catherine (2), described how she used singing to communicate messages about family routines: I stole a lot of kids' songs and changed the words. “Frère Jacques” is [she sings]: “Time for night-night. Yes it is. Yes it is.” And I've done that to all of them when they were little. And I could have just used “Frère Jacques,” but you want them to learn the word, “night-night,” or whatever word it is, so that you can communicate to them that they're going to sleep now. ... So, it was like a little cue, that they would know, when I [sang]. ... that they were getting in the crib, and I was going to leave them, basically. “You're getting down there now, and I'm leaving you.” And I did that for all of them (Custodero, 2006, p. 42).

20 Sometimes routine music-making has unexpected or surprising effects. In a study of bedtime rituals, Engle (1998) established that children’s bedtime demands can make this time of day a stressful one for parents, but revealed that parents who began to include music in their child’s bedtime ritual reduced their own anxiety levels. In some families, making music is its own routine activity. Custodero (2006) noted that four of the ten families participating in her investigation of family singing practices set aside “a regular time for singing together as part of family routine” (p. 42). These musical times were initiated as a time of parent-child bonding and as a re-creation of the parents’ own past. Families also sang to create new traditions (Custodero, 2006) and to help children organize and remember information (Honig, 1995). Custodero et al. (2003), however, did note that musical activity begins to taper off as children move out of their toddler years. A concern about a decline in family singing prompted Young (2007) to begin a “Music and Song” project in Ealing and Harrow, England. Finch (2000) described that Young feared: . . . parents needed re-educating in matters of touch, vocal stimulus and song repertoire in a world where a child was no longer passed from one pair of rocking arms to another, but all too often left solitarily in a baby-bouncer listening, if lucky, to a tape. (p. 33) Young’s (2007) interviews with 88 parents, however, revealed that toddlers were involved in “a range of musical experiences involving sociable activity with family members around toys, recorded music, and multi-media items” (p. 259). Young claimed that the nature of music and musical practice in contemporary homes had shifted from “conventional conceptions of early childhood music. Cleary, new technologies in the

21 home have been largely responsible for these changes and for the increased range of musical experiences available to young children” (p. 259). Young makes an interesting observation. Perhaps, it is not that family musicmaking is on the decline as much as the face of music-making is changing. Instead of gathering around the piano, today’s families may be engaging in music-making around the DVD and CD Player, iPod dock, computer, Play Station, X-box, or Wii. The reader can refer back to Littleton’s (2002) accounts and note that many of her family’s musical activities were media-prompted. Trehub and Trainor (1998) reported that mothers they interviewed indicated they “acquire songs primarily from children’s recordings and television programs” (p. 62). Changes in technology have brought about many changes in general family life; it is likely that family musical life has been similarly affected. Family Music-Making From a Child’s Perspective What little we know about music-making in the context of the family has been determined from an adult perspective. Researchers have solicited information from parents through the use of interviews (Custodero, 2006), questionnaires (Brand, 1985; Drexler, 1938; Shull, 1953), surveys (Custodero & Johnson-Green, 2003), diaries (Trehub et al., 1997), and journals (Custodero, 2006). Field notes from observational studies have all been recorded and interpreted by adults (Gibson, 2009; Kelley & SuttonSmith, 1987; Littleton, 2002). Even though their presence was an integral part of each study, children’s perspective on music in the family has not been solicited or considered. Anyone who has spent time with children can ascertain that they view the world differently than adults. What seems very clear and obvious to one, may not be so

22 apparent to the other. Perspectives, understandings, and meanings from the two groups may or may not have points of intersection. The notion that children’s views, thoughts and feelings are valuable has emerged from a change in the way we think about children. Since the latter half of the 20th century, children have been considered resourceful and capable–actively constructing meanings as they interact with others and with the material world around them (Office of Childcare, 2002). They are co-constructors in the societies in which they live (Kjørholt, 2002) and partners in teaching and learning interactions (Makin & Whiteman, 2006). As such, children should be allowed to participate in society as active citizens rather than objects of protection (Jans, 2004; Roberts, 2003). Children are capable of expressing views and have the right to be heard (United Nations, 1989). As children assert that right, adults have an obligation to listen to them and take them seriously (James & Prout, 1997). Research involving children has historically been conducted in response to adult concerns and contexts (Lansdown, 2005). Only recently has research in early childhood education recognized the importance of listening to children and acknowledging that they are active agents in many settings (Clark & Moss, 2001; Lansdown, 2005). Children can provide “indispensable” perspectives that can deepen and enrich our knowledge (Makin & Whiteman 2006, p. 35). For this reason, many research ethics practitioners encouraged children’s involvement in all aspects of inquiry: developing research questions, data gathering, and analysis (Clark & Moss, 2001; Hill, 2005; MacNaughton & Smith, 2005; Morrow, 2005). Children are able to “co-construct shared meanings in ways we [adults]

23 cannot do if the children themselves are not active participants in exploring the situation” (Makin & Whiteman, 2006, p. 35). One case in point is a study conducted by Whiteman (2008) in which young children were asked to answer a question long debated by adults. According to Whiteman, scholars have long deliberated over the meaning and definition of “music.” Is music an organization of sound in a temporal framework (Davies, 1997), the coordination between man and time (Stravinsky, 1962), a meaningful symbol system (Gardner & Wolf, 1979), adaptive behavior (Levitin, 2006), or cognitive enterprise (Reimer, 1989)? While the grown-ups debated, Whiteman considered what children might offer to the discussion and explained his reasons: It is imperative that we know what children perceive music to be, to fully understand their music-making and musical development, in order that generative approaches to teaching in early childhood truly acknowledge the children’s own musical cultures. (p. 3) To determine children’s definition of music, Whiteman went straight to the source. The participants in his study were 4-and 5-year-old children who assumed the role of active participants and data gatherers. Whiteman distributed a camera to each child. After it was determined that the children could effectively operate the cameras, Whiteman, choosing his words carefully, directed the children to go out and “take photos of music.” The children went forth and later brought their pictures to Whiteman for review. In addition to the “expected” photographs of people singing, musical instruments, and electronic devices capable of playing recorded music, the children’s photographs included birds, running water, shells, trees in the wind, and photographs of eating toast.

24 This eclectic collection prompted Whiteman to note, “. . . for these children, music is a broad concept that goes beyond the melodic and prosodic elements of the Western tradition” (p. 4). Adults and children do indeed see the world in different ways. Soliciting children’s perspectives through their active participation requires imaginative thinking. Clark and Moss (2001) developed the Mosaic approach as a way to be responsive to the “voice of the child” (p. 2). The Mosaic approach emerged from a 2year study to describe and evaluate a range of services provided to families in a “deprived and multi-ethnic area” of London. The children in the study took on a participatory role by taking photographs, giving tours, and making maps. These actions, coupled with observations and conversations with the children allowed Clark and Moss to evaluate the services from the children’s perspective. Einarsdottir (2005) built on the Mosaic approach and introduced group interviews, children’s drawings, and a questionnaire disguised as a board game to her investigation of Icelandic playschools. Through these methods, the 5and 6-year-old children in Einardottir’s study were able to clearly express their opinions about their playschool life. The expression of these opinions allowed the children to become stakeholders in the areas under investigation. Active participation frees children from being just subjects of research (Henderson, Meier, & Perry, 2005). By including them in each step of the research process, their voices and experiences may lead to clearer and more accurate pictures of areas under investigation (Harkins, Makin, Spedding, & Whiteman, 2008). After all, children are the ones who are experts on their own lives (Clark & Moss, 2001).

25 Need for the Study There is a need for more inquiry into the world of families and music. While an abundance of emerging data is providing a picture of infant and family musical life, many other aspects have been unexplored. There is a “scarcity of studies on musical interactions between parents and toddlers” (Custodero et al., 2003, p. 566), and researchers have neglected family musical activities that include older children, instruments, and the musical practices of siblings. More research is needed to “provide a full and accurate portrait of the musical lives of families” (Custodero et al., 2003, p. 569). Systematic investigation of family music-making makes a rich contribution to the field of music education. Littleton (2002) posited that to know more about children as music makers, “we must consider the social and biological factors that influence where and how music comes to young children” (p. 40). And, if we are truly interested in how family music-making influences and affects children, we need to include them in the research process. Children are able to provide additional and valuable perspectives to an area of interest (see Whiteman, 2008); they can also offer a view of music in family life that has not previously been uncovered. A better understanding of family musical life from both the child and the parents’ perspective allows music educators to discover “truths about people and their lives that lead to a holistic understanding of lived experiences” (Furman, 2004, p. 162) and contribute to our understanding of American musical culture. More data will enable us to answer questions and assumptions about children’s musical experiences outside of the classroom, learn from parent-child partnerships, and create the possibility of improving

26 educational settings (Custodero & Johnson-Green, 2006). In addition to gleaning important pedagogical information, an awareness of family music-making has the possibility of strengthening relationships between home life and school–possibly presenting greater opportunities for collaborative efforts. The active involvement of family members may “heighten musical experiences in school-based settings” (Custodero, 2005, p. 54). Most important, if we recognize that musical development is first nurtured in the home environment, we should welcome any opportunity to learn about and support music in the family. Understanding and supporting the family music connection affords music educators the opportunity to respond to students’ links to their musical past and subsequently build America’s musical future. Purpose and Questions Family musical life is important to the musical development of children. As educators gain knowledge about what the family music experience looks like and how it is perceived by children, they are better able to link teaching practices to that which is already familiar to children. The purpose of this study was to investigate music in family life as reported by parents and children. The guiding question for this research was: What forms of musical activity, interaction, and behavior are evidenced in the participant families? Subordinate questions are: •

Who participates in family musical activities?

•

What are the musical activities?

•

When and where do the activities occur?

27 •

What is the frequency of the activities?

•

What musical activities do families have in common?

•

How do families’ musical lives differ?

•

What types of family activities do children consider to be musical?

•

How do children describe and interpret family musical activities?

In addition to providing descriptions of family musical behavior, this study provided a forum for five children to tell, document, and retell their families’ musical stories. The children’s stories offer us the potential for new interpretations of family musical life from a unique perspective in a given context at a given time (Cook & Hess, 2007).

28 Chapter 2: Methodology Previous research about family music-making relied on parents who provided self-reported data (Brand, 1985; Custodero, 2006; Custodero & Johnson-Green, 2003; Drexler, 1938; Shull, 1953; Trehub et al., 1997) and on adult researchers who conducted in-home observations (Gibson, 2009; Kelley & Sutton-Smith, 1987; Littleton, 2002). Including children as participants in this study required a new research design. In addition to parent questionnaires and parent interviews (research tools used in prior studies) this research included a children’s component. Three focus groups for children, an in-home children’s video recording project, and individual children’s interviews were designed to provide children the opportunity to serve as data reporters, collectors, and interpreters. These three added components allowed children to have an equal voice in this investigation. Participants In order to provide the richest amount of data and informational responses (Patton, 2002), five5 participating families were chosen through purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is a sampling method that intentionally focuses on selecting specific cases that will provide the most information for the questions under study. Rather than produce a sample that is representative of a larger population, purposive sampling targets a subset of a community or other defined group (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). Purposive sampling is also used to determine an easily accessible or volunteer population and provides for a homogeneous case sampling to study a particular subgroup in-depth. 5

The number of participating families was determined by the suggested ideal number of children to form an effective focus group (see Focus Groups p. 39).

29 Participant and Researcher Relationship Trust played an integral part in the decision to use purposive sampling. This study contained multiple trust relationships: parent-researcher; child-parent; child-researcher; researcher-parent; researcher-child. Trust relationships affect the participation and comfort level of the participants and the trustworthiness of the information they provide. Selecting families who already had an established trusting relationship with me, insured the certainty of the participant-researcher trust factor. In their study of how parents and children perceive and assess the risks of involving children in child health research, Woodgate and Edwards (2010) determined that the presence or absence of trust was a “contributing factor” in parents’ and children’s decision to participate in a study (para.14). Other findings included: 1. Parents must be able to trust the researcher to treat their children in a “respectful, careful manner” with minimum risk (para.12). 2. Children must have a sense of trust in parents and researcher so as to believe that they have not been placed in a situation that may bring them harm. 3. Children expressed that “having a sense of trust” helps them to feel comfortable in the research setting. Without it . . . they would be less likely to cooperate” (para.13). Researchers must also be able to trust participants. In this study, I had to trust that parent participants would provide access to their homes and children for the length of the study and that the information provided by the child participants would be reliable. Child participants who have an established connection with a researcher are more likely to offer

30 data and responses that are more open and trustworthy (Dockett & Perry, 2007). Selecting children who already trusted and had a relationship with me would positively affect the dependability of the collected data. Trust in researchers is “fragile” (Kass, Sugarman, & Faden, 1996), has to be earned (Woodgate & Edwards, 2010), and takes time to develop. (Clark & Moss, 2001; Greene & Hill, 2005; Lansdown, 2005). Participants were chosen from a pool of candidates with whom I already had an established trust relationship. Families selected to participate in this study each had a child who had been previously enrolled in a class that I taught at a local community music school. The weekly class met for three 10-week sessions per school year. Children selected for this study were formerly enrolled for a minimum of one 10-week session. In some cases, the participating families and I had a 2-year prior relationship. At the time of the study, the former students were no longer eligible to be enrolled in my music classes. (They had progressed beyond the upper age limit.) Our teacherstudent relationship had ended. This change in relationship status diluted my position of power in relationship to the participants (Roberts-Holmes, 2005), an ethical concern when research involves child participants. A power differential between researcher and children can affect the children’s comfort level and the trustworthiness of the information they offer (Makin & Whiteman, 2006). When the researcher is in a position of power, the children’s responses can be shaded by a desire to please or to provide information they believe the person in power wishes to hear (Dockett & Perry, 2007). Elimination of the

31 teacher-student power relationship increased the dependability of the information offered by the child participants (Curtin, 2001). An added step that reinforced both the trust relationship and reliability of gathered information was the implementation of a member check. The member check process allows participants an opportunity to review both the data they provide and a researcher’s interpretation of that data. Member checks are used as a method to determine if “the data analysis is congruent with the participants’ experiences” (Curtin & Fossey, 2007, p.92). They add to the credibility of research findings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) by providing participants the ability to authenticate and react to the “findings and interpretations that emerged as a result of his or her participation” (Jones, Torres, & Arminio, 2006, p. 99). When this document was in its final stages, the portions that pertained to each specific family was delivered to that family via an email attachment. The families had two weeks to review the text, make clarifications or comments, and send them to me. Through this technique, the families were able to continue their input into the research process and also assured that I understood the “meaning of the experiences that represented the participants” (Jones, Torres, & Arminio, 2006, p. 99). Only three families chose to make changes to the text written about them. Family 005 noted that I had transcribed “Oh good!” as “Oh, God!”; Family 003 corrected the gender attributed to one of their dogs; and, Family 002 wrote back to declare that all family data that was gathered during the study accurately represented their musical family life.

32 Institutional Approval and Participant Recruitment After a formal study proposal was submitted to and accepted by the Graduate Research Committee of the Eastman School of Music, documents that detailed methodology, recordkeeping, and disclosure of collected data were submitted to the University of Rochester’s Research Subjects Review Board (RSRB) for approval (Appendix A, p. 273). Once RSRB approval was granted, active participant recruitment began. Families were initially approached one at a time with an email asking them to determine their interest in participating in the project (Appendix B, p. 276). A total of seven families were asked to participate in this project before the target number of five families was reached. Families who agreed to become participants were hand-delivered or emailed an Information Letter (Appendix C, p. 278) Parent-Child Permission and Consent Form (Appendix D, p. 282), and a Photography, Audio and Video Recording Release for adults (Appendix E, p. 288) and for all children living in the home (Appendix F, p. 290). Once the documents were signed and collected, the five families were ready to participate in this research. Participants Five families, each with a child enrolled in 1st grade (6 years old), participated in the study. Participants were divided into two categories and took on varying roles: 1. Child Participants: a 5- to 6-year-old child in each family. 2. Parents: the parents in each family. Each participating family had two parents. The child participants actively participated as data gatherers, commentators, and interpreters through the use of digital recording media, an individual interview, and three

33 focus group discussions. The children also video recorded family musical activities for one week. Parents provided family demographic data, musical background information, and an overview of family musical life through a questionnaire (one for each parent) and an in-person interview. They were also video recorded if they participated in family musical activities. Parents were asked to take a non-directive, yet, supportive role during the video phase of this project. They were asked to ensure that their child would always have access to the video camera, help with technological or mechanical issues, and take responsibility for charging the video camera battery each night. Parents were instructed to respond in a natural manner and, if possible, guide their child toward an answer of her own if asked for advice about what was appropriate to record. Additional family members such as siblings, grandparents, cousins, and other extended family members were involved in this study; however, they were not considered to be official “participants” by the RSRB. Even though important data would be gathered about these family members, data was not gathered from them. Family members living in the participating families’ homes were required to sign a video release (or in the case of minor children, the parents signed a video release), but no other permission or consent forms were necessary. Data Collection There were multiple methods of data collection in this study as recommended by Denzin (1994). Demographic, musical background, and family musical activity information were collected from the parent participants through a questionnaire and a

34 60-minute in-person interview. The children assumed the role of active participants in the area of data collection. They attended three focus groups, video recorded family musical activity for one week, and engaged in one 60-minute interview with the researcher. Parent Questionnaire The first step of the study elicited information from the parents through the use of a hand-delivered questionnaire (Appendix G, p. 292). The questionnaire was divided into three parts: Part 1 (parent’s musical background and parent and children’s current formal musical activity); Part 2 (current family informal musical behaviors); Part 3 (demographic information). Parts 1 and 3 were derived from a survey instrument previously used to gather similar background information in a study to determine why families enroll young children in an early childhood music program (Gingras, 2004). Part 2 contained 90 questions about informal family musical behavior. These questions inquired about parent, parent/parent, parent/child, child, child/child, and whole family musical activity. Questions were derived from previous studies (Custodero 2006; Custodero & Johnson-Green, 2003; Shull,1953; Trehub et al., 1997) and were modified, updated, and expanded when creating the questionnaire. Parents were given the Parent Questionnaire when they returned their signed RSRB documents. They were instructed to complete the questionnaire independently from their spouse in an effort to collect non-collaborative responses. Completed questionnaires were collected a minimum of 1 week before the parent interview (see Parent Interview p. 35).

35 The information from the completed Parent Questionnaires was used to generate both general and family-specific interview prompts for the parent interview. Each set of parents’ answers were combined on a single questionnaire in a manner that still allowed me to determine which parent provided which answer. I made notes about what each parent reported in regard to their musical background and individual musical behavior. Questions that targeted musical activities that were about or included other family members, were examined for both consistency and inconsistency in the parents answers. Activities that received both high and low frequency ratings from both parents, as well as activities that received dissimilar frequency ratings, were noted so they could be raised during the Parent Interview. Parent Interview Both parents from each family met with me in the family’s home for a 60-minute interview. In some cases, families were so enthusiastic about the topic, the interview time was extended by 20-40 minutes. The interviews were conducted using a semi-structured format to allow the parents to elaborate on their questionnaire answers and describe current family musical activities. Fontana and Frey (1991) recommended semi-structured interviews as a means to combine guiding questions and informant-initiated conversation. The interviews permitted me to achieve a better understanding of the role of music in each family and to take into account the “lived” experience of participants (Hutchinson, 1988, p. 125). In addition to providing information that helped answer the study questions, data collected from parent interviews also provided a framework and context

36 for guiding the questions and activities at the children’s focus group sessions and when analyzing the children’s video recordings and interviews. Children’s Research Activities The child participants in the study both reported verbally and gathered video data about family musical activity. Reported data was collected in a series of three 1-hour focus groups and in one 60-minute individual child interview with the researcher. The children gathered video data by using video cameras to document family musical activity for 1 week. Table 1 illustrates how the children’s focus groups, interviews, and video recordings were integrated into the research time table.

Table 1 Research Time Table Timeline

Activity

Purpose

Week 1

Parents complete questionnaire.

Gather demographic information, family musical history, and musical activity data

Weeks 2-4

Interview each set of parents (video and audio recorded)

Gather additional and/or elaborative data about family musical history and activities

Week 5

Focus Group 1 (children) (video and audio recorded)

Build rapport with researcher and camaraderie between participants Elicit discussion about family musical activities Review child participants’ role in the study

Children video record family musical activities for seven days.

Create video records of family musical activities

Mid-week Individual Meeting with each child participant (audio recorded)

Determine if participants are following directions. Verify that videos are appropriate length Answer any questions/concerns

37

Week 6

Focus Group 2 (children) (video and audio recorded)

Turn in cameras with collected video Discuss what participants discovered Gather participants thoughts, reflections, perspectives, and feelings about gathered data

Week 7

One-on-one Interviews (children) (Instant Video Review) (video and audio recorded)

Allow participants to watch, comment on, and explain their video recordings (Instant Video Review Process) Prompt/probe for additional information about recorded activities, unrecorded activities, participants’ perspectives/thoughts/impressions/views/feelings about activities Allow participants to select video segments to share in Focus Group 3 (favorite video segment) Look for additional themes and common behaviors to explore in Focus Group 3

Week 8

Focus Group 3 (children) (video and audio recorded)

Participants share selected video segments with each other Semi-structured discussion session to elicit responses to shared videos Parents invited to join children to watch video clip compilation of children’s focus group activities and video recorded by the children. 38

39 Focus groups. Focus groups are employed when the objective is to generate varied viewpoints and a breadth of discussion where “right answers” are not the target (Kamberelis & Dimitriadis, 2005). They are a source of “informant-initiated conversation” (Williamson, 2005, p. 35) that provides multiple perspectives. In focus group settings, participants engage in a discussion that has a “focus” (a story, event, or topic that is a centerpiece of the discussion). It is important that the discussion is directed in a way that “will meet the study objectives by providing a focus and then maintaining that focus” (Clark, 2009, p. 153). For this reason, focus groups are led by a group facilitator or moderator. The role of the focus group facilitator is to sustain the attention of the participants and to help them keep their discussion centered on a “preplanned focusing topic” (Clark, 2009). It is essential that the moderator come prepared with a framework of questions (Fontana and Frey 1991; Vaughn, Schumm, & Sinagub, 1996) that open conversation without leading participants toward certain opinions. Focus groups rely on the premise that the social interaction of the group “facilitates discussion and researcher probing more so than individual interviews” (Dabback, 2007) and that such discussion is frank and honest (Krueger & Casey 2009; Vaughn et al., 1996). Group discussion activates memories, feelings, and experiences. The contribution of one participant triggers a response in another, resulting in additional information (Folch-Lyon & Trost, 1981). The focus group process provides a powerful exploratory experience, which can elicit meaningful and important information beyond what researchers expect (Ronen, 2001). Information and ideas generated in focus group

40 settings are surrounded by the explanations that make them meaningful (Krueger & Casey, 2009). This meaning is constructed by the participants. Kitzinger (1995) described the process as an examination of “not only what people think but how they think and why the think that way” (p. 299). While focus groups can and do provide varied and meaningful data, the gathered data must also be considered in relation to the factors of participant personalities and group interactions. The inherent social dynamic of a focus group is artificially created. The participants’ link to each other may only be through the focus group setting. It is possible that dominant personalities can control the discussion and that some participants may feel pressure to agree with others in the group (Carey & Smith 1994 ). Facilitators need to be aware of and navigate around these concerns. Participants should be informed that it is their individual thoughts, expressions, and opinions that are valuable. During data analysis, these focus group variables and influences must be taken into consideration when the findings are articulated. Focus groups with children have been successfully used in research regarding health management (Nabors et al., 2003; Ronen, 2001), body image (Lewis, 2007), and moral (Dunlap, 2005) and music (Zur, 2007) education. They are an advantageous method to collect data from children. Focus groups provide an empowering environment for children to share their views (Krahn & Eisert, 2000). Because they are in a group and are with peers, children are more able to feel in control of the situation and competent in their ability to answer questions (Dunlap, 2005). The shared experience is less intimidating than a one-on-one interview (Lewis, 2007); children are able to talk

41 primarily to each other (rather than to the researcher). They are more able to use everyday language (Tiggemanne, Gardiner, & Slater, 2000) and often reveal more information than they would in other settings (Greenbaum, 1997; Jayanthi & Nelson, 2002). Hoppe, Wells, Morrison, Gilmore, and Wilsdon (1995) recommended that children participating in focus groups be the same age. Greenbaum (1997) likewise suggested that the children be the same gender. Age and gender similarity reduce distractions within the focus group setting. Recent research has included focus groups with as many as eight children per group (Nabors, Lehmkuhl, Christos, & Andreone, 2003). Ronen (2001), however, determined that when conducting focus groups with children, “five was the ideal size” of a focus group for pre-adolescent children (p. 74). In accordance with the recommendations for focus groups for children, the five child participants for this study were the same age (6 years old) and gender (girls). The gender of the participants was dictated by the size of the population from which prospective participants could be solicited. The participating children were selected from students who had attended my community music school classes the prior year. During the 2009-2010 year, more girls than boys had enrolled in the classes. Each of the three focus groups had a particular purpose and structure. An effort was made to make them age-appropriate and playful to create an environment that produced honest and open child responses. A focus group that includes a “child-life” approach using games, stories, and activities provides a comfortable setting for children to share their views (Krahn & Eiser, 2000). The focus groups were video and audio recorded, and transcribed for analysis.

42 Focus group one: Secret Mission. The first focus group (FG1) was intended to promote camaraderie between the participants, re-establish rapport with me as I served in the role of focus group facilitator, gather information from the children about family music-making activities, and orient the children to their role as active participants in the study. It was critical to the success of the children’s focus groups that they be conducted in a child-friendly manner. In FG1, the active role of the child participants was presented to them under the guise of a secret mission. Early in the week before each focus group meeting, a postcard was mailed to each child participant (Appendix H, p. 304). The postcard for FG1 contained a modified research project logo. The logo–a girl in a trench coat and hat looking at musical notes through a magnifying glass–was altered to remove the musical reference so as not to reveal too much about the project before the children met as a group. The text “Secret Agent Meeting!” and the password “Shhhhhh!” along with the date, time, and meeting location of FG1 was also included. When the child participants arrived in the lobby of the focus group location, paper footsteps on the floor and Secret Agent Meeting signs directed them to the proper room. Upon her arrival, each child participant was designated a “secret agent” and was issued a Secret Agent kit (Appendix I, p. 308). The kit contained a Secret Agent Handbook, Secret Agent badge (Appendix J, p. 310), sunglasses, t-shirt, video camera with neck strap, my contact information, and an opt out postcard (pre-addressed and stamped) (Appendix K, p. 312). The initial focus group questions and comments served as a means to warm-up the group and allow participants to feel comfortable. The child participants were

43 instructed to refer to each other by their secret agent numbers: 001, 002, 003, 004, and 005. I was Secret Agent 000, which the children pronounced “zero, zero, zero.” This added to the fun, prevented their real names from being recorded, and retained anonymity in the event that any of the audio or video is used at future educational presentations. Once a sense of camaraderie had been established, I began a discussion about family musical activities by explaining to the children that I had already spoken to their parents and now I was interested in their thoughts. The Secret Agent Handbook served as a focal point to elicit information and help the children maintain topic focus (Appendix L, p. 314). The handbook contained six double-sided pages. The first page was a title page stamped TOP SECRET followed by a Mission Page (with a picture of a video camera recording musical notes). A graphic design was chosen over written text so that the children did not have to rely on their emerging reading skills. Each child could, regardless of reading level, view the graphic and be reminded of my instructions that their mission was to record family musical activity (including themselves) that they encountered during the following week. These pages were followed by activity pages that prompted the children to either make drawings, circle illustrations, or place stickers on the page. I explained to the children that each completed book would be unique to them, as all their families were different in some way. The illustrations in the Secret Agent Handbook and the available stickers the children affixed to the pages served as discussion prompts. Illustration and sticker selections were determined by the data provided by the parents on the Parent

44 Questionnaire and at the Parent Interview. For example, on the first activity page, the children placed stickers of musical items in their homes. This page was designed to prompt the children to discuss family musical activity that involved “things.” The provided stickers represented every musical item or instrument that the parents had reported on the Parent Questionnaire and during the Parent Interview along with additional stickers of world and folk instruments, music boxes, earphones, electronic gaming consoles, etc. The children were able to choose stickers, and if necessary (it wasn’t), draw any musical devices or instruments that were not represented. The activity pages were: Musical Things in My House: The children placed stickers of instruments, iPods, CD players, computers, etc. on this page while they discussed what the items were, when they were used, and who used them. My Family: The children were given access to crayons, markers and pencils with which they could draw their family members. Musical Things My Family Does: This page contained nine illustrations of people singing, playing an instrument, dancing and singing, singing and playing an instrument, listening to music, singing with another person or group, and playing an instrument with another person or group. There was space available for the children to draw additional activities that were not already represented. My House: A cutaway dollhouse-view of a home served as a prompt for the children to either circle or place musical note stickers in rooms where musical activity

45 occurs in their homes. Colored pencils were also available for children to draw items or scenes of their choice in the rooms. Music on the Go: The children colored an image of a car and decorated it with musical stickers while they discussed musical activity in family vehicles. Places I Go: The children circled pictures of places they go with their families to experience music: grandma and grandpa’s house, music lessons, dance lessons, church, musical ensemble concerts, and stage shows. Additional space and colored pencils were provided for the children to draw in additional venues. Special Days: Holiday stickers were available for the children to place on this page. Birthday, Christmas, Valentine’s Day, St. Patrick’s Day, Halloween, Thanksgiving, religious, and patriotic stickers were available. Mystery Places: A giant question mark was displayed followed by the question, “Where else can you find music?” This page prompted a discussion about what other musical events and activities (that were not recalled during FG1) the children might video record in their homes during the upcoming week. After happily chatting with me and with each other while completing the craft activities, the children received instructions regarding their role as participant researchers (DeMarie, 2001). The children were instructed to video record the family musical events that they had shared in the focus group and to also seek out mystery activities and places that we had not discussed. The children and I also explored the difference between appropriate and inappropriate use of the camera in their homes. Rules were established for video recording family members. The children determined that they should not video

46 record naked people, and if someone asked not to be recorded, that request was to be respected. At the end of FG1, the children were taught how to operate their video cameras. Each child practiced using her video camera by recording the other participants. The children, wearing their T-shirts and sunglasses, gleefully roamed around the room holding cameras in outstretched hands, while the 1966 hit Secret Agent Man played in the background. Once competency with the cameras was established, the children reviewed their assignment to video record family musical activities for the following 7 days. The 1-week time span was chosen because it is a familiar time interval for children of this age. They are often asked to take on a project over the course of one week’s time and many of their activities (lessons, classes, clubs) are scheduled at oneweek intervals. One-week children’s photographic assignments have been successfully conducted by Whiteman (2008) and Cook and Hess (2007). This time span is long enough to capture musical elements incorporated in a full-cycle of family routine, but not too long to sustain a child’s focus and interest. As parents came to pick-up their children to take them home, each family received a letter with directions on how to take care of the video camera and what to do in case the camera malfunctioned or was lost or damaged (Appendix M, p. 325). Focus group two: Mission Report. Focus Group Two (FG2) was scheduled one week after FG1. FG2 was designed to provide a forum for the children to discuss what they discovered about music in their families and to capitalize on their excitement to

47 report what they had discovered during their video project. Guiding questions for FG2 were: What activities did you record that we discussed at our last meeting? What activities did you discover that we did not discuss? Who participated in these activities? When did they occur? How “usual” are these activities in your family? Once again, the Secret Agent Handbook was used to elicit information from the children. They were encouraged to update each page with additional drawings or stickers. Focus group three: Mission Completed. Focus Group Three (FG3) was held two weeks after FG2. It was a time of sharing that was designed to elicit the child participants’ reflection and commentary. Each child shared a “favorite” video segment of her choosing and described the context and meaning of the activities portrayed. Discussion after each shared video segment allowed the other child participants to offer comments and comparisons with their own family’s musical activities. At the end of FG3, parents were invited into the room to join the children. All participants watched a video compilation of video clips of various stages of the research project including video that the children had recorded. Upon completion of the video, each child received a Mission Completed certificate (Appendix N, p. 328) and each family received compensation of $25 to offset transportation and parking expenses for the three focus group meetings. Video Recording Project. Cameras have created new opportunities for young children to take on a more central role to document evidence and generate “material for dialogue” (Makin & Whiteman 2006 p. 33). Children have successfully used cameras as

48 data gathering tools in many research contexts. They have documented and revealed important elements in their environments (Clark & Moss, 2001; Einarsdottir, 2005), preferred activities (Smith, Duncan, & Marshal, 2005), ways in which they learn (DeMarie, 2001), and provided interpretations of concepts (Whiteman, 2008). Cameras are a medium that children have found appealing and photographs are a form of communication that is fun (Clark & Moss, 2001). Prior to using cameras in studies with children, data was gathered from children through verbal discourse. As young children are less skilled in using words to communicate what they think (Miller, 2002), their verbal reports may or may not accurately reflect their knowledge (Hudson, Fivush, & Kuebli, 1992; Nelson, 1997). Making photographs offers “a powerful new language for young children. It is a language that children can use to convey their feelings as well as information through ‘the silent voice of the camera’(Walker, 1993).” (Clark & Moss, 2001, p. 24). The use of a camera provides children an instant way to capture a moment in time. The resulting photographs have proven to be useful for purposes of analysis and for eliciting participants’ commentary about the event (DeMarie, 2001; Whiteman 2008). The nature of music-making, however, includes both sound and movement over time– two elements that can better be captured through the use of a video camera. For the purposes of this study, the participants’ use of video cameras to capture family musical activities provided more than just a record of these events; viewers are able to hear the events and watch them unfold.

49 Child participants in this study were issued digital video recording devices for the following purposes: 1. The children’s video recordings of music making within the context of family provided a record of family musical events that could be analyzed and interpreted by both the researcher and the participants. 2. Each child’s video recordings served as a memory “jog” when she was asked to provide commentary about the events during an interview. 3. The children shared one segment of their video recordings during Focus Group 3. This shared viewing initiated additional discussion between the children about the context, meaning, and their perspective of family musical activities. Video camera. The camera chosen for use in this study was a Sony MHS-PM1 5.0 MP Webbie HD Camcorder. During a pilot study, this camera proved to be easily manipulated by a 6-year-old child. As in the pilot study, this camera was found to be appropriate for use in this research. The camera was small enough to be easily held by petite hands, and the swivel camera lens (which travels 270-degrees) allowed the child manipulating the camera to turn the lens around so she could record herself and simultaneously see her image on the viewing screen. The camera could also be laid flat on a table and the lens adjusted at an appropriate angle for hands-free recording. Operating the camera was simple and understandable for the children. Flipping the swivel lens from a closed position turned on the camera (no tiny on/off switch) and recording was initiated and stopped by pushing one button. Menu options such as embedded time and date of the video recordings were pre-set and did not need to be enabled each time the camera was turned on, thus providing a record of the date and time of each video segment the children recorded. The camera also featured an easy to operate playback mechanism. The children were not given any instructions about how to use this

50 feature or whether or not they should review the recordings that they made. The camera was light enough to be attached to a lanyard and worn around a child’s neck without limiting physical movement. Video was recorded onto a removable Sony MSXM8GS 8gigabyte memory chip. Mid-week meeting. Midway between FG1 and FG2, I met with each child in her home for 20 minutes. This meeting provided a forum whereby I could monitor the quality of each child’s video recordings (length of recordings, types of activities captured, picture stability, and focus) and verify that the child understood and was completing her video assignment. The child, in turn, had an opportunity to ask questions or express concerns about her role in the research project. At this time, the memory chip was removed from each child’s camera and replaced with a blank one. Individual interviews–Instant Video Review. Photo elicitation, where participants have shown and then been asked to comment on a photo, has often been used in sociological and anthropological research in an interview and discussion format (Becker, 1974; Harper, 2002). This is considered a valuable technique in transforming interview situations into more natural conversations (Williamson, 2005). Forman (1999) extended photo discussion technique to include video recordings and labeled the process Instant Video Review (IVR). In IVR, a child is recorded while engaged in an activity. The child is then immediately shown the video recording and is asked to “revisit” the event (Makin & Whiteman, 2006, p. 36). IVR settings provide valuable advantages to child/adult discussions. Joint viewing of video recordings provides the child and adult interviewer with a “mutually interesting,

51 enjoyable, shared focus” (Makin & Whiteman, 2006, p. 39). This focus lessens the pressure and stress children may feel when they are quizzed by an adult in the absence of such a focal point (Makin & Whiteman, 2006). During the IVR process, children are able to concentrate on what is happening during the recorded event rather than on the effort of recalling it (Forman, 1999). The video recording provides a narrative recount, thus freeing the child to reveal additional layers of information. As children watch and discuss what they view, they are able to actively reflect upon the event and internalize new meanings (Makin & Whiteman, 2006). In a study of early literacy learning in the home, Makin and Whiteman (2006) determined that IVR discussions provided insights into a child’s understandings about the recorded activities. Children’s active participation in the revisiting process provided insight that could not be gleaned through observations alone. They wrote, “IVR offers both parties opportunities to articulate responses to the object of their joint attention, working towards the development of shared meanings” (p. 39). The size and scope of this research project precluded the children and researcher from instantly revisiting a recorded event. Instead, an emphasis was placed on the “recall” component of IVR in scheduled interview sessions with each child participant. These interviews took place in the child’s home and lasted approximately 1 hour. Each child and I used a laptop computer to watch selected video segments that the child had recorded. The following criteria were used to determine which video segments to view: 1. Activities that matched those reported by the parents at the parent interview or by the child in FG1. 2. Activities that were representative of a specific family or child.

52 3. Activities that were unique to a particular family or child. 4. Videos that were an appropriate length to record most or all of a musical activity. 5. Segments of long videos (videos over 7 minutes) that were most representative of the recorded activity. The children were also able to choose videos that they wanted to watch. In some cases, children remembered recording an activity and were quite anxious to watch it with me. During IVR, each child had an opportunity to comment on, explain, or elaborate on the activities in the video recordings. The discussion was framed with prompts such as: Tell me about this video. Describe the events that led up to this activity. What about this activity made you want to record it? How often does this activity happen in your family? What are your thoughts/feelings about this activity? What is it like for you when this activity occurs? What else would you like to tell me about the activity in this recording? Each child had a second opportunity to comment on a selected video recording in FG3. Both the IVR interview and the FG3 commentary were video recorded in a manner that captured the playing video and the child who was talking about it. Two video cameras recorded the child from two front angles. A third video camera was placed behind the child and focused on the video that the child and I watched together or the video was playing at FG3. This third camera setup captured the child’s original video recording and any commentary the child made while viewing it. These videos were later examined through a process called Instant Video Revisiting for Researchers (IVRR) (Makin & Whiteman, 2006) (see Instant Video Revisiting under Data Analysis, p. 56).

53 Data Analysis The data analysis process was ongoing throughout the study. Family musical activity information from the parent survey and interviews was analyzed immediately. Information from both formed the basis for creating the pages in the Secret Agent Handbook and guiding the children’s discussion in FG1. The children’s video recordings were previewed, and an outline of the video segments was prepared before the researcher conducted the individual student interviews. There were two categories of collected data, i.e., reported data and reflective data (Appendix O, p. 330). Each category answered particular research questions and was subjected to specific analysis. Reported Data Reported data came from two sources: the children and the parents, and included information from (1) the parent survey, (2) parent interviews, (3) three focus groups with the children, and (4) the children’s videos. Reported data was used to answer the first three research questions: •

Who participates in family musical activities?

•

What are the musical activities?

•

When and where do the activities occur?

Because it originated from two sources, the reported data offered two perspectives of family musical activity. The parents provided the first descriptions of family musical behavior in the Parent Questionnaire and during the Parent Interview. This same type of information was elicited from the children in the additional study components. In FG1, the children reported on family behavior during their initial discussion of family music and in anticipation of what they would video record. When the children returned to FG2,

54 they discussed family musical behavior based on what they discovered during the video process. The video recordings themselves also served as a medium of reported data. FG3 offered the children one more opportunity to recall and report family musical activities. Data was handled in various ways. Data from the parent questionnaires was used to create a background and behavior profile of each family that aided in the construction of questions for the parent interview. Video recordings of the parent interview, the three focus groups with the children, and the children’s video recordings were transcribed (musical elements were transcribed into standard musical notation6) and treated in the manner of ethnographic observation. I made field notes of what people said and did, along with how they said and did it. When making these observations, I considered the following questions suggested by Charmaz (2006): What is the setting? What is going on? How are the actors organized? Who is in charge? What do the actors pay attention to? What do they pointedly ignore . . . ? What . . . skills . . . do actors employ? What rewards do various actors gain from their participation? (p.24) The ethnographic examination of the children’s video recordings provided deeper and richer layers of information. The video transcriptions and field notes were coded and examined for patterns, basic thematic categories (Merriam, 1998) and salient stories (Lichtman, 2006). Coding is a procedure that is used for whole text analysis; it reduces the texts into fundamental 6 All musical transcriptions reflect accurate rhythm and octave ranges. Transcriptions of the children’s singing accurately portrays any pitch inconsistencies, vocal sliding, or key changes. Minor pitch issues (slightly raised or lowered pitches) are not reflected in transcriptions of songs sung by the parents.

55 meanings and provides a method to identify patterns and make comparisons. Transcriptions were line-by-line coded, a microanalysis procedure that examines each line of text and fractures it into many pieces. Each piece was examined and assigned an identifying label. The data was then examined for themes, patterns, and categories through a process of open coding–a procedure that does not rely on a pre-selected framework in order to allow for the discovery of the unexpected. As each theme was discovered, similar portions of text were labeled in a manner that expressed their central organizing concept. Data was categorized or grouped according to their similarities (Strauss & Corbin, 2008) (see Appendix P: Coding Example, p. 332). Two forms of analysis were used: within-case analysis and cross-case analysis (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Patterns and themes were initially organized to create a deep portrait of each family and child participant (within-case analysis). Cross-case analysis provided data significance through bridging patterns of behavior between the families. When appropriate, comparisons between families and links to parental musical backgrounds were made. The data from all five families was then merged to provide a melded portrait of the families as a group. Reflective Data Reflective data is data that provides context, meaning, and a child’s perspective on the reported family musical activities. Reflective data was gathered from the children’s individual interviews, FG3, and my review of the video recordings of both of these events. Reflective data answered the research question: How do children describe and interpret family musical activities?

56 Children’s interpretation. The children’s interpretation of the data had two perspectives: individual interpretation and group interpretation. During the individual children’s interviews, each child offered commentary about family musical activity that was captured during her video project. This commentary was an opportunity for each child to provide explanation, context, and meaning about the recorded musical events. At the conclusion of the individual interview, the child selected a “favorite” video segment to share with the other children at FG3. This sharing session offered each child a second opportunity to provide details that enhanced a viewer’s understanding of the recorded musical activity. A group discussion followed each shared video segment. This discussion elicited a group perspective about the context and meaning of each shared musical event. The audio portions of the children’s individual interviews and FG 3 were transcribed, coded, and examined for patterns and themes in the same manner as the reported data. Through this process, the children’s interpretation of family musical activity emerged. Each child provided insight into her family’s musical behavior and the children as a group contributed information to provide a collective portrait of the five families. Instant video revisiting for researchers. A procedure referred to as Instant Video Revisiting for Researchers (IVRR) was applied to the children’s individual interviews and FG3. IVRR was developed by Makin and Whiteman (2006) as an expansion of IVR during their study to gather children’s perspectives of emergent reading. As children watched and commented on their video-recorded activities, Makin and Whiteman recorded these revisiting sessions in a manner that captured both the

57 original video and the child’s commentary for later review. IVVR allows researchers to link pertinent remarks and commentary, as they unfold, to the original video footage and to have “ongoing access to data” (Makin & Whiteman, 2010, p. 36). Video that was recorded for the purposes of IVVR underwent the same ethnographic field note process as the children’s video recordings. During the IVR individual interview, I concentrated on watching the child’s video recording with the child. During IVRR, I had the opportunity to watch the child and make field notes about links between the child’s facial expression, body movements, and vocal inflections when she commented on her video recordings (see Appendix Q: IVVR Example, p. 336). The IVR and IVVR processes provided an opportunity for a deeper and more enhanced description and understanding of the children’s interpretation of family musical life.

58

Chapter 3: Meet the Families Five families participated in this research project. The cast of characters7 are as follows: Family 001–The Ritter Family Peter (45)8 and Alexandra (39) Ritter (parents) Savannah Ritter (child participant9) William Ritter (5) Bonnie (dog) Family 002–The Ramirez Family Jorge (42) and Amalia (41) Ramirez (parents) Elizabeth Ramirez (child participant) Rhianna Ramirez (3) Family 003–The Petrov Family Joe (45) and Tatiana (33) Petrov (parents) Mika Petrov (child participant) Rocky, Raquel, and Natasha (dogs) Family 004–The Phillips Family Frank (41) and Joanne (42) Phillips (parents) Frankie Phillips (9) Randy Phillips (7) Carly Phillips (child participant) Family 005–The Campbell Family John (40) and Irene (39) Campbell Lila Campbell (8) Macy Campbell (child participant) Jack-Jack (cat) Demographically, the families are similar in many ways. They are white, live in the suburbs, and have higher levels of education and income than the median levels for the area in which they live. Culturally, the families are more diverse. Four of the parents

7

All family members have been given pseudonyms. Numbers in ( ) indicate age in years. 9 All child participants were 6 years old at the time of the study. 8

59

were raised outside of the United States. Countries represented are Australia (Alexandra Ritter), Belarus (Tatiana Petrov), and Germany (Peter Ritter). One parent is from the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico (Jorge Ramirez). The birth order of the participating children offers a variety of family placement. Birth order includes: one only child (Mika Petrov); two first-born children (Savannah Ritter and Elizabeth Ramirez); one second-born child (Macy Campbell); and one third-born child (Carly Phillips). While there are similarities and differences, each family has its own unique musical story. The dialogue and interplay of family members as they reveal their musical backgrounds, activities, and perceptions creates a sense of who these families are and a context for what we learn about them. I invite you to meet the families. Family 001: The Ritter Family Peter and Alexandra Ritter are parents to two children, 5-year-old William (William celebrated his fifth birthday during the video-recording phase of this project.) and 6-year-old Savannah (child participant). Savannah is an outspoken, bubbly child who often makes exaggerated statements and declarations. Her strong personality, independent spirit, and willingness to express whatever she is thinking (even at inopportune moments) were some of the reasons Savannah was asked to participate in this study. Both blue-eyed Peter and blonde-haired Alexandra are quick-witted, laugh easily, and openly embraced all aspects of the research project. They have each earned a PhD in economics. Peter, currently a professor of economics and management at a local university, was born in Connecticut to German parents. After residing 5 years in

60

Connecticut, his family returned to Germany to live in the moderate-sized city of Bielefeld. Peter was educated in Bielefeld and Bonn before moving to London for his doctoral work. He completed post-doctoral study in Belgium and returned to the United States to teach at the University of Chicago where he met Alexandra. Alexandra hails from Australia. Her early years were spent in Wollongong, an industrial steel town close to Sidney. When she was 8 years old, her family moved to the tiny fishing village of Tathra in New South Wales. Alexandra attended four universities, first studying in Canberra, then Melbourne and Tokyo. Her final educational destination was the University of Chicago where she met Peter. The couple eventually moved to Rochester, NY, where they married. Once children began arriving, Alexandra made the decision to become a stay-at-home mom. The first visit to the suburban two-story Ritter house occurs after a lengthy snowfall. Evidence of two active children abounds. Booted footsteps zigzag in ragged patterns across the front yard, and a small frozen snow fort complete with tunnels fortifies the territory near the mailbox. There are also indicators of the Ritter’s black miniature schnauzer, Bonnie. Small boundary flags, peeking just above the snowline, indicate an electric containment fence, which I learn has recently been installed around the perimeter of the property. The spacious Ritter home is sparsely furnished. Alexandra explains that when she and Peter moved from their tiny residence in Chicago, they felt a need for roominess and purchased a large home. After moving in, they discovered that it takes a lot of furniture to

61

fill such a home. They are making their purchases carefully and slowly, which means that some of the rooms (the dining room for example) are still empty. The Ritter living room is furnished with a beige micro-fiber sofa, Scandinavianinspired coffee table, spinet piano and, leaning against one wall, a tall didgeridoo. Unexpectedly, the didgeridoo is not a souvenir of Alexandra’s homeland, but belongs to Peter. Alexandra laughingly explains, “Peter took didgeridoo lessons because he wanted to impress my mother with his commitment to Australia. So, he played this didgeridoo, [she nods toward the didgeridoo] in the corner here, at our wedding. It was very romantic.”10 Peter adds, “It’s hard to find a didgeridoo teacher in Rochester, but I did.” Various other instruments are scattered throughout the house. William’s guitar is upstairs in his room. When he was 2 years old, William asked for and received a guitar– the first of many. At one point, he owned two or three. His current guitar is “nonfunctional at the moment” (Peter, PI), but Alexandra notes that this does not impair William’s guitar playing efforts. When the non-functional guitar doesn’t suit his needs, William will play pillow guitar with wild abandon. Peter and Alexandra look at each other for a moment while they search their memories to compile a list of other instruments in the household. Alexandra: We have a ukulele, we have two turntables, one for a girl and one for a boy. Peter:

10

[turning toward Alexandra] Is that kind of an instrument?”

Unless otherwise noted, the source for parent quotations is the Parent Interview. Citations will be noted as follows: PI = Parent Interview; IVR=Instant Video Review (child participant and researcher); FG1, FG2, FG3 = Specific Focus Group (child participants); Video (followed by the archived video number) = Video collected by a child participant. The numbers 001, 002, etc., attached to video citations refer to each specific participating family.

62

Alexandra: Yeah! Peter:

Okay. (pause) We have the recorders.

Alexandra: [nodding] We have the usual train whistles and things like that . . . . We have recorders. We have drums–not the drumstick kind, but with the strings where you twirl them and ... we have jingle bells on sticks and let’s see I guess that . . . that’s about it. Both parents allow their eyes to drift toward the ceiling for a moment in an effort to recall anything that they’ve missed. Suddenly, Alexandra brightens and describes an item that the family recently discarded, but that the children, while they had it, loved. “It’s not an instrument per se. It’s a composing thing–one of these Neurosmith games with the blocks. You can choose styles of music . . . .” With a cock of his head and a grin, Peter remembers the item, “It was a great musical toy!” The Ritters animatedly explain how each block was a musical phrase and the side of the block determined playing style. Savannah and William created their own musical pieces by shifting or rotating the blocks. “They [the children] used to have a lot of fun composing all sorts of different tunes with that . . . .” (Alexandra, PI). Both Peter and Alexandra have limited formal musical backgrounds. As they were growing up, neither belonged to any type of musical ensemble. They did, however, take a few years of guitar lessons. Peter played guitar for 2 years as a teenager. He began lessons at the age of 15, but stopped when his guitar teacher had an accident. “I didn’t want to look for another one,” Peter explains. “And, at the time I had other interests.” Alexandra began guitar lessons at a younger age than Peter. I learned, I think it was, from 4th grade to 6th grade, in my little town. We don’t have a middle school system in Australia. You go into high school and we didn’t

63

have a high school in my town. I had a long bus commute to a neighboring town and the bus ride was so long there was no time for after-school activities at all, so I gave up at the end of 6th grade. But, yeah I studied classical guitar for 3 years. (Alexandra, 001 PI) This information comes as a surprise to Peter. When Alexandra finishes describing her guitar activities, Peter turns to look at her. “I didn’t know that,” he says. Alexandra responds, “No?” “No.” Alexandra explains in a quiet voice, “I am shy about it. I used to practice in my closet and my mom always complains that I had spent three years learning the guitar and she never once heard me play. I’m shy that way.” This statement is the first of many that indicate Alexandra does not view herself as being musical. When asked if they considered themselves a musical family, Peter and Alexandra turn to look at each other for a moment before responding. Peter utters a thoughtful, but wary “Ohhhh!” Alexandra restates the question, “A musical family?” and then responds: I would say “Yes.” I’m not musical, but I think Peter and the children are very musical. I’m a music enthusiast. I don’t think I’m a musical talent . . . .when I say I’m not musical, I mean, I don’t think of myself as being talented, but I enjoy music a lot, but, umm, definitely Peter and the children are musically inclined. (Alexandra, 001 PI) Peter nods his head in agreement, but quantifies the family’s musicality level by stating that they are, “maybe 6 or 7 on a scale from 1 to 10.” He further explains that their family is not as musical as a family of seven who recently performed in concert with the local philharmonic orchestra. The Ritters had attended the concert. Alexandra explains, “It was like the von Trapps–this family with seven kids all playing instruments and

64

singing and we thought, ‘We have a ways to go.’” Peter laughs, “We’re not musical that way.” The Ritters may not engage in concertizing, but musical activities are a traditional part of extended-family gatherings. There is always singing and guitar playing that is initiated by Peter’s side of the family. Peter’s siblings, cousins, aunts, uncles, and friends prepare musical performances for family events and celebrations. They create their own lyrics to well-known songs to entertain guests. At Peter and Alexandra’s wedding, family members created and performed their own version of Alien in New York11–complete with lead vocals and harmony. The spoof was intended to make fun of how difficult it had been for Alexandra to obtain a visa to remain in the U.S. to marry. Peter explains his family’s musical behavior as a “German thing.” Alexandra describes it as “charming” then adds, “My family doesn’t have this kind of tradition.” Family 002: The Ramirez Family Set on a hill southeast of the city, the Ramirez home is surrounded by a panoramic view. Stars and glittering lights in the distance form a sparkling backdrop for the majestic, two-story brick house–accented with curved windows and wooden gables. Landscape lighting illuminates the corkscrew topiary in the front garden and large plantfilled urns mark the arched entryway into the home. When the over-sized front door is opened, visitors are greeted by the sound of trickling water springing from a wall-mounted fountain. The entryway has a stone floor and a stairway that curves to the second floor loft area. The downstairs is impeccably

11

“Alien in New York” are lyrics in Sting’s Englishman in New York from his album Nothing Like the Sun.

65

decorated and could, without additional preparation, become a setting for a Better Homes and Gardens photo shoot. Coffee and end tables are marble-topped. The couch is heavily upholstered, plush, and decorated with corded fringe. Ornate, gilded-framed mirrors and artwork hang on the walls. Tucked into corners, poodle-puffed indoor topiary adds an additional look of elegance. Classical music plays in the background; interwoven with the sounds of the fountain, it creates a serene soundscape. The house is otherwise quiet. The two children who live here, 6-year-old Elizabeth (child participant) and 3-year-old Rhianna, are already asleep. Elizabeth Ramirez, upstairs and asleep in her pink castle bed–complete with a turret–is a bright, articulate girl. Her dark hair and wide brown eyes give her a contemplative appearance; however, she can be bubbly and playful as well as thoughtful and serious. In addition to her younger sister, who she loves to “mother,” Elizabeth has an imaginary brother named Zach. According to Elizabeth, Zach has his own room, but no music happens there. Jorge and Amalia Ramirez claim a shared Puerto Rican heritage. Jorge, born and educated in Puerto Rico, is a periodontist who holds multiple degrees in dentistry and a Ph.D. in Immunology and Microbiology. Amalia, a psychotherapist with graduate degrees in counseling and mental health (currently a stay-at-home mom), is a child of Puerto Rican parents; she was born and raised in Chicago. The two met as teenagers when Amalia’s family visited relatives in Puerto Rico. Several years later, Jorge moved to the U.S. for a post-doctoral residency and made a trip to Chicago, where he and

66

Amalia met again. Jorge describes the encounter, “When I saw her I knew in my heart that she was the woman that I was going to marry.” Amalia, perfectly coiffed and dressed in stylish clothing, smiles back. Her mannerisms, outwardly calm and relaxed, belie the cautiousness she feels about the parent interview. Amalia is a private person who is protective of her family – especially her young children. Her background and training as a therapist, she explains, has led her to be skeptical, analytical, and inquisitive about interviews. Earlier in the day, she sent an email that inquired, “Can you please send me the list of questions you are going to ask tonight?” Her request was based on her desire to prepare as necessary for the new experience this research would bring to her family. Both Amalia and Jorge belong to extended families for which playing instruments is common behavior. Amalia recalls that her father plays many instruments at home (guitar, accordion, and piano) and stresses that he is self-taught. Jorge recounts that the men in his family also play instruments: I consider myself coming from a musical family where everybody of my uncles and my father play instruments. They all play together in church. It was a big thing. If they didn’t play an instrument they had to be singing. (Jorge, 002 PI) This instrumental playing and singing is integrated into family gatherings. Jorge comments that he and Amalia have many percussion instruments such as guiro, maracas, tambourines, and drums in their home so that family members can play them and sing for Christmas celebrations. Amalia counters with, “We’ll do that throughout the year, it’s not just during the holidays, you know. . . . My dad and the kids listen to music and they formed their own little band. They’re playing those instruments and singing songs.” The

67

newest instrument in the home, a violin, arrived when Elizabeth began violin lessons at the beginning of the current school year. Jorge has had many years of formal musical instruction. He credits his parents for trying to make him and his siblings as musical as they are. “I went to a music school. . . . I had to take the secular classes in the morning hours and then in the afternoon I had choir, I had violin, and I had orchestra.” He studied violin for 6 years, but he, along with his siblings, gave up musical study when he began university study. “We got involved into science instead of music. . . . We didn’t cultivate it as much as when my parents and my uncles and aunts did.” He believes that this makes his generation of the family less musical than his parents’ generation. Because of this, he has made music learning a priority for his children. I wanted my children to be exposed to it. I don’t know how much we can get them as far as them liking it themselves, but I want to expose that to them . . . seeing how important that is for human development. It is a priority in our household that they become exposed to it. They know, as part of weekly life, they have to take an instrument [lessons] and are going to be singing and, you know, this is going to be part of your life. (Jorge, 002 PI) Amalia has never participated in any musical ensembles; however, she did take 1 year of piano lessons. She explains that she traded piano lessons for toe shoes when she discovered ballet. Amalia adds, “I think the next musical sort of exposure was probably in a flag team in high school. I did that for, like, maybe 2 years or something.” When she discusses the musicality of her family, Amalia responds: I think I would say that we are [musical], but then at a certain level, I would almost put a gradient to it. We are, but we don’t play an instrument full time so there’s a level of that musicality that we have, but not completely there. I would think of someone who is having a full time instrument and everybody is playing . . . at that higher level or deeper level. I would say at some level, “Yes we are!” but could we be more? We certainly can. (Amalia, 002 PI)

68

Jorge offers a new insight to the discussion as he explains that he and Amalia are born-again Christians and worship music figures prominently in their lives. Jorge explains that the family sings worship songs together and with others. They belong to a Christian church with a large congregation and also attend cell group meetings that take place in congregants’ homes. Jorge notes: It’s very critical for our relationship with God and for us to sing together. Worship is part of our everyday life. The worship is always associated with some sort of song. You know, church songs. We do that as a family together, in the car, when we go to school, church, or whatever place we’re going. So in that regard, you know, music is part of what we do. (Jorge, 002 PI) Family 003: The Petrov Family When Joe Petrov, a quality control engineer, determined it was time to get married, he turned to his cultural heritage to find a bride. Through his extended family in Belarus, Joe, a quiet-spoken man who thinks carefully before he speaks, began correspondence with a young woman in the city of Minsk. After a few months, Joe traveled to Belarus to meet the dark-haired Tatiana. They visited for 2 weeks and then continued their correspondence for another year. When Joe proposed marriage, Tatiana accepted, and she and Joe, along with Tatiana’s mother, Anzhela, established their home in Western New York. Their residence is a modest yet extremely well-kept home on the west side of the city. Brown leather couches and heavily pleated drapery anchor one side of the family room. A large television hooked up to a Wii is placed against a wall opposite one of the couches. Throughout the home, there is evidence of a European influence; colorful patterned rugs cover the floor and Russian icons hang on the walls. There are also hints

69

that the home is inhabited by additional residents; three dog beds belonging to the Petrov’s matching Yorkies, Rocky and Raquel, and an English Cocker Spaniel named Natasha, have prominent positions in family areas. Tatiana and Joe’s only child is 6-year-old Mika (child participant), who is just as fluent in Russian as she is in English. Taller than most children her age, blonde-haired, blue-eyed Mika also appears older than her 6 years. Her public personality is mature and serious-natured. In private, she can engage in ribald silliness with her best friend Madison or become stubborn and headstrong in order to get her own way. Joe Petrov’s musical experience is limited to 3 years of singing in an elementary school chorus. He describes the chorus as an activity in which everyone enrolled in 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grade participated at his elementary school. Tatiana, a young dark-haired woman who wears dramatic eyeliner, is a Classically-trained pianist. At the age of 7, she was accepted into a music school to begin piano study. Seven years later, Tatiana received her piano certificate and continued on to study piano at the university level. She graduated with a music degree that allowed her to teach music in Belarus. She spent some time teaching piano, but later changed fields and was teaching English at an elementary school when she met Joe. Currently, Tatiana is studying full-time at a local university. She is changing fields once again and is working toward a degree in nursing. When asked if their family is a musical family, Tatiana lifts her well-manicured hands, crosses her arms, purses her lips, and then laughs wryly. She responds, “That’s a tough question!” and looks at the floor. Joe raises his arm as if he is a schoolboy and responds, “I think we’re trying to be a musical family.” Tatiana quickly retorts, “Exactly,

70

trying to, but . . .” She tightens her lips into a thin line and shakes her head back and forth to indicate “no.” Joe continues: But are we a musical family? I think we’re sort of at the ground level and we’re kind of working our way to become one. I think Tatiana has been really tied up with her schedule with school to really spend a lot of time with Mika [at the piano] and also because Mika, with her personality, she doesn’t allow Tatiana to really sit down with her and say, “Let me show you something.” (Joe, 003 PI) Tatiana explains that their family is not musical and then describes what she believes a musical family is: I think [a] musical family [is] going to see different events, different competition, and then what you do is you have music going along with you and like really spending time singing, dancing, trying to learn new things and kind of create new things . . . like every day . . . not just occasionally, but every single day. And, let’s say, when you have holidays, you can always do some kind of little show . . . . That’s the way how the musical family usually spend their time. But so [shrugs her shoulders], the answer is “no” we are not a musical family. (Tatiana, 003 PI) After listening to Tatiana’s description, Joe rethinks his initial response to the question and clarifies his thoughts. I think [being a musical family means] that whether or not music is a part of your everyday life and now that I’m thinking about it, maybe we are because when I’m driving the car with just Mika and myself we’re . . . if we’re not sitting and just kind of singing songs in the car, we’re listening to the radio and singing something along with the radio. So, you know, that’s a big part of it . . . and at home, during the week, there’s always some kind of musical activity going on. (Joe, 003 PI) Tatiana appears to consider Joe’s response. She takes her gaze off the floor and her mood seems to lighten. Tatiana reveals that she likes to listen to music all the time– Russian pop and country music–and that she and Mika will often dance when this music is playing. Tatiana explains that Russian country music is folk music that is sung by Russian village people when they go out to work in the fields or when the generations

71

gather together. “Usually when people come for some kind of holiday after drinking some amount of alcohol, then usually what ends up . . . everybody sitting at the table and just sing those songs.” When asked if Russian singing takes place in her home, Tatiana is quick to answer “no.” Because his [Joe’s] part of the family, they’re American. They have Russian roots, but they have American tradition. But, when I go and see my friends who are Russian and only Russian people around, then we do. So, usually somebody bring the guitar [or] we do it just without the instrument. But here [at home] no, no. (Tatiana, 003 PI). Instrumental playing and moving to music is important to Tatiana. She takes issue with some of the questions posed in the Parent Questionnaire. “I was a little surprised that all the questions were about the same topic . . . I mean mostly directed to the singing and, I think, just a few questions about instruments.” She talks extensively about the connection between movement and instrumental playing in technical terms and uses examples from her piano study in Russia. She explains in detail how good piano teachers will use movement to prompt students to play well. Joe watches Tatiana with a half-smile and listens quietly. When Tatiana is finished, Joe offers that when they were younger, Tatiana would play piano while he (even though he has “no dancing feel at all”) would “dance around and just move around and have fun.” Mika also shared in this activity when she was 4 years old and took ballet lessons. Tatiana explains, “I would play something, because. . . . I just wanted her [to] kind of follow the music . . . not just move. . . . So, like I was playing some slow song and some fast song and she would just move by herself.” This is Tatiana’s most relaxed

72

part of the interview. She smiles and gestures with her arms and hands. She clearly has a lot of knowledge in this area and enjoys sharing it with others. Family 004: The Phillips Family The Phillips home sits on a quiet suburban street less than a mile from both the Ritter and Campbell families. One side of the two-story home is flanked by a two-car garage that serves as a backdrop for a driveway basketball hoop, an indication that energetic children live here. The interior of the home is cozy and lived-in. Overstuffed blue plaid Colonial-American furniture is placed along the perimeter of the yellowpainted walls. A basket of recently dried but still-needs-to-be folded laundry sits on the couch. The family’s dark-brown upright piano, covered with piles of sheet music and a white stuffed polar bear (or perhaps it is a snowman), is placed against the wall next to an entryway into the family room. Travelers going between the two rooms need to be wary of the electric drum set that is adjacent to the piano as the drum set footprint protrudes into the entryway. The family room is dominated by a large flat-screen TV hooked up to a Wii. There is a fireplace and a plush dark brown couch. A peek from the family room into the kitchen reveals four pair of snow boots and a pair of sneakers jumbled together on a mat near the back door. Above them hang a gaggle of scarves, mittens, gloves, and jackets on a wall-mounted peg rack. Joanne and Frank Phillips scurry to move the laundry basket off the couch and chase children upstairs to get ready for bed. Frank is dark-haired, tall, and thin. He often wears a baseball cap, which make his boyish face look even younger. Watching Frank, as

73

he flashes a quick grin and sprawls on the couch with an easy-going manner, it is difficult to imagine him as a physics professor at a local college. His wife Joanne, who barely reaches Frank’s shoulder, also holds a PhD in physics and teaches science at the high school level. She, too, looks younger than her 42 years. She smiles often and has an honest, open manner about herself and her family. She projects an attitude of “What you see is what you get!” Frank and Joanne have three children, 9-year-old Randy, 7-year-old Frankie, and 6-year-old Carly (child participant). Carly leans toward the quiet side. During her enrollment in her community music school class, she participated fully, but did so in a reserved manner. Carly would take the lead in a group activity when instructed to, but never did so on her own. Carly did, however, exhibit a pensive, inquisitive nature–often providing answers to questions or comments that reflected she had thoughtfully crafted what she was going to say. This ability to think before responding was one of the reasons Carly was asked to participate in this research project; she could be counted on to give honest, unpretentious information. The second reason was her birth order. Carly is the youngest child in her family–placing her in “third” position after her two older brothers. The Phillips, similar to the Ritters, believe that their family is musical but qualify what that means. Frank explains that their family is “somewhat musical” and adds “I don’t think we’re totally musical.” He compares his family to his brother’s. “I know my brother’s family is probably a lot more musical than we are. They take it much more seriously” (004 PI). Joanne counters with: My answer is, I mean, everything is relative. I would say “yes” we're a musical family. I mean, you go to their family [Frank’s extended family], the first question

74

they ask you when you come is, “What instrument do you play?” and I'm like, “I don't play anything.” My family has a hard time clapping in time. So, we come from very different backgrounds as far as music. So, to me, this family's very musical, but to him, it might not be as musical as some other parts of his family. (Joanne, 004 PI) Joanne continues to explain that Frank and the boys are more musical than she is. They play instruments; she doesn’t. As a child she sang in elementary and junior high school chorus and took piano lessons for less than 1 year, quitting because she did not like reading music. As an adult, however, she engages in spontaneous musical activity. I'm probably the one who’s more likely to jump around the kitchen with them and . . . when I'm just saying sentences to them, you know, put it to song. I don't have a very good voice, but we just play around and then sometimes they'll answer me or they'll laugh at me or you know whatever. You know, singing Christmas carols along with the video or you know in the car singing songs and you know . . . so, that's where I fall into it. (Joanne, 004 PI) Frank played saxophone in junior high, high school, and in college bands and jazz bands. He also took 12 years of piano lessons, which he stopped when he graduated from high school. His current musical activity–one with roots in his college days from 20 years ago–is playing electric bass in a rock/folk/country band. The band broke up for a while, but was resurrected about 5 years ago. Frank reports that he and one other band member are the only two surviving original members. The band writes, rehearses and records songs, but has never had a gig or played in public. Phillips children have never witnessed their father’s band playing; however, they often see him playing instruments at home. Sometimes, Frank will drag out his old saxophone, which he admits he can barely play anymore. He often accompanies or plays duets with Frankie and Randy (both take piano lessons and are learning violin at school).

75

“A couple [of] days ago Frankie had his violin out so we were trying to work on some Christmas carols. I was playing the piano and he would play the violin” (Frank, 004 PI). When Frank’s extended family gathers together, they devote one night of each visit to a family jam session. Frank’s mother plays violin and his father, a professional Dixieland jazz pianist, plays piano. Song choices include “stuff the kids would know” (Joanne, 004 PI): Mary Had a Little Lamb, Hot Cross Buns, I’ve Been Working on the Railroad, and Christmas songs. Joanne reports that while family members play their instruments, those who don’t play something (like her) will grab tambourines and shakers to provide a rhythm section. She adds: Then, there's always the Christmas party in Buffalo, the day after Christmas. There's almost always some time during that party where people just break out in Christmas carols. In his family, like, any one of these 10 people can sit down at the piano and whip off some Christmas carols and they have a bunch of people who like to sing and who are good singers. (Joanne, 004 PI) When they are at home, the Phillips clan has their own family music sessions when they play Rock Band, a series of music video games that allows players to reproduce the performances of popular rock songs. Players “play” controllers in the form of lead guitar, bass guitar, keyboard, and drums. There is also a USB microphone that includes singers into the game. Players score points by matching scrolling notes while playing or singing. Joanne reports that playing Rock Band is a great family activity. The kids love Rock Band. I mean, it’s a whole family thing. They [the kids] love to watch him [Frank] do the bass on it ‘cause he can do it on the expert level. The boys are both really good at drumming (and Carly will try the drumming), but Carly always wants to sing. I'll try the drums. I'll try the singing. I'll try the guitar thing, too, [but] I'm not as good as everybody. (Joanne, 004 PI)

76

Family 005: The Campbell Family “Girls live here!” screams the jumble of large plastic (and mostly pink) Fisher Price® toys strewn across the front porch of the two-story Campbell home. One end is secured by a child-sized play kitchen, complete with a two-burner stove, microwave, and portable phone. A large folding vanity, opened to reveal mirrors, drawers, and other storage compartments for the beauty needs of young girls, holds down the other. In between lies a museum of play: plastic baskets and kitchen utensils, toys, parts of toys, and the requisite baby doll, tucked into her pink floral baby carriage, napping peacefully in the chilled winter air. A knock at the door is met by screeching from the other side. “She’s here! She’s here!” The door is opened by John Campbell, father of 6-year-old Macy (who is standing behind him), a precocious girl who is smaller and thinner than her peers. Macy has curly and often unruly brown hair. Her large hazel eyes contain a permanent hint of mischievousness. She is highly energetic and prefers to skip, rather than walk, to the proverbial “beat of a different drummer.” Two sides of her personality vie for center stage: she is as prone to silly comedic routines as she is to long periods of silence–when she will not speak, no matter what the prompt. Macy Campbell is a force to be reckoned with; one never really knows what to expect from her. Macy has an older sister, Lila, who is 2 years older than she is. The Campbell home is as full of items as the Ritter home is devoid of them. The décor is an eclectic mix of antiques, family heirlooms, and keepsakes. Photographs of Macy, her older sister Lila, parents, grandparents, and cousins hang on the walls or are

77

propped up in stand-alone frames. Strings of small twinkling lights, gliding from one item to the next, connect small tables and vintage upholstery in the un-carpeted front parlor. A spinet piano is pushed up against one wall, a guitar lies atop an end table, and a large piece of particle board, which provides a place for Macy and Lila’s tap dancing practice sessions, covers the center of the wood floor. Macy’s parents, John and Irene, have arranged three chairs on top of the “dance floor” for their parent interview. A small table and chair are moved to provide space for the video camera tripod and the curtains covering the large bay window are opened to provide more light. Macy and Lila are sent upstairs to play. Their non-stop talking and singing drifts down to the first floor and can be heard during pauses in interview dialogue. Not once during the 90-minute interview do the girls come downstairs or require attention from their parents. John is tall and lanky with dark hair, eyes, and glasses. He is employed as a software engineer for a company that investigates failure rates for items such as turbines and jet engines. Irene, with similar dark hair and eyes, is a veterinarian whose practice specializes in the care of cats. Irene displays the same energy and enthusiasm that is evident in Macy. She often speaks quickly and uses her arms and hands to illustrate her dialogue. John, while friendly and outgoing, appears calmer, slower, and deliberate when seated next to the more animated Irene. John and Irene met as undergraduates at Cornell University. Irene, a biology major, noticed that she often ran into John, an engineering major, on “her” part of the campus. She soon realized that these meetings were not coincidences; John had seen her

78

in a hallway with some of his friends and decided “I have a thing for that girl” (Irene, 005 PI). They dated for a few years, and then took a break from their relationship when Irene enrolled in veterinary school and employment forced John to move to another state. Three years later, the couple reconnected and eventually married. John and Irene’s musical backgrounds are similar in that neither claims to have come from a musical family, or has participated in a musical ensemble. As children, they both had piano and guitar lessons. Their guitar instruction was short, limited, and not noted by either of them on the Parent Questionnaire. There are currently three guitars in their home, but John and Irene do not play them. John comments, “All that’s over . . .” This, however, is where their musical similarity ends. While both John and Irene took piano lessons, the intensity and outcome of their experiences differed greatly. John’s piano lessons were short lived–lasting only about 2 years. There were four of us. It was kind of chaotic in the house and I was left to my own devices to practice. . . . Now, I see to my mom’s credit, once she saw I wasn’t practicing for this lesson, she’s like, “These lessons are not going to happen unless you practice.” She cut it off pretty quickly. (John, 005 PI) John describes the musical level to which his piano lessons brought him, “I know how to read music and I know, kind of, where things are on the piano. I can read music, but not fast. Actually Lila, now, is probably just about to pass what I can . . . as quick as I can read music.” Conversely, not only did Irene study piano for 13 years, she competed in piano competitions, which gave her a particular status in her family.

79

Yeah competitions . . . . it was really a big part of my life, although I don’t think my family was, well, I know my family wasn’t very musical. . . . meaning my mom, dad and my sister, my nuclear family. I recognized at a very early age that neither of my parents hear the beat. They couldn’t keep a rhythm. They would sing and it would be . . . or they’d tap something [she taps her hands together] and it would be, like, “What are they tapping to?” My sister, too. So, I think they looked at me like “whoa” and I’m not like some great anything, but to them I was. (Irene, 005 PI) Irene describes her piano playing experience as “intense” when she was in high school. She was taking lessons, practicing, competing, and teaching lessons to children. While she recalls this time in her life, she shakes her head back and forth and tightens one corner of her mouth. I think it got too much. In high school, I wasn’t really, really enjoying it. I was doing it because I had been doing it for so long I didn’t know how not to do it. So unfortunately, the point of all that being, I had a big break [from playing] when I went to college. . . .When I didn’t have a lesson waiting for me every week that I had to prepare for, sadly it kind of fell off. . . . I mean I played some when I was . . . they had a piano in the laundry room and I’d play with a guy who had taken a lot of lessons and we played together just, you know, playing around a little. (Irene, 005 PI) Irene’s hiatus from piano playing lasted for many years, continuing on even after she and John moved her childhood piano into their newly-purchased home. “I would listen more to music. I wasn’t playing” (Irene, 005 PI). John turns his head and nods at the piano across the room. “That piano sat there with all the music in the seat until Lila was 4 or 5” (John, 005 PI). According to Irene, Lila and Macy are responsible for bringing her back to the piano. The music came back with the girls. [Wanting to] have them like it and recognize it. They’d want me to play something ‘cause I can pick out tunes. They’d be, like, can you play that on the piano? Something they heard. So then they’d see me futz around and then I’d find it and I’d play it and they’d be like “Ahhhhhh! [Irene throws her hands up in the air and waves them around] That’s really pretty.” You know, all excited. (Irene, 005 PI)

80

John agrees, “Being a musical family is really on an upswing now that they’re [the girls] participants.” Discussion Parents participating in this research candidly detailed their musical backgrounds, made an instrument inventory of their homes, and commented on their own musical behavior and that of their children. The parents’ musical experiences ranged from very limited formal musical activity/study such as a few years of elementary school singing (Joe Petrov) or one year of piano lessons (Amalia Ramirez) to university musical study (Tatiana Petrov). Current formal musical activities are piano lessons (Peter Ritter), piano practicing (Tatiana Petrov), and playing in a garage band (Frank Phillips). The five families have various musical instruments in their homes that are used (or not used) at various times. The Campbells admit that they are in possession of two guitars, but that they are rarely played. Frank Phillips says the same about his old high school saxophone that takes up space in the dining room. The family pianos, however, get a lot of use; both parents and children report playing and practicing on them daily. The Ramirez and Phillips families’ collection of small hand held percussion instruments (drums, claves, guiros, etc.) are used to accompany sing-along activity when they gather together with extended family members for parties or celebrations. Table 2 documents which instruments are found in specific family homes.

81

Table 2 Instruments in Families’ Homes Instruments Piano

Ritter

Ramirez

♫

Small hand-held percussion instruments

♫

Violin Guitar

Petrov

Phillips

Campbell

♫

♫

♫

♫

♫

♫

♫

♫

♫

Saxophone

♫

Electric Bass

♫

Didgeridoo

♫

The parents recalled past and present family musical activity. All of the parents recalled singing and saying rhymes to their children when the children were infants and toddlers. Repertoire choices ranged from traditional children’s literature such as Patty Cake (Ritter and Phillips), ‘Round and ‘Round the Garden (Alexandra Ritter), and Pony Boy (Phillips) to songs from Russian pop CDs (Tatiana Petrov), the Johnny Carson (Tonight Show) Theme Song (Phillips) and David Bowie’s Blue Jean (Campbell). Parents shared stories about their current uses of music: to guide children’s behavior, as a backdrop or accompaniment to family celebrations, to make driving more enjoyable, and to add an element of “fun” to family routines. During the parent interview, parents often

82

laughed and had small conversations between themselves as they recalled and/or clarified the information that they shared. There was one interview question that most parents (with the exception of both John and Irene Cambell) initially responded to in like manner, “If someone knocked on your door and asked if yours is a musical family, how would you answer?” Parents paused for a moment, often looked at the floor or ceiling, and uttered time-buying remarks such as, “That’s a tough question” (Tatiana Petrov) or a wary “Ohh . . .” (Peter Ritter). During the moment of silence that followed, parents turned to look at each other while they collected their thoughts. Clearly, this was a question that they had not previously considered or to which they could immediately form a reply. When they began to respond, initial answers were hesitant, halting, and contained many pauses. The parents appeared as if they were uncomfortable or had difficulty committing themselves to a response. The Ritter, Ramirez, and Phillips parents, along with Joe Petrov, eventually determined that their families were musical (Tatiana Petrov’s answer was a definitive “no”), but all of them qualified their answers by assigning their family a degree of musical-ness. Frank Phillips offered, “I guess we’re somewhat musical . . .” Amalia Ramirez explained that “at some level yes we are, but could we be more? We certainly can.” Joe Petrov described his family as being “at the ground level and we’re kind of working our way to become one.” Three of the fathers (Peter Ritter, Jorge Ramirez, and Frank Phillips) went a step further and ranked their families’ “musical-ness.” Peter Ritter, an economics professor, used a numerical ranking “Maybe 6 or 7 on a scale from 1 to 10”

83

while Jorge Ramirez and Frank Phillips used other family members as measurements of comparison. Jorge Ramirez stated that he believed that his family is not as musical as his parents’ generation. Frank Phillips compared his family to that of his brother–a more musically “serious” family where the children begin playing violin when they are 3 years old. In the context of their answers, these four families provided insight into what they believe distinguishes a musical family. The key factor in being musical, according to the parents, is the ability to play musical instruments. Jorge Ramirez’s ideal musical generation is one that is characterized by “everybody of my uncles and my father play instruments.” The Ritters compared their family to an instrument-playing family that performed at a recent symphony concert. The Ritters concluded, “We’re not musical that way.” When qualifying her family’s musical-ness, Amalia Ramirez shared, “We don’t, play an instrument full-time so, there’s a level of that musicality that we have, but [is] not completely there.” Instrumental playing ability even colors the perception of personal musicality. When discussing herself, Joanne Phillips’ twice mentioned instruments, “I don't really play an instrument” and “I don't play anything.” The parents who place such an importance on playing an instrument are not alone. Research indicates that a majority of people believe that playing an instrument is one of the strongest factors that demonstrate musical ability (Hallam, 2010). Other factors affected the parent’s answers. Most people link musical behavior with the ability to perform (Hallam, 2010). They perceive that musical ability or behavior is “a special gift or natural talent” (Davis, 1994) and that it is “biologically inherited and

84

reserved for a minority of individuals” (Brändström, 1999, p. 21). Brändström (1999) describes this view of musical behavior as an “absolute” view of musicality. Absolute musicality encompasses measurable musical achievement that comes from an innate quality bestowed on a select few. If parents view family musical behavior through the lens of Brändström’s absolute view of musicality, with its emphasis on performance and achievement, they will be unable to recognize musical behaviors that do not fit the absolute view criteria. Another possible factor that explains the family’s tendency to downplay their musical behavior is illustrated by Irene Campbell’s experience with the Parent Questionnaire. Contrary to the other families, Irene and John Campbell answered the question about family musical-ness confidently and in the affirmative. John responded, “I think it’s ‘yes’ and I think it’s increasing.” He attributes his family’s growing musicalness to his daughters Lila and Macy. As they become older and their skills improve, they are more able to participate in music-making experiences with their parents. Irene’s immediate declaration after hearing the question was an excited, “Absolutely! I feel, absolutely!” She explained that the Parent Questionnaire forced her to examine her family’s musical behavior. She recounted, “Well your questions have prompted me to kind of reflect already, and I’m sorry if I wasn’t supposed to, but you know, I can’t help it.” Irene described her initial response to reading some of the questions before marking her own answers: I was like, “Oh God! What is that? Like, The Sound of Music in some people’s homes? I just, I thought, “That would be, like, too fruit- and nut-like,” you know? “We sew our own clothes and we sing,” and [I] didn’t realize it was happening here too. (Irene, 005 PI)

85

Irene’s experience confirms how parents are often unaware of the intuitive musical interactions that take place between them and their children (Welch, 2005). Irene Campbell was not the only parent who admitted that the Parent Questionnaire was an eye-opening experience. Joanne Phillips revealed that the Parent Questionnaire also prompted her to re-categorize activities that did not previously strike her as being musical. I had never thought about . . . well, gee, I guess . . . we do make up songs and things in the car. . . . So yeah, I thought that was a little surprising. (Joanne, 004 PI). Brändström (1999) describes this alternative way of defining musical behavior as a relativistic view. This view acknowledges that all human beings are musical and that each and every one has the possibility to express himself or herself in and through music. The spontaneous singing of a child could be given the same value as the performance of the trained musician. (p. 23) Green (2002) wrote that this view of what is musical is a difficult concept for parents who are raised in a Western culture where the performance-based abstract view of musicality is prevalent. Green instructs readers to, “Imagine a baby banging a spoon or some other object on a table” (p. 22) and describes the likely common response of nearby adults. “[They] are liable to take the spoon away or by some other means get the baby to stop.” Green contrasts this behavior with that of the Transvaal Venda people of South Africa, long under the observation of noted ethnomusicologist John Blacking. Blacking wrote:

86

Often, when an infant started banging with some object, he or she was not told to shut up; an adult or older child would convert the spontaneous rhythm into intentional musical action by adding a second part in polyrhythm” (as cited in Swanwick, 1994, p. 24). The five sets of parents brought with them their own thoughts and perceptions about the role that music played in their families. These perceptions in turn influenced what the parents considered musical behavior and likewise influenced what activities they recalled and reported. The next steps of this research, the children’s focus groups, video recording project, and interviews allowed the children an opportunity to provide evidence that supported their parents’ reports and also offer their own view of family musical behavior. The unfolding of the families’ musical stories begins in Chapter 4.

87

Chapter 4: Music Around the House The children’s Secret Agent Handbook contained a page that featured a cutaway diagram of a house. As the children made drawings or placed stickers on this page during FG1 and FG2, they discussed the rooms and the musical behaviors that take place in them. Savannah Ritter, Mika Petrov, and Macy and Lila Cambell listen to music boxes in their bedrooms. Elizabeth Ramirez listens to and sings along with the radio in hers. Macy reported, “We watch music on the TV in the living room.” Her mother, Irene, explained that Macy and Lila watch DVD’s of Broadway musicals. Carly Phillips’ mother, Joanne, sings in the kitchen when she is washing dishes. Various people play piano in the living room. This activity garnered so much discussion and many video recordings that it has its own chapter (see Chapter 5: Tickling the Ivories, p. 119). Macy Campbell completed the room inventory when she announced, “Sometimes I make up my own songs . . . [and] sing on the toilet” (FG1). Based on the excited responses from the other children, she is not alone. Music in the Kitchen Kitchens have long been family gathering places. Where there is food, there are family members. Where there are family members, there is an opportunity for musical behavior. At FG1, when the children were asked “Where does music happen in your house?” the first room mentioned was the kitchen. Carly Phillips announced, “My mom sings when she’s doing the dishes. She sings by herself.” When asked what kind of songs her mother sings, Carly responds, “Made-up songs.” (FG2). Joanne admits that she makes up songs to entertain whoever is with her in the kitchen. She is, however, not the only

88

kitchen singer in the Phillips family. Joanne reports that for a while Frankie, Randy, and Carly would often sing together in the kitchen during snack time. Frankie got into a spurt, where he and his friends at school were making up songs, like in rounds and things like that. So he was teaching it to Randy and Carly so that they could sing it together. (Joanne, 004 PI) Today’s kitchens are also “wired for sound.” In addition to stoves, sinks, and refrigerators, there are radios, CD players, iPod docking stations, and computers. Two families (Ritter and Campbell) take advantage of recorded music in the kitchen. The Ritters play background music, which often is a catalyst for sing-along activity. The Campbells turn their kitchen into a sound stage. Both Savannah Ritter and Macy Campbell recorded musical activity in the kitchen. Glee Alexandra Ritter’s music-loaded laptop computer is ever-present on the kitchen counter next to the stove. Christmas music was still the category of choice for kitchen listening during Savannah’s mid-January video project. In four of Savannah’s six kitchen videos, laptop-generated carols and Christmas standards intersperse themselves between lines of kitchen conversation.12 Friday night, after FG1, Alexandra makes hot chocolate for Savannah and William (Video 001-009). We Need a Little Christmas13 plays in the background followed by Deck the Rooftop. Alexandra’s laptop is playing songs from Glee: The Music, The Christmas Album. Savannah declares “it is a very good CD” (001 IVR). 12

The two videos that did not include recorded music was the Ritter’s dog Bonnie’s birthday (See Making Music with Pets, p. 164) and a video of Bonnie “singing” at the back door. 13 Recording artist and composer information for music that was recorded in the children’s videos can be found in Appendix S: Family Videos, p. 343. Information about songs not in video recordings will be footnoted through the text.

89

While the music plays, Savannah sings along with the songs, using either the lyrics or “mmmm, mum, mum.” Occasionally, she stops singing to make a comment directed to her mother, her brother, or Bonnie, the Ritter’s dog. At one point in the next consecutive video (Video 001-010), Savannah swings the camera around to focus on Bonnie standing on the floor looking up at Savannah. The camera captures Savannah’s hand as she pats Bonnie and sings, “What’s the doggie?” using the same melody and rhythm from the line “My sister will be suspicious” from Frank Loesser’s pop standard Baby It’s Cold Outside, the song that is playing in the background. Savannah asks her mother, “Can we go to the next song? I like the next song a lot.” Alexandra says, “Sure!” and, after a moment of silence, The Most Wonderful Time of the Year begins to play. Savannah travels around the room and provides a visual tour of the Ritter’s kitchen, including close-ups of notes on the refrigerator and groceries on the counter. She sings along with the song, stopping only occasionally to respond to a question or comment from her mother. Music in the kitchen is the domain of Savannah and her mother. Savannah is in charge of both the playlists and song selections. “I take out music [CDs] and I put them in the kitchen” (001 IVR). Alexandra is the sound engineer: she places CDs in the laptop and plays song selections as Savannah requests them. Once the musical selections are made, Savannah hums or sings along when “the computer is making music” (001 IVR). Castle on a Cloud When Irene Campbell was 6 years old, Andrea McArdle became internationally recognized for her performance as Annie in the musical by the same name. Irene recalls,

90

“I wanted to be Annie. . . . I remember laying on the blue carpet listening to the record player. I even looked the part. I was a skinny little thing” (Irene, 005 PI). Irene’s childhood Broadway dreams never came to fruition. Her parents, an engineer and an accountant, were practical-minded and Irene’s father discontinued Irene’s ballet lessons when she was 7 years old. “My father said, ‘I don’t want to see you anorexic on the streets of New York.’ So he unceremoniously informed me that I had had my very last lesson” (Irene, 005 PI). Irene explains that while she was allowed to continue with her piano lessons, she knew better than to ask her parents about participating in any other performing activities. Irene’s thwarted stage career put her in a position to recognize budding talent when she saw it. When Macy and Lila were very young, Irene, in the midst of establishing her own veterinary practice, would often work at home. This meant that the girls had to occupy themselves for long stretches of time. I would come upon them after hours of them playing. It started with Lila. I’d find her talking to the mirror and see her dolls lined up and watching herself in the mirror. She’d give them [the dolls] a line and she’d say her lines, but clearly you could see that she meant this was coming out of the bear and this was coming out of the other one. Once Macy got old enough, Macy was propped there or told to sit and what to say “When I say this, you say this.” She [Lila] was a little director, so I thought, “Oh God! This is like theater.” (Irene, 005 PI) Irene searched for a place that provided theater experiences for young children. The minimum age for an audition was 5 years old. Lila had just turned 4, so Irene misrepresented her age. We lied about her age all the time just to get her into little things because she wasn’t . . . I mean they were screening for someone who was going to pay attention and not turn around and cry because their mother isn’t there with them.

91

I knew she would do exactly what they needed, and she wound up being, “Oh look at the little one!” (Irene, 005 PI) Since Lila’s first audition, she has been quite successful landing parts in local musical theater productions for children. Macy has recently joined her sister in the activity. During the research project, both girls also started voice lessons. Practicing songs for musicals and voice lessons has become a priority activity for the family and the Campbell kitchen is the principal rehearsal space. Macy’s videos reveal that she and Lila consistently practiced two songs during video project week, Castle on a Cloud from Les Misérables (Lila and Macy) and Gary Indiana from The Music Man (Lila only; although Macy sang a wonderful rendition of the song at FG1). Seven videos show the girls practicing in the kitchen. The singing sessions take place in the morning before leaving for school and in the early evening around dinner time. Irene can often be heard bustling about in the background as she combines household duties with performance suggestions and critiques: Nice Macy! (Video 005-048) Good breath! (Video 005-051) Keep it up! (Video 005-064) No, no, no. You just have to get up to the high note at the end. (Video 005-064) In Video 005-048 Macy sings an a cappella version of Castle on a Cloud. She valiantly maintains her pitch center even though she competes against Lila who is practicing piano in the next room. At the age of 6, Macy is missing most of her front teeth causing her to struggle with words that begin with “th,” “st,” or “sl.” In another Castle on a Cloud video (Video 005-051), Macy sings along with a CD that provides a piano accompaniment. Macy is ready for bed and wears her red and green flannel pajamas. Her

92

hair sticks out here and there and hasn’t been attended to in a long while. She listens to the introduction with closed eyes before she begins to sing with a seriousness and pathos that provides stark contrast to the bright, colorful children’s art work that hangs on the wall behind her. Macy pays close attention to every aspect of her singing: pitch, rhythm, and pronunciation of lyrics. She crisply pronounces each consonant that ends a word. Macy gives added emphasis to words that end in “p.” When she begins to sing the bridge, “There is a lady all in white . . . ,” Macy visibly transforms her face. The suffering of little Cosette, with her heavenly vision of a kind mistress, is replaced by hope, as evidenced by Macy’s wide smile and sparkling eyes. The transformation lasts only as long as the section. Once she begins the third verse, “I know a place where no one’s lost . . .” Macy regains the seriousness that underlies the lyrics she sings. Later in the week, it is Lila’s turn to practice the same song (Video 005-060). Lila stands straight and erect. Her hair is pulled back into a tight ponytail. She wears glasses and her Catholic school uniform, a crisp white shirt with a navy blue skirt, necktie, knee socks, and cardigan sweater. Lila’s singing is abruptly cut short by a comment from her mother, “Okay, Lila. Start it over. You can’t be so late that you hold it to the next beat. Okay, sweetie?” Lila makes a 180-degree turn, walks out of the room through a doorway behind her, and disappears into the darkness. The CD is restarted. Lila makes another entrance into the kitchen and begins to sing again. Her body is immobile–arms and hands clasped to her sides. She moves her head from time to time and her gaze alternates between staring straight ahead and glancing toward Irene who is tidying up the kitchen. Water runs in the sink and the clattering of dishes permeates the performance. Toward

93

the end of the song, Lila struggles with phlegm that has built up in the back of her throat. Like a true performer, she continues on gallantly to the last note of the song. Once it is finished, Lila clears her throat and looks in the direction of her mother. Irene comments, “Okay, you’ve got a cold . . . .” We do not hear her next statement. The video ends. Music in the Campbell kitchen serves a different purpose than music in the Ritter kitchen. While Savannah Ritter is free to sing along with background CDs in any way that she chooses (or not), Lila and Macy’s kitchen singing is both required and goal oriented. A stellar performance will garner three levels of approval. Lila and Macy’s most immediate goal is their mother’s approval as noted by the way they position their bodies to face in her direction and how they track her with their eyes when they sing. Irene serves as Lila and Macy’s practice coach. She offers compliments, suggestions, and critiques. Daily practice sessions with Irene lead to the girls’ weekly voice lesson, providing another opportunity for the girls to refine their performing skills. The ultimate goal, however, is the next audition. Will the time spent singing in the kitchen be enough to win the approval of the audition judges and get Lila and Macy a part in another show? Music in the Family Room Three of the participating families (Ritter, Petrov, and Phillips) have a Wii video game console in their family room. Currently, the hands-down favorite games are Just Dance and Just Dance Kids (a version of Just Dance that uses popular children’s songs). (The game is so popular that the three Phillips children pooled money they received for Christmas to make their purchase.) Both dance games are played by one to four “players” who hold a Wii controller in one hand. Players accumulate points by imitating the

94

gyrations of dancing icons on their television screens. Joe Petrov explains, “It’s an exercise, also. They have the words right there and we can sing along while you’re dancing.” Family members play alone, with each other, or with extended family members. Mika Petrov and the Phillips children often play when their cousins are visiting. The only child to make a video recording featuring a Wii Just Dance game was Savannah Ritter. The Phillips children and their cousins, however, were playing Just Dance during my mid-week visit with Carly, and Mika Petrov and her father were playing the game while I was setting up the video equipment for Mika’s interview. Savannah and William Ritter love to dance. According their mother, Alexandra, the children dance as a couple, dance and play pillow guitars together, and dance as part of their brother and sister rockin’ 80s home performances. “William plays guitar and Savannah dances in a crazy way” explains Peter, who then doubles over with laughter when Alexandra, with an air of whimsical sophistication, corrects him, “No, it’s interpretive dance.” As he shakes his head from side to side, Peter chokes out, “Interpretive dancing?” Alexandra makes flowing motions with her arms as she continues to explain: She likes to do interpretive dance where she just feels the music and, yeah, they love that. That’s what their 80’s concerns are all about, William thrashing out on the guitar and Savannah dancing around the living room with her eyes closed. She always seems to have her eyes closed. (Alexandra, 001 PI) When Savannah shares information about her dancing, she describes it somewhat differently. “Sometimes, um, I sing a certain song that, um . . . it’s sort of . . . well sort of funny and then I dance to it, too, and I act like I’m a penguin while I’m dancing to it”

95

(Savannah, FG1). She hops off her chair to provide a demonstration. Savannah also notes that she dances often with Bonnie, “I just hold her front paws and I, like, [she begins to swing and sway back and forth with her arms outstretched and sings] dah, dah, dah, dah, dah . . . (speaking) then my puppy bites me and I let go of her” (Savannah, FG3). Savannah’s video recording project did not capture any of her interpretive or “penguin” dancing or dancing with Bonnie; however, a full 40 minutes was devoted to Wii Just Dance Kids. Savannah explains why so much of her video time featured the game, “There’s a lot of music on my Wii game. A lot! So I had to make lots of big videos” (001 IVR). Sunday was a Wii Just Dance Kids dancing marathon at the Ritter house. Savannah recorded close to an hour of game play in the morning and an additional 8minute segment in the late afternoon. Her first Wii video (Video 001-024) clocks in at 9:35 a.m. She has positioned the camera so that it is focused directly on her dancing. William sits on the carpeted floor next to where Savannah dances. A “bed-headed” Savannah holds the Wii controller in her right hand and is a blur of pink in her catdecorated pajamas as she gyrates her hips and moves her arms in imitation of the dancing Wii characters. Her mouth is open and her tongue, slightly sticking out in concentration, moves left and right along with the beat of the “heavy on the bass” rock-a-fied Wii version of Ants Go Marching. As the song winds down, William, dressed in orange pajamas with a large black bat across his chest, jumps to his feet and shouts, “Let’s do YMCA!” Savannah, frozen in the final outstretched position of Ants Go Marching, responds, “No, that’s too hard for

96

you. You’re not up to that level.” Thus begins the first of many discussions about which song to dance to next. Savannah rapidly clicks the Wii controller as she considers one option after another while William calls out suggestions. The outcome is reflective of the adage, “Possession [of the Wii controller] is nine tenths of the law.” Savannah: Want a different song than that one or . . . want the same one? William:

Turn it to YMCA.

Savannah: Oh, I like this song. William:

Turn it to the YMCA one, Savannah. (Video 001-024)

Savannah clicks on Beautiful Life and begins dancing. As Savannah dances to the winning song selection, Alexandra walks past the family room doorway. William, back to sitting on the couch doing more watching than dancing, states the obvious, “Mom, I’m just watching Savannah.” Indeed, most of Savannah’s Wii videos show a dancing Savannah and a watching William. During IVR, Savannah explains why this is so: “My brother likes watching me.” She leans close to me and says, “I want to tell you a secret why.” Savannah cups my ear with her right hand and whispers, “Because he always loses against me.” She adds, “And you know why I don’t like doing it with dad? I always lose. So I’m in the middle with dad and William and I’m not so sure about mom. She’s played it by herself.” For the next 18 minutes of the video, Savannah maintains control of the Wii controller and makes all the song selections despite input from William, who, out of

97

camera range, repeatedly requests Hot Potato and Shimmie Shake14. Savannah stares at the TV screen, clicks a selection, listens for an average of 6 seconds, and then clicks on the next selection. Before she dances again, Savannah previews songs in this order: Bingo It’s a Beautiful Life Ants Go Marching Alphabet Song All Star ABC When the Saints Go Marching In Alphabet Song Ants Go Marching Bingo Can You (Point Your Finger and Do the Twist)? Get Your Sillies Out Hot Potato If You’re Happy and You Know It I’ve Been Working on the Railroad Old MacDonald Finally, Savannah stumbles across Pop Goes the Weasel and dances. Once, the song ends, however, she sits on the couch and returns to her click, listen, click, listen, routine and previews ten more songs. At this point, Peter, who’s been buzzing around the kitchen, pokes his head through the connecting doorway between the kitchen and the family room and patiently asks, “Savannah, why don’t you decide and just play one?” In response, Savannah presses the controller and previews four more songs. Peter returns to the doorway and warns, “Savannah, I think you’re spending too much time deciding.” Click-listen: Wheels on the Bus Click-listen: I’ve Been Working on the Railroad Click-listen: Old MacDonald Click-listen: My Tummy 14

William is requesting The Shimmie Shake!, a song recorded by the The Wiggles on their You Make Me Feel Like Dancing album. The Shimmie Shake! is not included in this version of Wii Just Dance Kids.

98

Click-listen: Do the Monkey Peter’s voice shouts from the kitchen “Savannah! Just play the song!” Savannah shouts back, “I’m doing it!” Her gaze remains fixed on the television screen. She speaks to the moving icons associated with Do the Monkey, “Now stop! Okay . . . what, it’s just weird, the monkey dances . . . .” William, who has left the center of the room, bounds back into camera range, jumps on the couch and looks at the television. Savannah continues her monologue about the ridiculousness of the dancing monkeys and finally announces, “William, you’re gonna have to do it with me . . . . I’m serious! I am not doing this by myself!” Both children smile and laugh while performing a dance that includes monkey, elephant, and tiger motions accompanied by a chorus that instructs them to “jump to the front and back.” It is the only time that William dances in any of the video recordings; his actions are energetic and enthusiastic. He never stops smiling. Savannah is quick to point out, however, that William is “just dancing by himself.” She adds, “I’m doing the real dance” (001 IVR). Even though Savannah and William nearly always sing along to recordings in the car and in the kitchen, dancing to the Wii does not evoke the same amount of sing-along activity. There are some sporadically sung phrases, but by and large, both children focus on the physical element of watching the dancing characters and copying the dance moves correctly. Children often prioritize physical over cognitive tasks when they attempt to perform them concurrently (Krampe, Schaefer, Ulman, & Baltes, 2011).

99

Savannah’s Wii Just Dance Kids videos add to the evidence that she wields the most musical power in her home. William, seemingly knowing his place where the Wii is concerned, circles the area and waits for crumbs that are to his liking to fall from the Just Dance table. Music in the Home Office Computer sales have exploded over the past 30 years. The initial Apple I and II, Commodore 64, and 2nd generation Apple Macintosh have given way to streamlined desktop, lightweight laptop, and petite-sized notebook and iPad computers. The participating families all have one or more computers in their home and often take advantage of easy access to the internet. Amalia Ramirez notes that sometimes the internet is a gateway to musical encounters for her children. A lot of the stuff that they’ll do online, they’re doing sort of things that have music with them. It’s also games and, you know, computer games, things like that. All that stuff has music in it as well. (Amalia, 002 PI) The families use their computers for many musical purposes. The Ritter, Petrov, and Phillips families are only a few mouse clicks away from access to musical performances. The Campbell family uses the internet to create an additional performance space for Macy and Lila while Mika Petrov’s online gaming inspires singing and improvisation. YouTube Four of the families (Ritter, Petrov, Phillips and Campbell) regularly use the internet to visit YouTube, a video-sharing website that contains user-uploaded videos covering a wide gamut of video content; much of it is musical. Viewers can watch and

100

listen to Lady Gaga’s Born This Way, Marilyn Monroe’s Happy Birthday, Mr. President, or a 3 year-old Macy Campbell singing Hello Everybody! in her early childhood music class. The families’ purposes for visiting YouTube differ. They belong to two different groups; they are there to either upload their own videos or surf the site to view videos uploaded by others. Uploaders. YouTube serves as a user-friendly method for John and Irene Campbell to share videos of Lila and Macy with friends and family. A quick visit to their private YouTube account reveals 33 videos that span 6 years. The first video shows Macy and Lila participating in a swimming pool water ballet. Eight little girls in bathing suits perform poolside and water choreography to It’s a Hard Knock Life from the Broadway show Annie. Macy (barely 3 years old) steals the show as she tries to follow the choreography but also creates and performs some of her own moves. As she gyrates her swim-suited body, accessorized with matching-color “swimmies,” her father whispers “Oh, good, Macy!” in the background. Other Campbell videos feature selections from Lila’s musical theater performances and Macy and Lila’s dance recitals. While the lilamacycampbell YouTube account documents the public musical life of the Campbell girls, it does not share the family’s more private music-making moments (singing at home, playing piano duets, etc.) with the rest of the world. Surfers. Electric bass player Frank Phillips uses YouTube as an online concert venue. When he visits the website to feed his inner bassist self, he takes along sons Frankie and Randy. The Phillips men often gather around the computer and look for “good bass players,” such as SMV bassist Victor Wooten who has 19,000 YouTube

101

videos to his credit. Wooten’s videos run the gamut from phone videos of concerts to slick online bass lessons. Frank explains that he and the boys will listen to various performances while he makes running commentary. “Listen to this guys. Isn’t this guy incredible?” Tatiana Petrov agrees that YouTube is a medium that allows viewers to access specific types of musical performances. She explains that she finds YouTube to be a convenient method to watch performances. I just type in say . . . Rachmaninoff and whatever they have . . . or if I have a particular piece like, say, Beethoven or Chopin. . . . I always take five to ten people who play the same piece and compare and then I show it to Mika. I also use YouTube as a way to introduce Mika to what piano players can accomplish at a young age. I show her 5-, 6-, 7-year-old kids playing really nice piano. . . trying to show her that’s what kids can do if they want to” (Tatiana, 003 PI). The Ritter family also watches a variety of musical performances on YouTube. Five-year-old William, an avid “air” and “pillow” guitar player (Alexandra reports that William will turn anything into a guitar) has learned some of his cool guitar moves by watching YouTube and imitating artists such as AC/DC. (William is known to smash his “guitars” on the floor with reckless abandon.) Alexandra reports that William also loves watching the Delinquent Road Hazards (DRH), a group of four cars created by Disney Pixar that intentionally causes trouble on the highway in the movie Cars. YouTube is filled with pages of DRH hip-hop techno music videos with names like High Speed Heist and Lightning Strikes Back. While the music is playing, neon-colored images of the DRH cars, Boost, Wingo, DJ, and Snot Rod pulsate to the beat.

102

When Peter and Savannah needed help choosing a song for their upcoming holiday piano recital, the Ritter family spent many evenings sitting around the table after dinner to watch piano performances on YouTube. Alexandra explains: That was a very democratic process and we would sit at the table watching piano performances of different holiday songs on YouTube. “This one is nice but not fun enough” and “This one is okay, but we can’t really get into the lyrics.” And for Savannah, she just wanted a song that was pure fun and that she could relate to and that’s why she picked All I Want for Christmas is My Two Front Teeth15. Peter wanted a song that was a little bit cheerful–that would still be enjoyable after Christmas–and we agonized a long time for that. [looking at Peter] So that was a big project wasn’t it? (Alexandra, 001 PI) The Ritter family’s YouTube project had successful results. At the holiday piano recital, Peter and Savannah played All I Want for Christmas is My Two Front Teeth as a duet. Savannah chose to master the German carol Kling, Glöckchen16 as a solo, and Peter learned to play O Holy Night17 for a family Christmas Eve recital (attended by his visiting parents) at home. Starfall Songs Mika Petrov plays online Starfall games on the family computer. Formatted as virtual books, Starfall games are designed to help children learn to read. On each game “page,” there is easy-to-read text that tells a player what action to complete on that page. The games are very short, usually four “pages” long, and it is easy to switch between the many Starfall games listed on the menu. Mika’s Video 003-037 opens with Mika in the final stages of playing the Starfall game Four Leaf Clover. The camera has been placed on the desk next to the computer 15

Music and lyrics by Donald Yetter Gardner. German Christmas carol. Lyrics were written by Karl Enslin to a traditional German folk tune. 17 Traditional Christmas carol. Lyrics from the poem Minuit, Chrétiens by Placide Cappeau. Music by Adolphe Adam. 16

103

facing Mika. She is captured from the waist up. The decoratively iced cupcakes on her pink pajamas lead upwards to her face, framed in a plaid scarf that she wears knotted around her neck. In addition to playing Starfall games on Saturday morning, Mika is conversing on a speaker phone with her friend Madison, who is playing the same games online at her own house. For the first 4 minutes and 25 seconds of the 7-minute video, Mika is a whirlwind of activity as she plays various games, makes comments to Madison, and engages in spontaneous singing. Mika begins by singing the text at the bottom of the Four Leaf Clover game page. She uses the melody from the first phrase of Up on the Housetop to sing, “Click on the rake and look under the shake.” She completes the game action and is rewarded with finding a four-leafed clover. This prompts her to sing new lyrics to the same melody. I found the clover, How-ow cool It could be the best-est one. Love and Julia are happy and good, I would pick– (Video 003-037) Mika’s singing is interrupted as she focuses on selecting another game. She chooses Garden Shop and, as instructed, clicks on the shop door. The inside of the garden shop has a bag of dirt, a flower pot, and five packets of seeds: blue bell [sic], red rose, snapdragon, white daisy, and pink poppy. The objective is to click on one of the seed packets, listen to the Garden Shop fairy pronounce the name of the flower, and then read the flower name when it appears in a box at the bottom of the page. As she makes her

104

choice, Mika uses the melody Ten Little Indians to sing the flower names on the seed packets. Bluebell, red rose, sna--pdragon White daisy, pink po------ppy, We will pick a blue bell It might be so beautiful. (Video 003-037) Mika clicks on “Blue Bell” and plants the seeds. It takes a moment for the plant to grow. While she waits for the emerging plant, Mika uses the melody from Bluebird, Bluebird, Through My Window to sing: Bluebells, bluebells, almost ready, How, how beautiful, It is beauti- beautiful, Oh, how beautiful. (Video 003-037) Mika selects another game, Make a Valentine. While she waits for the game to load, Mika sets the lyrics from Bluebird, Bluebird, Through My Window to the Ten Little Indians melody. Bluebird, bluebird through my window, Bluebird, bluebird through my window, Bluebird, bluebird through my window, (Video 003-037) The song is cut short when Mika wipes her runny nose with her pajama sleeve. Mika begins to create her valentine. She chooses and combines various phrases until her valentine reads, “Be my friend because you are kind.” Once the valentine is complete, Mika uses the Ten Little Indians melody to sing: One, little, two, little, three, I’m kind One little, four, little, five, I’m kind Six, little, seven, little, eight kind, I am kind! (sol – ti – do) (Video 003-037)

105

Word Hunt is the next game that captures Mika’s attention. In this game, a rabbit requests the player to choose words to describe her and her actions. Mika selects “pretty” and “dancing” and recycles the Ten Little Indians melody once again. I was dancing, One two kinder, One two kinder, One two kinder, I was dancing one, two kinder [Mika chooses another game: Every day is Earth Day] I’ll help the earth The earth. (do-do) (Video 003-037) Every Day is Earth Day requires Mika to pick up cans, paper, and plastic in the forest. The complexity of this task, along with Madison’s sudden chattering on the other end of the phone line, takes Mika’s full attention. There is no singing for the last 3 minutes of the video. Mika’s Video 003-037 provides a song-by-song blueprint of how environmental influences inspire children to create songs. Her spontaneous singing is intrinsically linked to melodic and vocabulary prompts from the computer games she plays. During IVR, Mika reported that she had played the Starfall game Ten Little Snowmen prior to when she recorded herself. Ten Little Snowmen is the source for Mika’s most prevalent melody, Ten Little Indians. On the last page of Ten Little Snowmen, there is a song that helps children count snowmen. Using the Ten Little Indians melody, the lyrics “One little, two little, three, little snowmen . . .” culminate in, “Ten snowmen learning to read.” Mika’s next melodic choice, Bluebird, Bluebird, Through My Window is triggered by one of the flower choices in Garden Shop. Saying and reading “Blue Bell” must remind Mika of the opening words in the common children’s song, Bluebird, Bluebird Through My Window. She sings “blue bell” in place of “bluebird” and then creates her own lyrics (about what is

106

happening in her current computer game) for the rest of the song. Mika brings her singing full circle when she uses the lyrics from Bluebird, Bluebird Through My Window, but, this time, sings them to the Ten Little Indians melody. Mika reported that she often makes up songs. In FG1 after I asked, “Who else makes up songs?” she waved her hand in the air to get my attention. When I acknowledged her, she said, “I make up . . . like words, I do kind of words . . . like, make up . . . Oh! My favorite things. And I use those words and make up songs.” Music in the Bedroom Bedrooms are private spaces. They are places of caring, love, passion, refuge, and the vulnerable state of sleep. Up until the last century, bedrooms were where most of us entered and exited the world. This room witnessed the first cry of a newborn and the last breath of a grandparent; it is an intimate space. Bedrooms also serve as havens from everyday life and often house our most personal possessions. They are where we feel safe and comfortable. Videos of musical activities in the bedroom reflected the character of the room and were more intimate than those recorded in other locations. The usually loud and energetic Savannah Ritter silently recorded her prized music box tinkling in her darkened room. Macy Campbell spends hours alone in her bedroom creating fantastical stories and songs. It is a place where she is free to dramatically and musically express her view of the world. Lengthy videos of her engaged in this activity provide insight into how children incorporate music into private play. The Phillips clan gathers in a bedroom for family

107

camaraderie. Lounging in comfortable places, they sing favorite songs and create new lyrics for old ones. We are privileged to enter this private realm. My Music Box Savannah, Elizabeth, Mika and Macy have music boxes in their room. Macy explains in FG1 that her music box is inside a stuffed animal. While not usually noted on a standard music listening list, music boxes are an important part of the children’s musiclistening experience. Immediately after arriving home from FG1, Savannah’s first in-home video recording (Video 001-007) features her music box. The inside of a pastel pink music box fills the camera’s viewing area. A small oval mirror attached to the inside of the music box lid serves as a backdrop to a twirling, golden-winged fairy. Savannah, still wearing her lime green Secret Agent T-shirt, is also reflected in the mirror. The only spoken words are at the beginning of the video. Savannah announces, “My music box!” (Video 001-007) and remains silent through the recording of several rounds of The Blue Danube Waltz. The music box also makes a repeat performance in one of Savannah’s kitchen videos, having been brought down from its usual residence in her bedroom. In addition to the video recordings she collected of the music box, Savannah mentions the item frequently in FG1. While placing stickers portraying musical items in her Secret Agent Handbook, Savannah chooses a sticker of a music box then tells the other participants, “Yeah, I have a music box. I have a music box” (Savannah, FG1). She later shares: I have two music boxes and one of them . . . wait I have a castle that makes music out of, like, out of a little knob from a music box and I got two music boxes. So

108

my castle, it makes a song from the Nutcracker which I really like and then I forgot the other songs of the other . . . (Savannah, FG1) When recalling what items in her house make music, Savannah mentions the music box again, “Me and my brother watch stuff [on TV] and I um, listen to my music box” (FG1). She also talks about the music box when sharing where in her house music happens. Picking up a colored pencil, Savannah points to the bedroom area of a house diagram in her Secret Agent handbook. “My music box, I’m going to put it here” (FG1) As she draws a music box in “her bedroom,” I ask, “Do you ever sing with your music box?” Savannah stops drawing for a moment and places her chin on her hand. “Umm . . . well it doesn’t, it doesn’t actually play music that I know the words of and it doesn’t do any words to it.” She returns to her drawing and adds, “It just plays. . . .” (FG1). And Savannah, it seems, just listens. Story Lila and Macy Campbell’s bedroom is crammed full of dolls, stuffed animals, and cat décor. A large, unmade, brass double bed with floral sheets and a patterned comforter anchors the center of the room. Up against the walls, vintage dressers hold piles of books, more dolls, and stacks of other play items. Their shared bedroom is where Lila and Macy spend many hours at play. A common and favorite activity is something that the family refers to as Story. When the girls play Story, Lila and Macy use whatever dolls (often Barbie dolls) and stuffed animals that are handy to create and perform stories. The animals and dolls speak lines and sing songs. According to Macy, Story is, “It’s a way you play with dolls. It’s a girl thing and you play with dolls and make them talk and you play.” (005 IVR). She adds that the dolls also “move and groove.”

109

Irene describes each storyline as “a little story of the sphere of life that they would know.” Recently, Story has begun to reflect Macy and Lila’s involvement in musical theater. John: One of the storylines that they’re very familiar with are . . . these two dolls are involved in the musical production. They [the dolls] go to school, you know, they have trouble with their classmates. Irene: Yeah there’s trouble at school a lot. John: [There’s] probably a relatively standard combination of flying heroism, but, yeah, they’re a real life storyline. . . . There’s an audition and there’s trouble because the two go for the same part and so there’s singing involved in that story for sure. (005 PI) Not only is there singing in Story, there are commercials. When I hear them play Story, I say “Okay girls, we’ve got to go do this, so you know, kind of finish up there and then we have to go.” And, I would hear [she sings] “We’ll come back to the show.” [speaking again] I said, “What does that . . . we’ll come back to the show?” “Oh that’s a commercial cause we have to go somewhere else. So that’s how we tell the characters you’re on break. We have to go do this. We’ll come back to the show.” (Irene, 005 PI) On Friday evening at 7:18 p.m. Macy places her video camera on top of one of the crowded dressers in her room (Video 005-067). The room is barely illuminated by a small lamp on top of a different chest of drawers. The camera lens captures the darkened side of Macy and Lila’s bed and sometimes the shadowy image of the top of Macy’s head. She moves about her room collecting things and then sits on the floor next to her bed. Once her cast of characters is assembled, Macy begins: One day, there was a little girl named Wendy. She was a very curious little girl, but, one thing she knew this was a haunted room. Enchanted one. She decided to take a look. (Macy, Video 005-067)

110

For the next 6 minutes, Wendy, a magnetic figure, embarks on a quest to explore the haunted room. Along her way, she meets other interested characters who wish to join the adventure. Macy, using expressive and dramatic speech, provides all the lines and sound effects and speaks in story form, “Wendy was so surprised. She saw a bunch of poor little Barbies just sitting there. ‘Don’t you have anything to do?’ she said.” The plight of the do-nothing Barbies inspires Wendy. “I think I’ll make up a show called Wendy the Brave. My name is Wendy. I’ll take everyone’s autograph. Everyone will love me.” And, indeed, they do love her and are in awe of her enchanted powers. “She put her hand out. Everyone thought she had magic powers. This comb is blue. She threw it up in the air. She threw it up in the air and said . . .” At this point, Macy breaks into song:

111

112

Figure 1. Wendy the Brave. (Macy, Video 005-067) Wendy the Brave illustrates Macy’s musical sophistication. She sings continuously except for one 2-second pause. Macy quickly retrieves familiar melodies and gives them new lyrics. She opens her Wendy the Brave song with the melody It’s a Hard Knock Life from the musical Annie! A lyrical second section uses the opening phrase of Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star. From there until the end (as near as anyone who listens to Wendy the Brave can determine), Macy creates her own melodic phrases and rhythmic patterns. Story is an important part of Macy’s life. She confides, “I want to do Story all the time” (005 IVR). She also wishes Lila would join her to play Story more often. Lila, who is two years older than Macy, “doesn’t like to do Story all the time” (Macy, 005 IVR). Macy chose an excerpt from Story to share with the other children in FG3. Story represents the most creative, imaginative side of Macy. It is something that she truly needs to share with the world. I Want to Reach That Number It took a while to determine the source of the rhythmic “thunking” sound in the background of Carly Phillips’ seven consecutive videos that were recorded in her parent’s

113

bedroom from 9:15 to 9:30 p.m. on Sunday evening (Videos 003-032 through 003-038). Joanne and Frank’s bedroom is home to a high-end treadmill on which the family keeps track of accumulated miles. On this particular evening, runners in the family were closing in on the 100th mile. In the opening video (Video 003-032), the entire clan (minus Frank who was not at home) is gathered together in the bedroom. Frankie sits in a blue velveteen rocker/recliner wedged in a corner between the bed and a wall. He props his sneakered feet against the side of a nearby chest of drawers, and pushes with his legs to rock himself back and forth. Carly records him from her perch on her parents’ bed. The thunk, thunk, thunk of Randy’s footfalls on the treadmill punctuates Carly and Frankie’s singing as they perform Tao Cruz’s pop song, Dynamite (Video 004-035). The two children often misquote the original lyrics. “Saying AYO, gotta let go” becomes “Saying AYO, got an ankle” and “We gon’ go all night” becomes “We could let all night.” Their duet is stopped mid-song when Joanne announces, “Frankie, it’s your turn.” Frankie jumps up from his chair while Carly continues singing solo. Since Frankie’s chair is now empty, Carly flips the camera lens around to show her bangs and eyes while she sings to the end of the song. Once Frankie hits his stride on the treadmill, Joanne and Randy recline on their backs on the bed, hands tucked behind their heads (Video 003-037). Joanne uses part of the melody from When the Saints Go Marching In to sing:

114

Figure 2 . Joanne Phillips’ improvisation. (Video 003-037) Carly’s last video of the series (Video 003-038) records Joanne standing next to the treadmill. Frankie, still running, announces there are 1.99 more miles to go to reach the target 100. Joanne, this time using the complete Saints melody sings about Frankie’s mileage marker and then adds lyrics which detail the before bedtime shower schedule: Oh we-- got, a point nine nine, You’ve only got one point nine nine, And so it’s time for Randy to get in the shower, He’s the first one in tonight. And then Frankie, and then Carly, And then Frankie, Ran---dy, And by the end of the night you will all be clean, [She turns to look at Frankie] And then you’re hundredth mile. (Video 003-038) Randy, still lying on the bed, sticks his feet up in the air. Joanne sings another chorus of Saints using only Randy’s name as the lyrics. She sings, “Randy” over and over again while she grasps his ankles and moves his outstretched legs up and down. Clearly enjoying the activity, Andy says, “Do it again!” when the song ends. Joanne obliges him. This set of video recordings provides evidence of Joanne’s description of herself as the adult in the family who is most likely to engage in spontaneous music-making with her children. She adeptly creates her own lyrics and matches them with a melody that is familiar to her. Rather than relying on a traditional “play” song, Joanne creates one of her own. The children do not join her in this spontaneous singing activity, but do interact

115

with her verbally while she sings. (They occasionally interrupt to ask a question or make a comment. In such cases, Joanne pauses her singing and responds to the child.) Kelley and Sutton-Smith’s (1987) research work indicates that the musical behavior that Joanne models will eventually be observed in her children’s independent music-making. Family script theorists (Carter & McGoldrick, 1989; Steiner, 1974) would agree that by creating spontaneous songs, Joanne is creating a pattern of behavior that will be exhibited by her children when they are parents. The musical culture and tradition of one generation will be passed along to the next. Discussion Musical activities around the house are products of the places where they occur. Social scientists tell us that a “place” is more than just a location. Leary wrote, “Places . . . are always profoundly human, made and made meaningful in the conceptualization and articulation of their boundaries, character, and ultimately, their value, in relation to humans” (as cited in Stauffer, 2009, p. 176). How we use a place gives it its meaning or social construct. Our behavior creates the social construct, which in turn, serves as a guide for future behavior in that space. Items contained in a space are also a factor in how we use or behave in an area. For example, if a piano (the environmental prompt), is housed in a particular location, the physical placement of the instrument dictates that playing the piano occurs in that location. Environmental prompts combined with social construct initiates and guides place-specific musical behavior. This is what steers a pianist seated at a Steinway grand to perform a Chopin Polonaise in Carnegie Hall and Waltz for Debbie at Birdland.

116

The children’s videos illustrate the environmental prompt + place/social construct = musical behavior formula. Dancing to Wii Just Dance Kids in the family room is a combination of the placement of the Wii console and the intended purpose of the room. Family rooms, usually adjoining the kitchen, are spaces designed for family recreation. Placement of the Wii console in this location is logical. The Ritters, Petrovs, and Phillips families move and groove in a space that not only prompts, but accommodates and encourages such activity. The Ritters’ placement of a laptop computer in their kitchen is a media prompt placed in a space where the family comes together for shared meals, snack time, and cups of hot chocolate. The kitchen serves as the hub of the Ritter’s family time together. In this space, Savannah freely sings along with CDs that play on the countertop computer. The family also moves the computer to the kitchen table where they gather around it (much as they would a casserole of warm macaroni and cheese) in a form of communal cyberspace activity to watch musical performances on YouTube. Mika Petrov’s environmental prompt is also a computer–or rather, the games that she plays on the computer. The Petrov’s computer is located in a corner of the basement family room. There is a recreational link between the room and the games . . . and the games provide the melodic and verbal prompts that encourage Mika to create her spontaneous songs. Savannah Ritter and Macy Campbell engage in musical behavior that reflects the private nature of their bedrooms. In addition to being a place of rest and repose, bedrooms are often home to an individual’s most personal possessions. This is where

117

Savannah keeps her treasured music box and Macy harbors her extensive doll collection. The act of listening to music is prompted by the music box and Savannah’s quiet manner of listening, by the space in which the activity occurs. The proximity of Macy’s dolls is necessary for the creation of her fantastical stories and the privacy of her room enables her the freedom to engage in spontaneous singing away from public eyes and ears. Joanne and Frank Phillips’ bedroom has a different construct than Savannah and Macy’s. Joanne and Frank have, with the installation of a treadmill, turned their bedroom into a family gathering place similar to the Ritter’s kitchen. Children flop on beds and in chairs while awaiting their turn to add miles to the family’s treadmill tally. In this space, Joanne, warmly and inclusively creates songs about the treadmill activity in a manner that reflects the familial togetherness that has come to define the space. Macy and Lila Campbell do not rely on a technological or mechanical prompt for their kitchen singing. Their environmental prompt is their mother, Irene. Because their mother serves as Macy and Lila’s primary in-home singing coach, they practice singing wherever she is located. During the week, before school and in the early evening that location is the Campbell kitchen. Unlike the free and easy Ritter kitchen, or the Phillips’ bedroom, the social construct of the Campbell kitchen is “all business.” As a busy owner of her own business, Irene has limited time for meal preparation. When she is in the kitchen, all activity must be efficient and focused toward the goal of quickly feeding the family. Macy and Lila’s kitchen rehearsals, likewise, have as their focal point, an end goal. The children seek to master song material to better prepare themselves for the next musical theater audition.

118

While environmental factors and social construct influence what families do and where they do it, they are not the only elements that guide family musical behavior. The following chapter will explore how family member dynamics and interactions affect family musical activities.

119

Chapter 5: Tickling the Ivories Four of the families (Ritter; Petrov; Phillips; Campbell) have a piano in their home. All the pianos are placed in the family living room. During FG1, Savannah, Isabella, Mika, and Macy efficiently placed stickers of pianos in their Secret Agent Handbooks and chattered about whom in their family plays the instrument. According to the girls, the piano players are: Savannah Ritter and her father, Peter Mika Petrov and her mother, Tatiana Carly Phillips and her brothers, Randy and Frankie Macy Campbell, her sister Lila, and their mother Irene18 When Clark and Moss (2001) and Whiteman (2008) placed cameras in the hands of children, the nature and number of images collected were indicative of what the children determined was important or meaningful. Likewise, the amount of collected piano playing video is testimony to how important the four children view this activity. Savannah, Mika, Carly, and Macy collected a total of 670 minutes of video. One third of the video time (250 minutes) is devoted to piano playing. The actual piano playing time in their homes was even higher. Carly Phillips made very short videos, turning her camera on after someone began to play and turning it off before they were done. Additionally, the video cameras automatically shut off if they were not moved for 25 minutes. Both Macy and Savannah placed their cameras on a flat surface for recording

18

Collected video and information from the parent interview added a few other players to Carly’s list. Carly sometimes picks out tunes on the piano as does her mother, Joanne. Frank Phillips plays piano and often plays duets with and accompanies his sons.

120

purposes and had piano videos that were exactly 25 minutes long–an indication that playing probably continued after the cameras stopped recording. Two of the children, Savannah and Macy are taking piano lessons. Carly does not play piano, but her brothers Randy and Frankie study piano with a teacher at a local community music school. Mika is not formally studying piano, but her mother has placed 14 pieces of sticky tape on many of the middle white keys and has written note names on them. The children’s videos reveal varying levels of parent/child interaction centered around the piano. Videos of playing the piano include solo and duet playing–children or parents playing solo, and children playing duets with a parent. There were no sibling/sibling piano duets or mention of this behavior during parent interviews, focus group sessions, or IVR. Some parents actively coach, play, or practice alongside their child(ren) (Peter Ritter; Irene Campbell), some call out helpful or encouraging comments from another part of the house or as they pass by the living room (Joanne Phillips; John and Irene Campbell), and some have no or very limited involvement (Alexandra Ritter; Joe and Tatiana Petrov). Playing Piano with Dad When Savannah was 4 years old, she took a piano class at a local community music school. After the class was completed, Peter and Alexandra investigated obtaining private lessons for Savannah. “[We were] told she was still a bit young, but she still wanted to do it” (Peter, 001 PI). The Ritter’s bought a pre-owned piano from one of Peter’s colleagues and searched for a piano teacher.

121

Peter: We found a piano teacher for Savannah who is in our subdivision and she teaches by Suzuki method and she wants parents to take basically six lessons or so before the kids start, so I started in July and Savannah started in September. . . . I enjoyed it [and] went through the Suzuki book . . . . I’m still taking lessons with the same teacher every other week. I go to Savannah’s lessons every week and I practice with her every morning and at night I do my own thing. Alexandra: It’s something that they do, just the two of them . . . . it’s been a nice bonding experience. At her recent recital they played a duet together and it went very well. It’s working out nicely. (001 PI) Peter smiles broadly during the “piano” conversation and seems pleased to share details of his new hobby. His piano abilities are progressing rapidly. Savannah notes that her dad is “way ahead of me already” (001 IVR). Alexandra shares a story that illustrates just how serious Peter is about learning to play piano. Straight-faced, she accuses Peter of pilfering the family’s electronic keyboard from the house. He looks up nonplussed then defends himself while Alexandra breaks out in laughter, “I have that in the office, now.” Still chuckling, Alexandra explains, “He has it in the office so he can practice his piano at work.” Sheepishly, Peter admits, “Which I don’t . . .” Alexandra provides him with an out, “Just in case.” Laughing, Peter protests, “Because I work at work!” and then adds, “but . . . just in case . . .” intimating that someday, musical strains might float through the economics department at his university. Piano practice for Savannah and her father begins early in the morning–weekdays around 6:30 a.m. and an hour later on Saturdays. During the first piano practice session that she recorded (Video 001-016), Savannah places the video camera on the coffee table with the lens pointed toward the piano. Her dad is sitting on the bench with his head turned to watch her. Savannah calls out a cheery “Okay” indicating that the camera is

122

ready to record. Peter echoes her “Okay” and asks “Do you want to do Au Clair [Au Clair de la Lune]?” as Savannah, wearing her red checked pajamas from the night before, gallops to the piano bench and sits next to him. Savannah states that she wishes to play a different selection, which turns out to be Long, Long Ago. Peter places his right hand on the piano bench behind Savannah and leans on it. Savannah is now tucked in tightly against her father’s right side. Peter’s steady “1, 2, 3, 4” sets them up and the duet begins. Savannah plays the melody. Peter plays the chordal accompaniment. The duet goes off without a hitch and the charming father-daughter scene aptly illustrates Alexandra’s words, “It’s actually been wonderful for their relationship” (001 PI). Savannah too, says very positive things about playing piano with her father. When asked, “What is it like to play piano with your dad?” she responds, “Good . . . It’s good.” Further explaining her answer, Savannah adds, “It’s good because, um, I just really like hearing music and two people playing at the same time” (001 IVR). In the video, Peter compliments Savannah on her playing and once again proposes that they play Au Clair de la Lune, “Want to do Au Clair?” Savannah answers, “Ummm . . . probably going to do . . .” While she speaks, she turns back one page in the piano book and points to the music notation for Go Tell Aunt Rhody. Peter agrees, “Yup. We can do that.” He prompts her to sit up and they begin. Savannah makes a few mistakes playing her melody line; however, Peter is adept at stopping or repeating his Alberti bass accompaniment to allow Savannah enough time to find the right notes. During IVR, Savannah watches this portion of the video intently. She sits erect with arms folded on the table in front of her, points to herself on the monitor and

123

explains, “I’m doing that part” and then offers a practical answer to the researcher’s next question. Researcher: I noticed that when you play you have to sit really close to your dad. What’s that like to sit near your dad and make music? Savannah: You know why I had to sit close to him? Because otherwise I’ll fall off the seat. (001 IVR) When Savannah and her father finish playing Long, Long Ago, Peter suggests another song–Mary Had a Little Lamb–this time playing with two hands. Savannah’s mood immediately changes. She tries to divert the practice activity to London Bridge– playing the melody with one hand. Peter suggests playing London Bridge with two hands. Thus begins a back and forth argument about what to play and how to play it, with Savannah ultimately shouting that she tried to play London Bridge with two hands the day before but it did not go well. “Even the first note was not good!” Peter, with an eventempered voice, counters with, “Oh well then, we try again. That’s, that’s what trying is about Savannah.” At this unwanted advice, Savannah yells even louder, “Eehhh! I don’t want to, today!!” (Video 001-016). While viewing this portion of the video, Savannah offers her own explanation of the events that unfold. When she hears herself yelling, “I don’t want to, today!!” she shakes her head back and forth and comments, “I know. I know. Sometimes, I . . . (pauses) . . . dad tells me a song that I had to play and I don’t want to play it . . .” (001 IVR). During this interchange between father and daughter, three factors come into play: Savannah’s assessment of her own competence to complete the task, her desire to remain

124

in control, and Peter’s attempt to manage Savannah’s irritableness and at the same time keep her focused and on track. McPherson (2009) wrote that “even beginning musicians . . . . are able to quickly form an impression of how competent they are at coping with their new instrument” (p. 99). Savannah’s statement that “even the first note was not good” indicates dissatisfaction with her playing; albeit, this dissatisfaction seems to come about when she is asked to play something that requires a skill she has not yet mastered. During IVR, Savannah makes it clear that she wants to be in control. She explains, “I really want to do the song that I want to do” and “I want to do it on my own’ (001 IVR). Her behavior demonstrates an attitude of, “If you keep telling me to do what you want me to do, I will tell you that I won’t do it.” Her father’s efforts to help her and keep her on track during practice sessions are often uninvited and unwelcome. Peter is faced with the daunting task of placating an emotional little girl while at the same time keeping her focused on the task at hand. He praises Savannah for her efforts “Very nice” and encourages her to continue on, “You can do it.” His ability to focus Savannah on effort rather than her perceptions about her playing ability is crucial to her eventual success (Pomerantz et al., 2005). By the end of the video, Peter manages to cajole Savannah into playing Lightly Row with two hands. She plays it once and they move on to London Bridge. The London Bridge segment of the video has a very different flavor than the previous segment; it is dotted with laughter. (It also evokes much laughter from Savannah while she makes her IVR comments.) Peter sets the tone of the second segment by singing the first two phrases of London Bridge, substituting “blmmm” for each pitch rather than using the

125

song lyrics, and adding dramatic arm movements. Savannah’s initial response is to laugh and yell, “Stop!” Peter takes this opportunity to encourage Savannah to play the song “Okay, well, play! It sounds nicer when you play it than when I sing it.” At this, the bargain is struck. Savannah giggles, places her fingers on the keyboard, and performs a very focused and accurate two-hand rendition of London Bridge. What does playing the piano with her father mean to Savannah? She mentions playing piano with her dad twelve times during FG1 as she works on her Secret Agent Handbook and discusses who plays instruments at her house. She even anticipates and discusses how she will record piano practice sessions with her father. When she returns to FG2 with her collected video, and the discussion turns toward people playing instruments, Savannah announces that her camera is full of instrumental playing. She states matter-of-factly, “. . . all of them are of me and my dad.” She never mentions the ebb and flow of power during practice sessions. In public, Savannah seems both happy and proud to be linked with her father in the activity. During IVR, she declares that her dad has learned “all of it already.” As far as Savannah is concerned, her dad has reached the top of the piano-playing hill, and she proudly shares that information. At the conclusion of the research phase of this project, Alexandra gave the researcher a photograph of Savannah and Peter playing a duet at their holiday piano recital. Peter wears a suit and tie and sits to the left of Savannah. Her blond hair is curled in ringlets and she wears a crisp white dress with black trim. The expressions on both faces are of focus and concentration. There is no hint of the mighty clashing of wills that brought them to this “Kodak moment.”

126

Playing Piano with Mom The only power struggles during piano time at the Campbell house is when Macy and Lila are in the same room. Each tries to out-do the other with activities that are aggravating and annoying. The most popular antagonistic maneuvers are putting one’s feet on the piano bench while the other is practicing and making comments about the music being played. Macy’s collected video reveals that the roles of antagonizer and antagonizee are evenly divided. It is possible that this back and forth rivalry is simple “He’s touching me! She’s breathing on me!” sibling behavior, but Macy believes that when Lila heckles her (a “normal” behavior according to Macy), it is her older sister’s way of “taking the spotlight from me” (005 IVR). Macy and Lila each started piano instruction at the beginning of first grade. They take lessons from a Ukraine-trained piano teacher who comes to their home each week. Lila has been studying two years longer than Macy, whose lessons began only a few months before she became a participant in the research project. While perusing instrument stickers to place in her Secret Agent Handbook, Macy announces to the group, “Me and my sister play the piano. My whole family plays piano . . . . I play piano with my sister and mom” (FG1). She also uses a brown pencil to draw a piano in the living room of the house diagram in her Secret Agent Handbook. Piano practice sessions, according to Macy, can be “just whenever you want,” or “when my dad tells us . . . sometimes my mom. Like, today, my dad said for me to practice my piano . . . . a couple of minutes after I came home from school” (005 IVR). “We play the piano, well not every, every day, but it’s one of our tasks that we try to do

127

every day” (FG2). Ninety-five of Macy’s 289 minutes of collected video (33%–the same percentage as Savannah) feature someone playing the piano. The videos include Lila and Macy’s practice sessions and duets that Macy and her mother play together. Macy’s first “piano” video (Video 005-016) features one of Lila’s practice sessions and reveals how John and Irene sometimes encourage piano practice using a “hands off” or “from a distance” approach. It is 9:12 a.m. on Saturday morning. Lila sits at the piano wearing red and green plaid flannel pajamas. The video opens with a closeup of Lila’s right hand playing a descending scale pattern that is part of the first two measures of one of her practice pieces. The right hand plays this exercise twice then moves to meet the left hand in middle C position–both thumbs on middle C. Lila plays simultaneous ascending and descending major scales (right hand ascending; left hand descending). Once she reaches the end of the scale, Lila reverses direction, playing her way back to the original starting position. Lila continues playing scale exercises on different starting notes until she gets stuck finding the correct notes for F major. Twice, she plays the first five pitches going up, then back down with a long pause in between each attempt. John, in another part of the house, calls out, “Lila, you should pull off the scale, okay?” Then, possibly with the thought of being helpful adds, “You know where the sharps are?” Lila responds with a sing-song “Okay . . .” She audibly breathes out, (not the first time there is sighing and audible breathing during the scale activity) and begins to play the first five notes of the scale up and down again. Her father’s voice calls out once more, “Are you playing the whole scale or just the part you sing?”

128

At this moment, Irene arrives carrying a laundry basket, “Anybody have any whites? White stuff that needs to be washed?” When both girls reply, “No,” Irene heads off to the laundry room with encouraging words for Lila, “Keep going, you’re doing good!” Lila returns to her first scalar pattern of the practice session. She plays it six times while Macy, behind the camera, hums along. Lila falters when she tries to go onto the next measure. All of a sudden, Irene’s voice comes from another part of the house, “Do it in control Lila!” Irene sings:

Figure 3. Irene’s singing directions. (Video 005-016) Lila responds with an emotionless “Okay” and moves on to play something else. Macy’s opinion is that Lila is not too crazy about playing piano. During IVR, Macy declares that she likes piano more than Lila does. She explains that Lila is always trying to get out of piano practice. According to Macy, when John picks the girls up from school, he asks, “Who would rather go home and do piano?” Macy reports, “I always raise my hand.” Then she confides, “And guess who ends up playing piano?” She tucks her head into her chest, lowers her voice and whispers, “Lila” (005 IVR). The spotlight is on Lila once again. The end of Macy’s video offers support to her hypothesis about Lila’s lack of desire to play. While Lila continues to struggle through her scale exercises, she senses a motion in the room, stops playing, and spins around on the piano bench to face her father who has walked up behind her. Leaning forward with her hands pressed between her

129

knees, Lila pleads, “Daddy, can I sing now?” When John says “Yes,” Lila lets out an exuberant “Yea!” and leaps out of the room. When Lila first started piano lessons, Irene was hesitant to admit to the piano teacher that she, herself, had studied piano. “I didn’t want to act like, oh you know, ‘I play piano,’ plus, I think she’d look at me and be like, “Why aren’t you teaching her piano?” (Irene, PI 005). Irene, however, couldn’t refrain from offering playing suggestions to Lila. I think I just had so much training I couldn’t help to say to her, “Okay Lila, wait. Do you see how here the audience is waiting to hear it? Make them wait for one little second and then we give them what they’re looking for.” (Irene, PI 005) Eventually, Irene’s piano background was revealed and the piano teacher began assigning mother/daughter piano duets.19 “I got playing quite regularly with Lila through the duet time. In fact I said to the teacher, ‘Thank you for this. This is nice.’” (Irene, PI 005). Now that Macy is learning to play piano, she, too, receives coaching from her mother and has the opportunity to play duets with her. Two of Macy’s video segments reveal two different approaches (and their results) that Irene adopts when helping Macy with piano. On Monday morning (Martin Luther King Holiday) at 9:12 a.m., Macy places her video camera at the end of the piano so that the lens faces down the keyboard. The camera records a clear view of Macy’s hands, face, and upper body (Video 005-052). She is wearing her set of red and green plaid pajamas. Her jaw is set and her eyes are glued to the method book open in front of her. No one need say, “Eyes on the music!” to Macy Campbell. 19

Lila and Macy are learning piano through the Alfred Piano Series. Many of the songs in the lesson books have an optional accompaniment composed for a more advanced player.

130

As Macy plays, Irene walks into the room and stands behind her. Irene gestures toward the first and second measure of the music that Macy is playing and asks, “Are those [notes] the same as these?” Macy intently stares at the music for about 15 seconds and says, “Yeah.” It is the wrong answer. Irene points to the measures again and re-states the question. Macy looks down at the keyboard and begins to wiggle her fingers. She replies, “D?” (correct answer) and plays the note three times. Irene points to the next note: Irene: What’s that one? Macy: It is A. Irene: That’s not an A. Macy brings her arms to her face and crosses them on her forehead. Macy: C (points to a note on her music) Irene: C is up there, right. Now, let’s figure out what note that is. [points to another note] Macy: That is [looks down at the piano keyboard] . . . E? [wrong answer] Irene: You don’t go further up [the alphabet] when you go down [in pitch]. You’re going up. You’ve gotta work on this. Irene points to the top of the page in Macy’s method book and explains that she can look there for help. She tells Macy, “I want to hear you play this piece nicely and figure those notes out!” as she exits the room to make breakfast. After her mother leaves, Macy moves her lips, slightly tilts her head, and sticks her tongue slightly through her lips. It appears that she is “parroting” her mother’s last words to her. After staring at the page for five seconds, Macy moves her lips again as if

131

speaking silently and slams them together tightly. The corners of Macy’s mouth drop down, her jaw tightens and quivers, but she does not completely break down and cry. She recovers her composure in a few seconds and stares at the page in front of her. Someone walks into the room and turns off the camera. Irene made attempts to scaffold Macy’s learning during this practice session. She asked questions that led Macy from one level of understanding to another in the manner that Rogoff (1990) refers to as “guided participation.” Because of her breakfast duties, Irene was not able to stay with Macy and guide her to the conclusion of the note-learning exercise. Her parting statement, “I want to hear you play this piece nicely and figure those notes out!” was focused not on Macy’s effort, but rather on her ability. It is possible that Macy interpreted Irene’s comments as, “I want you to play this nicely (because right now it is not nice) and figure those notes out (because right now you are playing them wrong).” Children’s eagerness to engage in learning tasks is related to their perception of their competence (Austin, Renwick, & McPherson, 2006). Once Macy perceived that her competence was in question, she shut down, the tears came, and she stopped playing. Macy's sadness and/or frustration, evident at the end of her first Monday morning piano practice session, is replaced by squeals of delight two hours later when she and her mother meet again at the piano. Video 005-053 reveals a warm mother/daughter moment complete with accomplishment and pride. Macy has once again set the camera on the end of the piano so that is shows hands on the keyboard. This time, there are two sets. She and her mother are sitting side by side on the piano bench; Irene is to Macy’s left. In a soft voice, Irene says, “We’re going to do

132

Yankee Doodle Dandy duet.” and counts the two players off, “1, 2, 3, 4.” Macy joins in on the counting at “2.” Mother and daughter simultaneously bounce their hands up and down to the beat of their counting before playing the song. When the song is finished, Macy squeals delightedly and Irene leans over to kiss her on the top of the head. The mother-daughter duo plays another duet and then it is time for Macy to practice Jack be Nimble. She falters on some of her rhythm and confuses which hand plays which notes. This allows Irene an opportunity to step in and offer help. In a soft, even voice, Irene asks, “Ohhh . . . What kind of counting is that?” She encourages Macy to start over again. Before Macy begins, Irene points to the first measure and counts slowly, “1-2-3-4.” Macy turns her counting into a song as she sings the numbers to the Jack Be Nimble melody. When Macy reaches the part where she previously mixed up her hands, Irene gently reminds her, “You’ve got a left hand!” and reaches across to cradle Macy’s right wrist and tilt her hand when it is time for the right thumb to move out of the way to make room for the left thumb. Irene is in coaching mode, but this time, as she remains on the piano bench with Macy there are no tears. Irene has not challenged or drawn attention to Macy’s abilities, but rather has guided her with soft-spoken reminders and gentle encouragement. Mother and daughter are collaborators working in tandem. Playing Piano Together The Phillip’s three year-old piano is fair game for anyone who passes by. During video project week, Carly recorded herself, her brother Randy, her mother, and two visiting cousins at the piano. Even though brother Frankie takes lessons, there were no

133

videos of him playing the instrument. Carly’s videos show episodes of focused practicing, picking out songs by ear, and fingers randomly wandering across the keys. Most of Carly’s videos are of her brother Randy, age 8, practicing his lesson assignments.20 Carly turned in a total of 18 short “Randy at the piano” videos totaling 12 minutes and 52 seconds.21 Carly documented Randy’s progress as he learned to play Forest Drums. Similar to the Campbell parents, during Randy’s practice sessions, Joanne calls out encouraging remarks and makes comments from wherever she is located in the house. Don’t tip the chair, bud. Sit down regular. Randy, you’re sounding good, buddy. What’s the name of that one? I thought it sounded great. How many more are you supposed to be working on today? (Video 004-012) Carly reports that usually her father is in charge of making sure that Randy practices everything that he is assigned, but that during video project week he was not at home. Frank agrees that he usually oversees instrumental practice. In an effort to keep both boys motivated to practice, Frank plays duets with them a couple of times a week either on piano or his electric bass. He believes that this activity increases their interest. “I'll say, OK, let me do a duet with you and that makes them a little bit more motivated to practice” (Frank, 004 PI). Frank also relies on an ingenious 21st century method that prompts the boys to practice at times when they are reluctant to do so. [I have] a little cheap-o, ten dollar flash drive thing that has a little recorder on it and so sometimes I'll record the kids . . . Frankie's recording session or Randy's

20 21

Carly made no recordings of brother Frankie at the piano. Carly’s total amount of video recording time was 1 hour and 33 seconds.

134

recording session and send an mp3 in an email to grandma and grandpa. (Frank, 004 PI) Frank reports, that Frankie and Randy will make a recording, listen to it, and then say, “Oh, that wasn’t quite perfect. Let’s try again.” Making recordings has become an extended family affair. At Thanksgiving, Frank’s father brought over a “fancier recorder,” recorded Frankie and Randy, and burned CDs to give out to other family members. Frank’s recording sessions are a creative maneuver that taps into and helps develop Randy and Frankie’s intrinsic motivation–engagement in an activity purely for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from the activity itself. Intrinsic motivation is the most self-determined form of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Sandene (1987) noted that music students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to persist in instrumental study and encouraged student supporters to structure music learning in a manner that fosters the development of this ability. Joanne’s musical interactions with the children are always inclusive. Perhaps it is the “teacher” in her. She encourages them to sing together in the home and in the car and likewise tries to foster an environment of musical collaboration at the piano. On a Friday evening, just before bedtime, Joanne sits down at the piano and attempts to pick out the melody to Cows from the CD Philadelphia Chickens–a CD that is often played in the Phillips car (Video 004-017). She seeks Andy’s help. Joanne: Will you help me figure out how to play the cow song, Randy? Randy: Nope. Joanne: Come on. [she plays a few keys] Does that sound like a good starting

135

place? [playing more keys] Does that sound good Carly? Carly:

Uh huh.

Joanne continues her attempt to find the melody and then, abandoning Cows, launches into You Are My Sunshine. She smiles and looks directly at Carly who asks, “What song are you playing?” Joanne looks inquisitively at Carly, “You tell me. You know that.” Carly listens and then recognizes the song, “Ahhhhhhh . . . I know that.” Joanne: What is it? Carly:

Well, um, I don’t know what song it’s called.

Joanne: Sing it. Carly does sing, but only through the first phrase. She stops and inquires, “That song?” Joanne nods and encourages her again, “Sing it. Are you too shy?” Carly counters, “No,” but does not sing again. According to Joanne, Frank is more adept at picking out tunes than she is and uses this ability to play songs that the children sing. Frankie, Randy, and Carly are very “into” singing television and radio commercials. Joanne adds, “As pathetic as that is . . .” and laughs. Frank laughs with her and elaborates, “all the cheeseball lawyers . . .” Joanne picks up the story, “They’ll be singing a song like the NFL football theme and Frank will come in and play it on the piano.” Frank has been known to play the Linus and Lucy22, commonly referred to as “the Charlie Brown Theme” and songs by Taylor Swift and Hannah Montana.

22

Composed by Vince Guaraldi.

136

Carly does not yet take piano lessons; although, she proudly declares that she can play three “easy” songs on the piano. During her discussion about this, she cannot remember the titles or lyrics or sing them. She does, however, demonstrate her piano skills in Video 004-019. The camera is propped on the piano and captures her face and upper body. She wears her lime green Secret Agent T-shirt and is smiling widely enough to reveal that her two top front teeth are missing. Carly plays three notes in the middle of the piano (d e f). She turns and looks across the room at Randy, who has just finished practicing, and says, “I think that’s in a different place.” She turns back to face the piano, moves her right hand higher on the keyboard and plays a short minor melody. Randy calls out, “That’s not the right notes.” To which Carly responds, “I know.” Joanne, seen bustling around in the background tidying up the living room, addresses Randy, “She just played it in a different key. Where would you start it, Randy?” Randy approaches the piano, “I would start it here.” He plays the opening notes of Carly’s song so that the tune is now in major and walks away. Joanne, still in clutter disposal mode asks, “Where would you like to start it Carly?” In response, Carly moves her right hand to the keys recently vacated by Randy and plays her melody again. When she is finished, her mom praises the effort, “Sounds good to me!” On Monday, Martin Luther King Day, there is no school–providing an opportune time for a visit from two Phillips’ cousins, Polly and Eric. Carly, Randy and their cousins gather in the living room (Video 004-030). The two boys, stationed on opposite ends of the room, gleefully toss stuffed animals to each other while Polly, standing at the high

137

end of piano keyboard, plays a repetitive series of pitches evocative of Steve Reich and Philip Glass minimalism. Polly’s presence at the piano, or perhaps, in the room, is not in the animal-tossers’ favor as she is often asked to “move out of the way.” Her piano playing, however, penetrates their tossing game; as Eric and Randy launch a tan bear or pink pig into the air, their warbling reflects (likely unconsciously) the pitches and patterns that Polly is playing. At one point, the pink pig, manipulated by Eric, leaps onto the lower end of the piano. The pig dances across a few black keys accompanied by Eric’s high (matching Polly’s pitches) screeching. Now it is Polly’s turn to suggest a behavior change, “Be quiet! I’m trying to play.” The pig (voiced by Eric) asks, “Don’t you like me? Don’t you love me?” After receiving no response from Polly, who never stops her playing, the pig moves away from the piano and out of camera range. This exchange was reminiscent of Lila and Macy Campbell’s antagonism: one sibling is focused on playing; the other comes along to provide unwanted distraction. The Phillips’ piano seems to be not only an instrument, but a member of the family. Carly’s videos often show a family member drifting over to the piano to play just one song, or part of a song, or just a few random notes. It is as if the player is saying, “Hello there, piano. I’ll spend a moment with you before I run off to do something else.” At other times, the piano takes on the role of a gathering drum; call to others to find their way into the living room for a time of conversation, singing, and family interaction.

138

Playing All By Myself The daughter of a Classically-trained pianist and piano teacher, Mika has the most autonomy in her two piano videos. During these videos, Mika displays that she can play four songs on the piano: Bingo, Leo the Lion, and two compositions of her own. She refers to one composition as the “scary” song–a piece of music that relies heavily on minor thirds–and the other as the “not scary” song (fewer minor thirds) (003 IVR). Both of Mika’s piano recordings open with some manner of introduction. “Hi! My name is Mika. Well . . . I’m going to play a song called Bingo. Okay?” (Video 003033). In video 003-033, Mika haltingly plays Bingo and sings along, “Johnny (pause) had a (pause) little (pause) dog and Bingo was his name-o.”23 She plays the melody with her right and accompanies the first phrase with two left hand chords. The pauses occur when Mika carefully determines which notes the left hand plays next. Once she reaches “dog,” Mika abandons playing the harmony and plays until the end without missing the proverbial beat. After announcing, “I want to do it again ‘cause it’s my favorite,” Mika launches into a near-perfect one-handed playing and singing rendition of Bingo. At Bingo’s conclusion, Mika reiterates, “That’s my favorite” and launches into a verbal introduction for her “scary” composition. “Now I’m going to do another one. I don’t know what it’s called, but it’s fun.” She plays random intervals of thirds (all minor thirds that she sometimes stacks up to form diminished triads). The scary song lasts 20 seconds.

23

Each of the first four pauses occur after repeated notes. During the pause, Mika is searching for the next note to play.

139

Mika announces, “That was my song. Now I’m going to do a different one. It’s fun.” She looks up directly at the camera, “It’s not really scary, though.” Mika plays a chromatic scale going up from the middle of the keyboard to as high (far right) as she can easily reach and then hangs out a couple of octaves above middle C before jumping back to the middle of the keyboard. Mika provides commentary about her composition, “This one is pretty fun, too.” More thirds (major this time) follow, and then various right hand pitches accompany a slow major scale played by her left hand. Mika’s composition would make Schoenberg proud. Mika begins to alternate her hands; the left hand plays a note, the right hand plays a set of thirds three or four times. This rhythmic process is repeated using various piano keys for almost two minutes. During this activity, Mika focuses her gaze on her right hand, looking up twice at the camera. She finishes her composition by playing a low left hand note, returns her gaze to the camera and says, “That was the end. Now, the last one is Leo the Lion.” And indeed, she plays a perfect rendition of the Leo the Lion melody while she holds the piano sustain pedal the entire time. While Mika sang along with Bingo, she does not do so with Leo the Lion. When she finishes, Mika proves that her devotion to a song is fickle. She looks directly into the camera and announces that Leo is her “favorite” song. With a smile, and a wave she adds, “See you later!” The camera keeps recording. After a few awkward seconds, Mika, like a ventriloquist in training, does her best to not move her lips as she instructs her father (who has been holding the camera) to “press ‘MOVIE’” in order to end the recording.

140

During IVR and focus group sessions, Mika reported that her mother plays piano every day and “just loves it” (FG1). There are, however, no videos of Tatiana at the piano. Mika explained that she tried to record her mother’s playing, but was unable to. “She started playing the piano and I just got her and she said, ‘Stop it! I’m getting out of here’” (FG2). Tatiana’s reluctance to be video recorded could explain why Mika is seen always playing alone and there are no encouraging remarks or comments. The explanation could also lie in Tatiana’s views about instrumental instruction and when it should begin. During the parent interview, Tatiana explained that she wants Mika to eventually learn to play an instrument, but not just yet. I know that I really want her to play an instrument because I truly believe that music really makes the person really well rounded. I think musicians . . . they just see the world different. And, I think especially for a girl, I think it’s a great experience to go through the whole music experience and bring it to your family and give it to your children. I’m kind of waiting until she will be really ready by herself, I don’t want to push her because nobody pushed me. It was my idea to start, you know, go to music school and everything. . . .So, whenever she’s ready, then she will be ready because I don’t want to really take it away from her with me pushing. So, hopefully maybe she will be 7 or 8. (Tatiana, 004 PI) Mika declares that she “really” wants “to learn how to play a piano” (003 IVR) and that her father has encouraged Tatiana to teach Mika. Mika begins to play with a lock of her hair while she explains: Once my dad said I [should] just sit down for 30 minutes and listen to her, what she says, but she would never do it. So I thought she would do it like we were asking her, when her vacation was here but, she was saying no. . . . So I think I don’t know when she’s going to sit down and teach me. (004 IVR)

141

When asked if this is something she would like her mother to do, Mika nods emphatically and describes how she has a friend who is learning to play piano. Mika seems quite impressed that her friend can play with two hands and demonstrates on the table top how this looks. According to Tatiana, Mika is not left entirely to her own piano playing devices. If Mika asks for help, Tatiana says that she will sit with her. During IVR, Mika explains that her mother taught her to play Bingo as well as some “other songs.” She jumps off her chair, runs to the piano, and returns with the Library of Children’s Song Classics given to her by her mother. We page through it together. Mika reads the titles of or sings the lyrics to songs that she likes: Eensy Weensy Spider, Lucy Locket, Muffin Man, and Jack and Jill. She is proud of her book and handles it reverently–turning the pages with care. Mika reports that her mother sometimes plays these songs and Mika will sit on the floor or the piano bench and sing them. She makes it clear that her mother never sings along with her. Tatiana has written the letter names of the notes over some of the song notation. These letters match the letters on the squares of sticky tape she has placed on the white keys. With these aids, Mika can explore playing songs on her own until she reaches the proper age for piano lessons–an age that matches the age that Tatiana began her piano studies. Tatiana’s decision about when to start Mika’s piano instruction is an example of how parents often behave according to a pre-conceived “script” that has roots in their own upbringing. This “family script,” is a construct of family behavior whereby one generation passes down or adheres to the behaviors learned in their own childhood

142

(Carter & McGoldrick, 1989). In her resolve, Tatiana is demonstrating a desire to replicate a pattern of musical behavior from her youth. Discussion Four families have piano players of varying ages and abilities. The videos reveal that practice sessions are sprinkled throughout the day depending on the families’ schedules. Peter and Savannah Ritter practice together early in the morning regardless of the day of the week. The Campbell girls’ after-school practice sessions and Randy Phillips’ early evening practice sessions move to earlier times on the weekend. Mika Petrov plays in the late afternoon and early evening. Parents display varying levels of interaction while their children are playing or practicing. Peter Phillips oversees all of Savannah’s practice sessions often sitting beside her on the piano bench. The Campbell and Phillips parents are not always present during practice sessions; however, they call out encouraging remarks from other areas of the house and then a few times per week play duets with their children. Tatiana and Joe Petrov leave Mika to dabble at the piano primarily on her own. Parental involvement in the children’s piano playing is not necessarily determined by the parent’s own playing abilities. Peter Ritter is himself a beginning piano student, yet he sits alongside Savannah each time she practices. Tatiana Petrov, the parent with the most playing experience, leaves Mika pretty much to her own devices. The children’s piano efforts have in two cases influenced their parents’ musical behavior. Peter Ritter, a man with limited guitar instruction in his youth, has embraced learning to play piano in response to his daughter’s lessons. Irene Campbell, after

143

abandoning playing piano in her college days has rediscovered the joy of playing through her children’s learning experiences. Irene says, “The music came back with the girls.” Peter Jutras (personal communication, December 2, 2011), Editor-in-Chief of the Clavier Companion, wrote that anecdotal evidence supports that adults will pursue instrumental instruction because their children started taking lessons. “Sometimes this was rooted in a desire to play with their children (duets and accompaniments), and sometimes the parent was inspired by the child to the point that the parent wanted to begin study or revive study that they did as a child.” Peter Ritter and Irene Campbell’s current piano activities are creating new musical behavior scripts for their families. Neither brings with them a background of parent/child piano-centered music-making; yet both of these parents, by sitting next to their children and playing piano duets, are instilling in their children that playing side-byside with mom or dad is a normal behavior. Sometime in the future, Savannah Ritter and Macy and Lila Campbell will, according to family script theorists, replicate these activities with their own children. Thirty years in the future, a generation away, we will be able to determine how Peter and Irene’s current actions will affect the musical pathways of their grandchildren.

144

Chapter 6: Music and Family Routines Families often use music as part of a routine or to guide children’s behavior (Custodero, 2006). Parents sing to children who are tired, fussy, hurt, or anxious in an effort to calm them. Songs often accompany household tasks and chores are used to help teach children relevant information. Many children have learned the alphabet by singing it to the melody of Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star. The self-professed “non-musical” Alexandra Ritter admits to often creating songs to prompt Savannah and William to complete daily tasks. Sometimes I find when we have a job to get done, like getting dressed or something that they’re not too crazy about, it helps if we sing a song while we’re doing it and we make up lyrics, you know, to amuse ourselves. (Alexandra, 001 PI) Amalia and Jorge Ramirez also note that when Elizabeth and Rhianna need to be prompted to do a chore, singing is an effective method of communication. Amalia chuckles and Jorge nods his head and smiles as she explains, “Sometimes when we’re telling them to do things and they may not be listening, we’ll sing it to them just to get their attention.” Amalia also believes that singing at these times eases “what could be a stressful and tense moment” and elicits a more positive response. She adds: And it makes it fun! It takes the drudgery out of it, you know, the monotony. . . I think it’s a great thing for parents to connect with their children and to make what could be tedious and difficult a more enjoyable experience for their child and for the parents too. ‘Cause otherwise it could be dreadful. (Amalia, 002 PI) Amalia and Jorge report that they use singing to help accomplish many daily routine tasks: washing hands, picking up personal items, bathing, getting out of bed in the morning, and brushing teeth. Jorge adds that the family also has songs about teamwork and making good choices.

145

All of the child participants captured videos of moments when singing was part of the family routine. Songs accompanied waking up in the morning, tasks of personal hygiene, bedtime, and family celebrations. Many family members were included . . . some of them non-human! All Washed Up! For decades, public health officials have advised the world’s citizens to wash their hands to prevent the spread of dangerous germs and bacteria. More recently, the advice is accompanied by a suggestion that handwashers sing two choruses of Happy Birthday to insure that a full 20 seconds of handwashing, enough time to kill those germs and bacteria, has occurred (Sing “Happy Birthday” During Handwashing, 2008). In honor of the first Global Handwashing Day in 2008, the children’s singing group, The Wiggles, released a musical hand washing video in an effort to motivate children to adopt the habit. Adding singing to a personal hygiene activity taps into what parents have known for years . . . and Mary Poppins advocates in her song Spoonful of Sugar24. Combining a task with something fun, like singing, “makes the medicine go down” much easier. When it comes to personal hygiene, the Ritter and Ramirez families have elevated this simple concept to an art form. Brushing Teeth with Mom Savannah reports that in the Ritter household there are two teeth cleaning songs. “One my dad sings because it’s German . . . and one, um, my mom sings because she doesn’t really know German” (001 IVR). In Savannah’s toothbrushing video (Video 00124

From Walt Disney's 1964 film and the musical versions of Mary Poppins. Composed by Robert B. Sherman and Richard M. Sherman.

146

011), Alexandra (out of camera range) is in the bathroom with Savannah and William who, standing at double sinks, are reflected in the bathroom mirror. William holds a toothbrush in his mouth, but is doing more chewing on his toothbrush than brushing. Savannah cheerily faces into the mirror. She is not holding a toothbrush. Her blonde hair is in pigtails and she wears red plaid pajamas. Savannah and Alexandra sing Alexandra’s toothbrushing song together. Thomas does not sing with them; however, he appears to participate by actively listening as he chews on his toothbrush. Alexandra’s tooth brushing song uses the melody from Here We Go ‘Round the Mulberry Bush. Savannah and Alexandra learned a version of this song in an early childhood music class. That version ended with, “on a cold and frosty morning.”25 The two singers adapt the lyrics “cold and frosty morning” to reflect the time of day that their toothbrushing occurs. They sing together: This is the way we brush our teeth, Brush our teeth, brush our teeth, This is the way we brush our teeth, On a cold and frosty evening.26 We brush our teeth from side to side, Side to side, side to side, We brush our teeth from side to side, On a cold and frosty . . . (Video 001-011) At this point, Savannah and her mother diverge on the final word. Alexandra sings “evening;” Savannah reverts to the final word of the original version and sings “morning.” She hears her mother’s “evening” and quickly echoes it. Alexandra, in this 25

“Cold and frosty morning” is also the ending used by Jane Cabrera in her illustrated children’s book, Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush. 26 Alexandra changed “morning” to “evening” to reflect the time of day they were singing the song. Savannah, from time to time automatically reverts to the original version and uses the “morning” ending.

147

musical encounter, is the musical model whom Savannah imitates (A. Reynolds, 1995). The song continues for one more verse: We brush our teeth up and down, Up and down, up and down, We brush our teeth up and down, On a cold and frosty morn (Savannah) . . . evening. (Video 001-011) At the end of the song, Savannah strikes out on her own. Using the same melody, she sings: This is the way we get pie in the face pfff, Pie in the face pfff, pie in the face pfff, This is the way we get pie in the face, On a cold and frosty evening. (Video 001-011) On each “pff,” Savannah stretches out her right arm and bops William in the face with her open hand. William laughs until Savannah’s hand comes toward him for the last time. To defend himself, he raises an elbow to block the last “bop.” Savannah loves her “pie in the face” song variation. During IVR, she anticipates the arrival of “pie in the face” and animatedly announces, “… and there’s one that’s very funny. It’s after this, after this, it’s so funny!” (001 IVR). When she sees herself singing “pie in the face,” she sings along and then says, “I loved the . . . ‘this is way he gets the pie in the face’” (001 IVR). She reaches out her arm to put an imaginary pie in my face. This same scene was recreated during FG3, when Savannah sang and repeatedly put a pie in the face of the child sitting next to her during a sharing session. Savannah explains that “pie in the face” is not completely her own invention: I saw it on CD and then on TV. It’s a different version. They’re like (singing) ‘This is the way we tame the lion, tame the lion, tame the lion.’ (speaking) It’s on a DVD that’s um, that’s ummmmmmm, Bear in the Big Blue House, It’s a Potty Time one [Potty Time with Bear in the Big Blue House]. And, um, and there’s this

148

part where they’re, like, calling for a shadow and the shadow tells a song and that was one of the songs and the girl was, like, putting pie in the face of a dog. (001 IVR) Brushing Teeth with Dad In the Ritter house, brushing teeth with dad is more regimented than brushing teeth with mom. In Savannah’s Video 001-021, Savannah and William, dressed in pajamas, each stand in front of one of the bathroom’s double sinks. They synchronize gulps of water and the placement of their drinking cups on the top of the vanity. Peter says, “OK, let’s go.” The children pick up their battery-powered toothbrushes. For his toothbrushing song, Peter created new lyrics to the German song, Ri-Ra-Rutsch (originally about a carriage ride). As the brushes buzz around the children’s mouths, Peter sings and occasionally provides directions–always at the same point in each verse of the song.

Brumm, brumm, brumm, Bürste brumm herum, Einmal rechts and Einmal links, Einmal oben und Einmal unten, Brumm, brumm, brumm, brumm, brumm, Bürste brumm herum.

Buzz, buzz, buzz, The brush buzzes around, Once to the right and once to the left, Once to the top and once to the bottom, Buzz, buzz, buzz, buzz, buzz, The brush buzzes around.

149

Hin und her, Bürsten ist nicht schwer, Einmal rechts und Einmal links, Und Einmal oben, (William, brush!) Hin, hin, hin, hin, her, Bürsten ist nicht schwer.

Back and forth, Brushing is not hard, Once to the right and once to the left, Once to the top (William, brush!) There, there, there, there, and here, Brushing is not hard.

Figure 4 . Peter Ritter’s toothbrushing song. (Video 001-021) The first verse is repeated once more and Peter instructs, “Okay, let’s spit everyone.” William, as is his habit, spends most of his time chewing on his toothbrush. At the end of the song, the children take new gulps of water, swish, spit, and prepare for a second round of brushing. While Peter reloads William’s toothbrush with toothpaste, William, begins to sing and incorporates the melodic contour of the last phrase of his father’s song.

Figure 5. William’s toothbrushing improvisation. (Video 001-021) William’s short improvisation is the first of two that he makes in Savannah’s video collection. Both times, he is with his father. Unlike the video of Alexandra’s toothbrushing song, Savannah does not sing along with her father; instead, she dutifully brushes the top, bottom, and sides of her teeth. During IVR, she does not explain why she sings with her mother, but not her father. Peter is very much in control and Savannah relinquishes all music-making to him. That the song is in German could be a factor. At FG2, Savannah shared that she attends a

150

Saturday morning German language school. This was of interest to the other children. Macy queried her further. Macy:

Can you sing German for us right now?

Savannah:

No.

Macy:

Why not?

Savannah:

I don’t want to. (FG 2)

Savannah never explains her reluctance. Los Dientes y las Manos Elizabeth Ramirez recorded her sister Rhianna brushing her teeth under the supervision of their father, Jorge (Video 002-045). It is a Monday morning toothbrushing session (Martin Luther King Day– there is no school or work for the family). As the video opens, dark-haired Rhianna, dressed in an embroidered pink sweater sings Jingle Bells into what appears to be a tube of lip gloss that she holds like a microphone. (Jingle Bells is a frequent choice for Rhianna; other videos also feature her singing this song.) Elizabeth, manning the camera, adds in the odd “hey” between phrases. In the background, Jorge puts toothpaste on Rhianna’s electric toothbrush. Once the Jingle Bell concert is concluded, a second video (Video 002-046) records the actual toothbrushing activity. Jorge hands the toothbrush to Rhianna, who brushes her own teeth while “singing” another round of Jingle Bells. There are no words, just a lot of garbled vowel sounds. After 23 seconds, Jorge takes control of the toothbrush, brushes Rhianna’s teeth, and sings his toothbrushing song.

151

And, Rhianna’s teeth, Let's clean! And clean, clean, clean, And clean, clean, clean, Rhianna’s teeth, Let's clean! Figure 6. Jorge Ramirez’s toothbrushing song. (Video 002-046) Rhianna attempts to sing along, but is quickly overcome with a mouthful of toothpaste and saliva and has to stop. Once she spits, she begins to sing solo, while precariously holding a cup of water against her bottom lip, “Estrega, estrega, estrega–” The lyrics she uses are the opening words to her father’s hand washing song, a song that uses the same melody as the toothbrushing song. Jorge tells her to “shush” so that she can rinse and spit one more time. Once that task is completed, Jorge squirts soap on his hands and instructs Rhianna to “dame las manos.” He puts his hands on hers and begins washing them. Father and daughter (joined by Elizabeth operating the camera) sing together.

152

Scrub, scrub, scrub, Scrub, scrub, scrub, The hands and the fingers, With water and soap, With water and soap,

Scrub, scrub, scrub The hands and the fingers, With water and soap, Para pam, pam, pam, pam

Figure 7. Jorge Ramirez’s handwashing song. (Video 002-046) Elizabeth reports that she brushes her teeth all by herself (see additional information in Video Challenges, p 231) and that she also sings while she brushes. When asked what songs she sings, Elizabeth replies “Christmas songs and sometimes I sing that song [her father’s toothbrushing song]. Sometimes I just make up a song” (002 IVR). Early to Bed and Early to Rise Singing to children at bedtime is a routine behavior that happens in all cultures. (Trehub & Schellenberg, 1995). Custodero et al. (2003) noted that this behavior begins to fade as children grow older. All of the participating families agreed that they sang to their children at bedtime when the children were younger, but for most of the families, this

153

activity has ended. The Ritter and Ramirez families, however, still continue the practice. One of the Ritter parents sings a goodnight song every night to William. In addition to singing lullabies or other sorts of songs (Amalia refers to them as “older songs”) at bedtime, the Ramirez parents play recorded Classical music (mostly Brahms or Mozart) for Elizabeth and Rhianna as they fall asleep. In the morning, the girls are greeted by one of their parents who sings a wake-up song. Both sets of parents talk about this singing activity fondly. Reveille Elizabeth and Rhianna Ramirez wake up to songs sung to them by their parents. Jorge’s song of choice is This is the Day that the Lord Hath Made27 which he sings to his children in Spanish. (Every song that Jorge sings to his children is in Spanish.) He describes how he makes a “drama” out of the song. Jorge sings the opening phrase of the song in English for me, “This is the day, this is the day that the Lord has made.” He moves his outstretched arms in an excited circular motion as he sings “Rejoice! Rejoice!” Jorge comments about his children’s early morning disposition, “They’re not happy in the morning, so I have to make it happy.” He re-illustrates “Rejoice!” with expansive arm movements and grins as he says, “They get annoyed sometimes like, ‘I cannot believe you!’” Jorge bounces up and down in his chair as he sings a final “Rejoice!” and adds with a slightly mischievous grin, “So I have to make it happy.”

27

Evangelical Christian song. Words and music by John W. Peterson.

154

Amalia’s good morning song uses the melody from Good Night Ladies28 to which she has added her own lyrics. The first verse that she sings is: Good morning sunshine, Good morning sunshine, Good morning sunshine, It’s time to wake up now. Amalia says, “Then, I just kind of improvise and so it’s like a constant improvisation there– throwing other stuff in.” She makes a few nervous false starts and then overcomes her anxiety to sing some examples. The first is: You need to get to school, You need to get to school, You need to get to school, Before it gets too late. Amalia has a special version of this song that she sings just for Elizabeth. Amalia explains this version is inspired by how Elizabeth wakes up each morning–tightly wrapped in her bedclothes. She literally is wrapped up like a little cocoon under all these blankets and you can’t even see her face. And then, she’s slowly kind of peeling everything off so you just have that imagery of the metamorphosis of a butterfly coming out of the cocoon. I sing: Good morning cocoon, Good morning cocoon, Good morning cocoon, It’s time to wake up now. (Amalia, 002 PI)

Come out little butterfly, Come out little butterfly, Come out little butterfly, It’s time to spread your wings.

Amalia reports that Elizabeth “loves it. She really does.”

28

Minstrel song. Words and music by Edwin Pearce Christy.

155

Elizabeth confirms her morning serenade. During IVR, I ask Elizabeth what songs her mother sings. Elizabeth utters a long, “Ohhhhhhhh! I know one that she sings.” Using the same Goodnight Ladies melody, Elizabeth sings: Wake up little Suzie, Wake up little Suzie, Wake up little Suzie, It’s time to get up now. (002 IVR) and immediately launches into the same description her mother provided about the condition of her morning bedclothes. I’m hiding under my covers and just want to hold onto them so tight. I try in the night to do this with my covers on top of me I’m like this [she demonstrates how tightly wrapped she is], like a little locket so nobody gets in. [she sings] Get up little chrysalis, Get up little chrysalis, Get up little chrysalis, It’s time to wake up now. (002 IVR) Elizabeth’s charming re-enactment of her morning ritual is followed by an insightful conversation. Ticia:

It sounds like you’re a butterfly.

Elizabeth: [looking down at the floor and speaking shyly] I know. She gets me into a butterfly. Ticia:

What is it like to have your mom sing a song that she made up just for you?

Elizabeth: (matter-of-factly) It’s annoying ‘cause I’m sleeping.

156

A rru, rrú On the day they were born, Jorge Ramirez composed a song for each of his daughters–one for Elizabeth and one for Rhianna. During the parent interview, Amalia recounts how these songs came to be: He actually came up with both of those songs the day they were both born. So at the hospital he’s like, “I have Elizabeth’s song!” and he just started singing it to her. And then when Rhianna was born, he made a song up for Rhianna and so right there, while we were at the hospital, he sang it to them. (Amalia, 002 PI) While Amalia shares her story, Jorge smiles and grins. When Amalia is finished, he nods His head and throws his arms out to the side and says, “So I welcomed them into the world with a song.” He and Amalia look at each other and chuckle. Jorge continues: The songs are very personal because their name [is] on them and in a moment of silence I like to sing that song to them. [If] they’re crying or they’re upset about something, I sing that song . . . or they just bump their head into something and they’re crying about it, I like to sing that song to them, you know. It gives them some sort of warm feeling that they really enjoy, you know, so that’s good. (Jorge, 002 PI) Jorge sings the first phrase of Elizabeth’s song:

Figure 8. Jorge Ramirez’s song for Elizabeth. (002 PI) He smiles and says, “I used to call her lady . . . consecrated to God.” Amalia nods and takes over the story, “Consecrated to God. That’s the meaning of her name . . . that she is consecrated to God.” Jorge and Amalia sing Elizabeth and Rhianna’s special songs to the girls each night before they go to sleep along with two or three worship songs.

157

Elizabeth’s camera contained four consecutive videos of Amalia singing to Rhianna (Videos 002-078 through 002-081) at bedtime. Rhianna is still small enough to sit on her mother’s lap. She is wrapped in her mother’s arms and rests her head on her mother’s breast. Little Pim, the Japanese panda, forms the pattern on Rhianna’s pajamas. Amalia rocks Rhianna back and forth under the colorful butterflies hanging from the ceiling in Rhianna’s room. It is 7:30p.m. on Friday evening as mother and daughter sing together. Amalia and Rhianna sing each song in both English and Spanish. Many of the songs have personalized lyrics. The hymn, Jesus Your Presence Makes me Whole becomes Jesus Your Presence Makes Rhianna Whole. The most famous lullaby melody in the world, Johannes Brahms’ Wiegenlied: Guten Abend, Gute Nacht, receives new Spanish lyrics, “A rru, rrú, A rru, rrú, Arrullando a Rhianna.” Next, Amalia and Rhianna sing Come Into My Heart Lord Jesus, the only song they sing exclusively in English, followed by Rhianna Alicia the song Jorge composed for Rhianna on the day she was born.

Figure 9. Jorge Ramirez’s song for Rhianna. (Video 002-080) This video also reveals that Jorge is not the only composer in the family. Amalia follows Rhianna Alicia with a song of her own.

158

Figure 10. Amalia Ramirez’s song for Rhianna. (Video 002-080)

Rhianna sings every song along with her mother and performs the lyrics accurately. Both mother and daughter wander through various keys as they sing, but this does not distract the listener. Amalia and Rhianna illustrate a musical parenting process that has existed throughout all history. They are representatives of mothers and children everywhere. Lullaby and Goodnight Peter or Alexandra Ritter sing a goodnight song every night to 5-year-old William. Alexandra notes that William “won’t go to sleep without one.” When she sings to William, Alexandra sings Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star and explains that “William loves that.” Peter sings the German lullaby Schlaf, Kindlein, Schlaf (Sleep, Little Child, Sleep) (Appendix R, p. 341) and adds that he has been singing this song to William for years. Savannah concurs that singing a goodnight song to William “happens pretty often,” and adds “I don’t get to watch. . . . I’m asleep” (001 IVR).

159

During her video project, Savannah was allowed to visit William’s room to record her father sing to William. She says, “I got to watch because it was important” (001 IVR). During the filming, Savannah takes advantage of her special status as a film-maker and with a rhythmically spoken “1, 2, read-y . . .” (Video 001-042) tries to count her father into the opening notes of the song. Peter quickly counters this introduction with, “No we don’t need to count. We don’t need to count us in here.” William finishes a drink of water, is tucked in and serenaded by Peter, who sits on the foot end of William’s bed. While his father sings, William lies on his left side under his covers and plays with a small truck he holds in his hands. When Peter reaches the third verse, quiet “pssss” sounds begin to emanate from William’s lips. After his third “pssss,” William says, “Sorry dad” and sings the last two lines of the song with his father, “Mit einer gold'nen Schelle fein, das soll dein Spielgeselle sein. Schlaf, Kindlein . . .” It is here, right before the final word that Peter stops singing. William’s small voice finishes the song on pitch and in tempo, “schlaf.” The singing has ended, but William uses this time to explore the lyrics and create a play on words. He says: Schlaf . . . schlaf Schlaf . . . no, Schaf Kindlein Schaf. “Schlaf,” in German, means “sleep.” “Schaf” means “sheep.” The song lyrics make many references to sheep and shepherds and William’s new lyrics are Schaf, Kindlein, Schaf – Sheep, Little Child, Sheep.

160

Alexandra reports that she and Peter do not sing a goodnight song to Savannah anymore. Peter interjects that “lately, she’s been requesting one from me. . . .The same one [Schlaf, Kindlein, Schlaf], actually.” Before she views the video recording of her father singing to William, I ask Savannah, “Who sings to you?” Savannah moves her body off the table, where she has been animatedly leaning toward the computer screen, and sits all the way down in her chair. She brushes her hair once with her left hand, and quietly replies, “Sometimes my dad, but not very often” (001 IVR). When asked to describe what it is like when her father sings to her, Savannah does not answer right away. She looks up at me, then back down, and places her left hand into the bottom of her pink sweater. Slowly, she twists the knitted fabric around her hand before turning back to look at me and respond, “Um, it’s really peaceful.” Savannah pauses, then looks straight ahead. “It’s good for me [nods her head ‘yes’], It’s just really peaceful” (001 IVR). This quiet and reflective moment of the interview ends when Savannah looks back toward the computer screen and asks, “Do you want to hear it? [Peter’s goodnight song to William.]” (001 IVR). Singing Myself to Sleep Four of Savannah’s videos were recorded at night in her room. They are the most intimate videos in her collection. In each video, Savannah has turned the camera’s swivel lens toward her so that she fills the entire viewing screen with a close up of her face. The exposure of the video is dark; part of her face is in shadow. Edges of light from the tiny bedside table lamp on her left illuminate the right side of her face and make her blonde hair glow with a golden hue. A bedcovering is pulled up under her chin; she is tucked in

161

for the night. She looks into the video camera with heavily lidded eyes as she sings in the night. Her songs include Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star (in 3 videos) and Deck the Halls. Video 001-015 is the second Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star video recorded on a Friday evening close to 9:30 p.m. Savannah sings: Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How . . . (pause) . . . I wonder what you are. Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky, Twinkle, twinkle, little star, What . . . [her eyes close momentarily and then open] . . . How I wonder what you are. Savannah’s eyes are now half closed. She begins to sing the second verse. The lyrics become slightly slurred as she sings with less lip movement. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are, (pause) Savannah stops singing for a moment, takes a deep breath, licks her lips and continues. When you shine your little night, Twinkle, twinkle, (small breath) all the night. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I [begins to slow down] wonder what you (melody goes up to dominant on “you”) are. (Video 001-015) During IVR, Savannah explains, “That’s not, like, how I usually am, but I had to sing I was so tempted. . . . I just couldn’t sleep without one song. . . . I really, really just needed to.” She never explains why she “really just needed to.” Savannah’s video recording of herself singing Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star as she struggles to stay awake long enough to complete the song is both beautiful and haunting. In all her other videos, Savannah is a little girl who asserts a lot of musical power. She battles with her father during piano practice and often takes control over other family

162

musical behavior. In this video, we see a different side of Savannah as she allows us to visit one her most private and vulnerable musical moments. Conversing in Song Joanne Phillips claims to be “unmusical;” yet, she often engages her children in singing conversations. During the parent interview, she provides two singing examples “Carly what did you do today? What do you want for a snack?” She laughs and explains that she will sing “Whatever I'm going to say to them. . . .You know, basically, it's more of a conversation than a song. . . .They don't always respond in song, but then if I keep it going, usually they will” (Joanne, 004 PI). Joanne notes that Frankie and Carly more readily respond musically than the more hesitant Randy. The ease with which Joanne can take a common melody and give it new lyrics in order to communicate information to her children was described in Chapter 4 (see I Want to Reach That Number, p. 112). Joanne is just as adept at creating both melody and lyrics. While not a typical song conversation (there is no back-and-forth singing between parent and child), Carly’s Video 004-008 reveals how quickly her mother can instantly combine text with pitch. Carly has just left FG1 with her new camera and is most anxious to use it. She meets her mother in the hallway outside the meeting room and turns on her camera. This 13-second video, Carly’s first after the FG1 practice session, is a close-up of her mother’s face. Joanne, smiling, per usual, looks directly into the camera and sings:

163

Figure 11. Joanne Phillips’ spontaneous song. (Video 004-008) Conversing in song may be such a natural part of the daily routine that parents sometimes do not recognize that they do it. This observation is made by Irene Campbell who reveals that she did not realize how much conversing in song was taking place in her home until she read a question about it in the Parent Questionnaire. Irene: I didn’t realize how much it was going on in my house. Yeah, they’ll [Lila and Macy] sing something to me and I, it’s so, like . . . John: Automatic. Irene: I don’t even recognize that it’s different than speech. (005, PI) Irene believes that conversing in song is an outgrowth of Macy and Lila’s participation in musical theater productions. At the time of the parent interview, Lila and Macy were in a local children’s production of Madeline’s Christmas29. Lila was cast as one of a group of girls attending a French boarding school, and Macy was part of a troupe of younger children, dressed in royal blue coats and red berets, who came on stage in between scenes to sing a song.30 Because both girls attended rehearsals together, they learned all the songs in the production. Irene explains that “They’ll sing variations on 29

Book and lyrics by Jennifer Kirkeby. Music by Shirley Mier. Based on the children’s book by Ludwig Bemelmans. 30 It should be noted that this is where the phrase “She skips to the beat of a different drummer” was coined to describe Macy in the family description. After each singing episode, the young girls were instructed to walk very primly as they exited the stage. Macy Campbell, who could barely contain her desire to move to the music while she was singing, abandoned walking in favor of skipping off to stage right.

164

them.” John gives an example, “Something broke recently and they sang a song about it being broken to a tune from Madeline’s Christmas, ‘cause one or two of the words were very similar. So it was very simple straight substitution.” None of the participating children submitted videos of conversational singing involving more than one person. Either this activity did not occur during video project week, or the children did not consider it musical behavior. Making Music with Pets The participating families’ routine musical activities often include their pets. Dogs and cats are serenaded and some, like Mika’s dog Rocky, become dance partners. That family musical activity includes pets should really come as no surprise. Many young children (and adults) have a natural attraction to animals. They like to observe, touch, talk to, and form emotional relationships with them (Meadan & Jegatheesan, 2010). This relationship often leads humans to communicate with pets using “motherese,” the same sing-song speech patterns that characterize the communication between adults and babies (Melson, 2001). Only a small step separates motherese from full-fledged musical engagement. Singing to Bonnie Bonnie, the Ritter’s black miniature schnauzer received the most musical video time that included pets. Savannah affirms that singing to Bonnie (the dog) happens “very often” (001 IVR). Indeed, seven of Savannah’s videos include Bonnie. In three of the videos, it is Bonnie, herself, who is the featured performer as she howls her way through the house or paces back and forth in front of the rear sliding glass door. In such videos,

165

family comments about Bonnie’s “singing abilities” can be heard in the background–a clear case of humans becoming the interpreter for non-human dialogue (Melson, 2001). One of the Bonnie videos (Video 001-035) features a very intent, red-collared dog listening to Savannah and her mother sing How Much is That Doggy in the Window?. When she is about to view this video, Savannah leans forward, props her chin on her hand and announces, “Oh, this is a nice one” (001 IVR). As the video begins, Savannah folds her arms on the table, hops up on her knees in her chair, leans forward toward the computer screen, and sings along. Savannah describes the recorded event, “It was so funny, it was, like, really funny. My puppy is actually walking towards us, me and my mom” (Savannah, FG 2). In another video Savannah sings her “puppy” version of Rock-a-bye Baby. Savannah (singing): Rock-a-bye puppy on the tree top When the wind blows the cradle will rock, When the bough breaks the cradle will fall and Down will come ba–, pup–, baby, Cradle and all. (Video 001-037) Savannah explains that she recorded herself singing the song to Bonnie and then let Bonnie watch the replay on the video camera. Bonnie was also the musical focal point during her birthday celebration (Video 001-050). On a Wednesday evening, the Ritter family is seated around the kitchen table. William, seen in the background eating chocolate ice cream, wears a dark blue sweatshirt jacket with the hood up on his head. Savannah is dressed in bright pink pajamas. Bonnie, the center of attraction, sits calmly on Alexandra’s lap while Peter, Alexandra, and Savannah sing Happy Birthday to her. During the singing, Savannah approaches Bonnie

166

and strokes her paws. At the end of the traditional “Happy birthday to you,” Savannah initiates a second chorus, “How old are you now?” and then has Bonnie “respond” by singing her age. Savannah places her hands on either side of Bonnie’s face and moves Bonnie’s head up and down while she, herself, sings: I am one. I am one. I ammmmmm one. I am one. (Video 001-050) While she watches the video recording, Savannah sings along. When she hears, “I am one,” she smiles, points to the computer screen, and says, “Bonnie’s singing. That’s Bonnie singing” (Savannah, IVR). Ticia:

Bonnie sings in your family?

Savannah:

It’s just me singing. [laughs and begins to sing along.] I am one. (speaking) She’s singing [moves her head back and forth in imitation of Bonnie and resumes singing] I am one.

Ticia:

Let me see if I understand, you sing to Bonnie and then Bonnie sings back?

Savannah: [nodding] Yes, yes, yes! (001 IVR) Bonnie’s birthday video is Savannah’s favorite–the one she chooses to share with the other child participants at FG3. Savannah explains that it portrays who is important in her life. “It has my family and it has Bonnie singing” (001 IVR). Jack-Jack Jack-Jack is the Campbell’s cat. He is a well-loved cat–so much so that Macy’s IVR session began with the furry, black Jack-Jack cradled in her arms. Jack-Jack is “music” to Macy. She explains, “Sometimes when my kitty is purring, I listen to it and

167

sometimes it seems kind of like music. He’s, like, purring and then I put my head on his belly and I hear it” (FG1). Macy makes it clear during FG1 that she doesn’t sing to JackJack. During a discussion about singing to pets, she says, “Well, I talk to him” and then, asks, “Does that still count [as a musical activity]?” We all, of course, say, “Yes.” In FG3, Macy reversed her position on singing to Jack-Jack. She announced that she did sing to Jack-Jack. The catalyst for this turnaround was Macy’s Video 005-034 where she not only sang to Jack-Jack, she sang about Jack-Jack. The entire Campbell family (including Irene’s visiting mother) is gathered around the kitchen table late Sunday morning finishing up a meal–presumably breakfast, based on the orange juice-filled drinking glasses. During IVR, Macy explains that while the family was eating, Jack-Jack walked by and she began to sing a song about him. The video opens with an image of Macy’s empty plate and she can be heard singing her JackJack song. Lila immediately joins in and sings with Macy. The camera lens wanders around the kitchen table and shows the other diners (John, Irene, and Irene's mother) finishing their meal, drinking orange juice, conversing, and, except for one comment from Irene, ignoring the singing emanating from the girls’ places at the table.

168

Figure 12. Lila and Macy Campbell’s Jack-o-fross: Part 1. (Video 005-034) At this point, Irene notices the song and reminds the girls that Jack-Jack is not the only non-human in the room worthy of a song. Maggie, Irene’s mother’s black and white Chihuahua is also at the table sitting comfortably in her owner’s arms. Irene asks, “What about Maggie? How about a song for Maggie?” Macy and Lila immediately launch into:

Figure 13. Lila and Macy Campbell’s Jack-o-fross; Part 2. (Video 005-034) From this point on, Lila and Macy trade the song back and forth until the Sunday morning musical comes to an end.

169

Figure 14. Lila and Macy Campbell’s Jack-o-fross: Part 3. (Video 005-034) Dancing with Rocky and Raquel Mika’s family has two small Yorkshire Terrier dogs, Raquel and Rocky, who serve as both dancers and dance partners. During a discussion about dancing at FG1, Mika shares that once, when music was playing, her dog, Raquel “was standing up and she was wiggling. I thought she was dancing.” Mika, hops off her chair and imitates her dancing dog. When asked what she did when she saw Raquel dancing, Mika replies, “I dance with her and I take her little paws and I just dance with her” (FG1).

170

Rocky has a featured role as Mika’s dance partner in one of her videos (Video 003–040). Mika and her friend, Madison, are engaged in a dance and acrobatic routine in the Petrov’s finished basement. This video, similar to the others that feature Mika at home, begins with an introduction. Mika hops in front of the camera with a lollipop in her right hand and strikes a pose–arms up in the air and left toe pointed forward–to announce, “Presenting Mika . . . ” Madison bounds into the viewfinder and strikes a pose, too. Mika continues, “. . . presenting Madison, too. We’re going to dance and sing.” She bends down, presses “play” on a small portable CD player set on the floor, and pops the lollipop into her mouth. A Russian pop song begins to play. Mika and Madison hop, wiggle their hips back and forth, and flail their arms in the air as they dance to the music. After 15 seconds of dancing, each girl takes a turn doing a cartwheel. Mika then gyrates alone while Madison goes off-camera for a moment and returns with two small chairs. The girls sit on the chairs in an obviously well-rehearsed pose, and then resume their dancing. Little Rocky has been watching the proceedings from his perch on the back of a white upholstered couch. A tuft of hair, tied with a blue ribbon, bobs back and forth as he turns his head to follow Mika and Madison’s movements across the cellar floor. Suddenly, Mika grasps Rocky by the mid-section, sweeps him into the air, and continues her dancing. Rocky’s legs and paws are suspended in the air as Mika, holding him with outstretched arms, twists him left and right as she marches around the basement. During IVR, Mika explains that Rocky is often her dance partner and at FG2 when she submitted her video recordings, she excitedly shares comments about the video

171

that shows her dancing with Rocky. She calls it her “funniest” video and says, “I was laughing so hard. I can’t even stop dancing and then I was like crazy dancing” (Mika, FG2). Birthdays While birthdays are not part of a family’s daily routine, birthdays and holidays occur routinely throughout the year. All the participating families reported that they include singing in their birthday celebrations. Their universal song of choice is Happy Birthday. Singing Happy Birthday is such an ingrained part of family birthday celebrations that Peter Ritter, when completing the Parent Questionnaire, answered the question “Does your family sing at birthday celebrations?” with “rarely.” As Alexandra and Peter review their questionnaire answers together at the end of the parent interview, Alexandra notices Peter’s answer and confronts him, “You said rarely. We always sing at least Happy Birthday.” Peter stares at his answer for a few seconds then laughs. “That’s true, I didn’t count that. That’s kind of a . . .” He waves one hand in the air. He and Alexandra turn their heads to look at each other. They are almost nose to nose. Smiling, Alexandra says, “It’s [Happy Birthday] too obvious.” Peter continues to stare at Alexandra and asks, “Does anyone not do that?” When Alexandra replies, “I don’t know,” Peter looks away and laughs some more. As understanding about why he answered the way he did dawns on him, Peter admits, “Oh, okay. I would assume that [Happy Birthday] was excluded from the question.” In one family, Happy Birthday is not limited to just the big day. The Campbell family sings Happy Birthday many times during the weeks leading up to the event. Irene

172

explains that this is a way to prolong the celebration because Macy and Lila’s lives “are so rushed.” She adds, “You can just see how special they feel when they’re being sung to.” Some of the families have their own special version or add-on to Happy Birthday. The Ramirez family brings out small percussion instruments to accompany Happy Birthday and then continues to play them as they sing additional traditional family songs. Members of the Phillips family always sing Happy Birthday and then, if they are with Frank’s side of the family, follow-up with For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow. If Frank’s father is present, he will accompany the singing on the piano. The Campbells have just adopted a Happy Birthday follow-up verse. They now sing, “How old are you now?” in honor of Irene’s late father, who, when he was present, would sing this add-on at family celebrations. The Petrov’s birthday celebrations are somewhat caught in cultural crosshairs. Joe reports unenthusiastically that singing Happy Birthday at celebrations is “about it” and that “it’s really kind of a strange situation.” While she is somewhat vague during her explanation, Tatiana intimates that she believes birthday celebrations should include some manner of family musical performances, and this isn’t happening. Alexandra Ritter shares that her family’s version of Happy Birthday is in the midst of a transition: We always sing Happy Birthday. Hopefully this year someone will play it on the piano. It’s actually complicated because now we have to decide whether to sing Happy Birthday with the cha, cha, cha’s or without the cha, cha, cha’s. (Alexandra, 001 PI) Three birthday celebrations took place during the children’s video project week and were captured on video recordings. The first celebration featured Bonnie, the Ritter’s

173

dog (see Singing to Bonnie, p. 164). The other two celebrations, in honor of William Ritter and a Phillips’ cousin, were held on Thursday evening. For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow Carly Phillips reports that there was quite a crowd at her cousin’s recent birthday party. In addition to her own family, the celebration was attended by “my grandma and grandpa, my aunt and another aunt–three aunts–and my grandma and grandpa and my uncle” (004, IVR). Carly begins recording her extended family singing Happy Birthday halfway through the second phrase of the song (Video 004-060). After the family sings, “Happy birthday, dear Mickey,” someone claps the rhythm of the “cha-cha-cha’s” that are posing a dilemma for the Ritter family. This gathering must include Frank’s relatives. At the end of the song, those present immediately launch into their traditional For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow; albeit, in a different and much lower key than the key in which they sang Happy Birthday. Carly’s birthday video is all audio with extremely limited video images–mostly darkness with a few lighted shadows near the end. She apologizes for the video quality, “I was recording but the lights went off so I couldn’t see” (004 IVR), but provides evidence that in addition to the singing, the room was darkened and a cake with lighted birthday candles was part of the celebration. Happy Birthday to William The scene of William Ritter’s family birthday celebration is a local restaurant (Video 001-054).31 The meal has ended and ice cream sundaes have been delivered to the table. The video opens with a close-up of William while the family (including William,

31

A more formal children’s birthday party is planned for the upcoming weekend.

174

but not Savannah) sings Happy Birthday. When asked why she was not singing, Savannah explains her lack of singing as an act of retaliation. Instead of eating, she eats ice cream just as William did at Bonnie’s birthday celebration the night before. “William did this to Bonnie. I had to do it to him” (001 IVR). Savannah’s behavior did not go unnoticed by her parents. After Happy Birthday is concluded, Alexandra tells Savannah, “Okay, so now Savannah has to sing ‘How old are you now?’” Savannah begins singing, but never lets go of her spoon. Once warmed up, she sings an additional verse (just as she did at Bonnie’s celebration), “I am five!” The video ends with Alexandra shouting “Hooray!” Peter Ritter is correct in wondering, “Does anyone not do that?” when referring to singing Happy Birthday at birthday celebrations. The presentation of a candlelit cake and singing Happy Birthday has become so embedded in American society it is considered a ritual (Otnes & McGrath, 1994). Dissanayake (2000) wrote that musical behavior between parent and child aligns the emotions of the participants. Singing Happy Birthday at celebrations serves the same function. All participants are of like mind as they collectively express their good wishes to the birthday celebrant. All rituals have rules–birthday celebrations included. Understanding these rules and following them are an act of shared community that Otnes and McGrath (1994) refer to as “ritual socialization” or learning the rules. Savannah notes during IVR that William was not following the rules. “My brother is singing. I’m serious. My brother is singing to himself . . . for some reason. I don’t know why” (001 IVR). Happy Birthday is a song that all those gathered at the birthday celebration are expected to sing regardless of

175

musical ability. The birthday celebrant, however, does not. Savannah has noted that William’s singing to himself at his celebration violates the rules of the ritual. What Savannah fails to notice is that when she does not sing Happy Birthday to William, she, too, is not following “the rules.” Her parents quickly take note of her lack of participation and instruct her to sing the next chorus. This interaction communicates not only social practices, but musical culture (Kelly & Sutton-Smith, 1987). This guidance insures that Savannah is well-versed in appropriate birthday behavior and the musical element that has become such an important part of the ritual is preserved. Discussion The five families participating in this research weave musical activities through their lives. In some cases the musical behavior is so automatic, family members fail to notice it as being musical. Musical moments unite family members and provide a way for them to reach out and make connections with each other. Singing accompanies tasks that need to be completed, enhances everyday conversation, expresses emotional connections between family members (including pets), and is included in personal, private, and important shared moments. Songs that the families sing at these times fall into one of three categories: selfcomposed songs, traditional songs, and common melodies to which new lyrics are added. Amalia and Jorge Ramirez routinely sing three self-composed songs for their children at bedtime and when their children need comforting. These songs remain static and do not change from one singing to the next. Joanne Phillips is the only parent who was video recorded making up spur-of-the-moment songs. She has a clear, bright singing voice and,

176

in spite of considering herself non-musical, appears at ease when she sings to her children. Her conversational singing is similar to an operatic recitative; it is free flowing and unstructured. Unlike an operatic performance, it is spontaneous, natural, and unrehearsed. Alexandra Ritter and Amalia Ramirez adapt songs that have repetitive phrases and lyrics to create their “own” songs. Alexandra’s toothbrushing song is based on Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush and Amalia’s wake-up song uses the melody from Goodnight Ladies.32 Each of these songs contains repetitive musical phrases and lyrics. Here we go round the mulberry bush, Here we go round the mulberry bush, Here we go round the mulberry bush, On a cold and frosty morning.

Goodnight ladies, Goodnight ladies, Goodnight ladies, We’re going to leave you now.

The repetitive nature of the original songs lends itself to easy adaptation. Parents need only come up with one or two lines of their own text to create a song. Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush is especially adaptable as each of its many choruses addresses a task of some nature (This is the way we wash our clothes, sweep the floor, bake the bread, etc.). The song is a template for parents who wish to easily modify it to suit a specific situation. Peter Ritter’s toothbrushing song, based on melody Ri-Ra-Rutsch, is more complex. Each verse of the original German song does not contain the repetitive

32

During the parent interview, Amalia Ramirez shared she also uses the melody from Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush at bath time and has done so since the girls were babies. She, too, created her own lyrics: This is the way we wash our hands . . . This the way we wash our back . . .

177

components found in songs such as Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush and Goodnight Ladies. Ri ra rutsch, Wir fahren in der Kutsch, Wir fahren über Stock und Stein, Da bricht das Schimmelchen ein Bein. Ri ra rutsch, Es ist nichts mit der Kutsch! Each verse does, however, include a mode of transportation and an alteration of the last word of the second phrase to create a rhyme– a rhyming scheme that Peter manages to follow. Ri ra Ritten, Wir fahren in dem Schlitten (sled)

Brumm, brumm, brumm, Buerste brumm herum,

The children’s singing reflects both their parents singing behavior and the styles of music to which they are exposed. Custodero (2003) refers to this as the transmission of musical dispositions. Savannah Ritter easily adapts Rock-a-Bye Baby to Rock-a-Bye Puppy when she sings to Bonnie and deftly inserts Pie in the Face to add interest to William’s toothbrushing time. Macy and Lila Campbell’s ode to Jack-Jack is full of the musical flourishes and key and tempo changes that characterize big musical numbers that are an important part of their musical theater lives. The most personal musical behavior is that which occurs during private moments. Savannah Ritter, usually loud, energetic, and controlling shows her vulnerability as she, tucked into bed in her darkened room, sings herself to sleep using songs that are important to her, Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star and Deck the Halls. Intimate parent-child moments are created when Peter Ritter’s traditional German lullaby prompts William to

178

musically interact with him and when Amalia Ramirez wraps her arms around Rhianna while she and Rhianna sing the special songs she and Jorge composed or personalized for their daughter. These moments clearly illustrate Dissanayke’s (2000) description of “mutuality” and Trevarthen’s (1999/2000) “communicative musicality.” Parent and child come to the same place and share the same message: I love you.

179

Chapter 7: Music on the Go “Nine out of ten drivers sing in the car” reported the results of a 2007 survey commissioned by the British automotive company Vauxhall Motors. A subsidiary of General Motors, Vauxhall commissioned acoustic specialist Dr. Stuart Colam from Arup Acoustics to test singing conditions in cars. Colam determined that the “variety of absorbent and reflective surfaces enables songsters to sing with confidence” (Pattni, 2007). Singing in the car is such a common behavior that when marketing SingAmerica!, a CD of patriotic songs, the Music Educators National Conference (MENC)33 stated, “Each CD will come with a lyrics booklet to encourage singing in the car” (MENC Today, 1997). Enclosed motor vehicles have become not merely a means of traveling from one geographical point to another, but also personal music studios. Music in the car is another activity that all the participating families have in common and that all the children captured in their video recordings. Both parents and children report that they sing songs and listen to and sing along to recorded music in their vehicles. My Music, Your Music The type and style of music heard in family vehicles varies from family to family. Even within families, musical genre is often dependent upon who is behind the wheel. The Phillips and the Campbell parents have the most dramatic differences regarding incar musical entertainment; the lines of musical taste are drawn between the genders.

33

Now known as the National Association for Music Education (NAfME).

180

(This same phenomenon is also present in the Ritter family; however, the musical preference differences are between Savannah and her brother, William.) Custodero et al. (2002) revealed that two-thirds of the number of parents participating in their Parents Use of Music with Infants Survey listen to rock music.34 Trehub et al. (1997) reported that fathers are more likely to sing these pop songs to their infant children. The Phillips, Campbell, and Petrov fathers also lean toward this genre when driving with their children. During the parent interview, Joanne Phillips and Irene Campbell expressed astonishment over what type of music their husbands choose to share with their children in the car. When John Campbell and his daughters Lila and Macy are in his vehicle, they often turn listening and singing-along to CDs into games. John explains: I’ll man the CD and they’ll see how fast they can name the song. Almost every day, I drive the girls to school. I have a selection of CD’s I’ve carefully selected for the girl’s benefit. (John, 005 PI) In response to this statement, Irene extends her left arm and places it on John’s leg. She taps his knee multiple times to indicate that he must pause speaking so that she can clarify what he has just said. She looks at John, then at me, and mockingly says: And by “carefully selective,” in case you’re thinking it’s like The Wheels on the Bus Go Round and Round . . . . Bruce Springsteen is one of these carefully selected CDs. (Irene, 005 PI) Irene makes a visual sign with her hands that indicate quotation marks when she says “carefully selected,” then throws back her head, and bursts into laughter. John defends his position while Irene continues to laugh.

34

This included rhythm and blues, light rock, alternative, pop, and easy listening music.

181

John: Yeah sure, it’s Beach Boys Pet Sounds. It’s Bruce Springsteen Born to Run . . . Irene: The Cars. John: The Cars’ Greatest Hits. [looking at Irene] That’s for you. Irene shakes her head back and forth, throws her arms out to her sides, and guffaws. She is clearly having a wonderful time taunting her husband’s musical choices and his audacity to pretend that some of those choices are to please her. Not to be stopped, John counts on his fingers to keep track of additional CDs in his car. John: There’s a few outliers in there. There’s one, The Greatest Hits from 1970, Number One Hits From 1979 . . . Irene: [turning to look at John] Number One Hits of ’79, huh? Rock on Campbell! Irene can’t resist getting in one more dig. She faces the researcher and, using her “quotation” motions one more time, takes one last jab at John. Irene: So that’s his “carefully selected–” John: [laughingly defending himself] Well, it is carefully selected. Irene: (laughing) I think it’s great, but it’s just, I wanted to be sure Ticia [gesturing toward me] knew what we meant. It’s not like it’s– John: Rachmaninoff? Irene: Well, it’s not Rachmaninoff and it’s not children’s songs. Frank Phillips plays recordings of his rock band in his car and describes how the children will sometimes sing along. Joanne, sitting beside him, rolls her eyes and shakes her head back and forth while she intones, “They are the only humans on this earth that have ever heard these songs. And . . . some of the songs, I'm not that fond of.” She places

182

one hand over her eyes while Frank looks sheepishly at the floor. Joanne continues, “And I’m, like, ‘Why do my kids know this song?’” Both she and Frank begin laughing and Joanne manages to hopelessly choke out, “They like them.” Frank agrees. Joanne closes her eyes and lowers her voice, “On the way to his parent’s house, I’m, like, ‘Do we have to listen to this again?’” There are no Greatest Hits from the 70s or rock band with college roots CDs in Irene Campbell or Joanne Phillips’ vehicles. Musical selections in Irene’s car lean more toward Classical music and Broadway shows. John Campbell points out that, upon reflection, musical genre in his family is “not only divided by driver, it’s divided by car,” which he describes as “probably really weird.” When the family is all together and he is driving Irene’s car, Irene’s music is the default choice. Now that her girls, Lila and Macy, are involved in musical theater productions, Irene’s car has also been turned into a rehearsal hall. She says, “Usually we’re practicing whatever music we’re currently involved in.” John recalls that practicing to sing has long been an activity in the family vehicles. He reports that when the girls were younger and attended early childhood music classes, he would sing the songs that they learned in class while they were driving. “It would be our focus for the week. We would sing the songs on the way home.” In Joanne Phillips’ car singing activity sometimes occurs without a prompt from a CD or the radio. Joanne likes to make up songs or sing songs that have lyrics that complement what is outside the car windows. We’ll see downtown and I’ll start going [she sings] “Downtown!” [she laughs] You know. It's just stuff like that. Ah . . . commercials, when we pass someplace. Just whatever happens to pop into my head. Sometimes I'll start singing a song

183

from, you know, I Will Survive35 or something like that. They'll [the children] be like, “What is that?” A quite common theme is “Mommy, was that a song when you were little?” (Joanne, 004 PI) In addition to singing her made-up and blast-from-the-past songs, Joanne plays CDs in her car. Philadelphia Chickens, Rhinoceros Tap, and Dog Train are favorites. The three CDs are part of a book/CD series marketed to “all ages except 43” that feature clever songs sung by artists such as Meryl Streep, the Bacon Brothers, and Spin Doctors. One unlikely singing duo is Kate Winslet (star of Titanic) and “Weird Al” Yankovic. Joanne describes these CDs as full of “silly songs” that “keep the kids interested.” When they play in the car [the kids] will be there back there all belting it out at the same time. Even Randy gets into it when he's in the mood. And, you know, I hear kids, like, picking up on harmonies that are in there and stuff. . . .I don't even think they realize sometimes what they're doing, you know. . . .They sing along and, you know, they get silly. (Joanne, 004 PI) Song choices, according to Carly, are made by the passengers, “Well, if we’re all in the car, then we, like, vote. But if only one kid is in the car then we get to pick” (004 IVR). Carly also adds that if all three Phillips children are in the car and one is out-voted by the other two, her mom will still play the song requested by the losing voter. All of Carly’s “music on the go” videos were recorded in a car that her mother was driving. The eight video recordings featured songs from two of the CDs, Philadelphia Chickens and Dog Train. In each of her in-the-car video recordings, Carly sings along with all of the songs–only stopping now and then to make a comment about what is playing:

35 I Will Survive was a top selling song released in 1978 by disco queen Gloria Gaynor. A compilation album of her songs, titled I Will Survive: The Anthology, was released in 1998 and another titled simply I Will Survive was released in 2002.

184

This is Belly Button! (Carly, Video 004-058) Oh yeah, this is good! (Carly, Video 004-058) Oh no! We forgot to bring Blue Moo in the car! (Carly,Video 004-059) When Carly’s brothers are riding along, they sing, too. Frankie sometimes pretends that he is holding a microphone and “rocks out” with a lot of head banging in the backseat (Video 004-039). Frankie, too, offers opinions and comments about the songs as they play. On Thursday evening as the family drives home from a birthday celebration, Philadelphia Chickens36 is playing. Carly sings along non-stop to the swing tune. Frankie provides commentary for his mother: This is jazz! Yeah, jazz . . . Definitely jazz. I like it. I like it. At the end of number three it goes, “Oh my!” And at the beginning of number four, “Oh no!” [rhythmically spoken] Oh my! Oh no! (Frankie, Video 004-062) This musical commentary sometimes turns into a musical query. At the end of Be Like a Duck, Frankie and Carly have a discussion about how long they held the last note and then ask their mother how professional singers can hold a note for a long time. All throughout Carly’s car videos, Joanne can be heard and seen singing, snapping her fingers, and moving her head side-to-side to the beat of the music. As she does when the family is in the living room (home of the piano), Joanne tries to encourage all those present to participate. Randy, who has become hesitant about singing in public, is her usual target. Joanne makes encouraging suggestions every few phrases. Randy, can you at least snap to it? Clap then? Keep the beat. Pat your lap. 36

Philadelphia Chickens is also the title of a song on the Philadelphia Chickens CD.

185

Randy, do you want to solo on the next one? Randy, you can do the talking part. (Joanne, Video 004-059) Singing in the Phillips car is a full-fledged effort. There is no vocal holding back. Those who sing do so at the top of their lungs and throw themselves into the theatrical endings–inserting vocal vibrato and vocal slides when appropriate. Traveling in Joanne’s car is a raucous musical party on wheels. Children’s Music Alexandra and Peter Ritter recount that they have been playing recorded music for the children in the car since the children were young. Many years ago, as part of their enrollment in the early childhood music program, Music Together®, the Ritter’s received CDs with all the songs used in their Music Together® classes. “We had those CDs on all the time!” says Peter. Those initial CDs started a trend. When the Ritters are on the road, recorded music is ever present and sing-along activity is not far behind. CD artists and musical styles have changed as the children have grown older and developed their individual musical preferences. Peter begins to chronicle Ritter family CD-listening history, “We’ve had our Wiggles phase and we had our Dan Zanes phase.” He glances up at Alexandra, cocks his head to the side, moves his hands into the air palms up as if to say “Can you believe it?” and quietly, but somewhat awkwardly, adds, “I still miss Dane Zanes.” Alexandra and Peter continue to describe the children’s listening history and preferences: Alexandra: Now they’re more into, well . . . William is more into grown-up music. Peter:

[turning to look at Alexandra] Glee Christmas.

186

Alexandra: Savannah likes Glee and she loves singing to all the Glee songs. . . . Being Australian I try to run ABBA and that didn’t really take off.37 I was very disappointed, but she [Savannah] has a friend who likes ABBA so when I want to sing Dancing Queen I can do that with the friend instead. . . .She [Savannah] has some favorites. She loves the Baby It’s Cold Outside. She likes the romantic ones. . . .Savannah will say to William, “I’ll be the girl and you’ll be the boy,” and they’ll sing that together. Yeah, William is not so into it though. It seems to be too sappy for him, so I usually end up being the boy. (001 PI) William’s taste in music is contrary to Savannah’s. William likes British punk, hip-hop, and “The Boss,” Bruce Springsteen. Alexandra adds to the list, “And Neil Young. He likes Neil Young.” Peter narrows his eyes and is quick to counter, “No! Not on my watch. Not on my watch.” When asked how William developed his music preferences, Alexandra offers the following explanation: William, when he was two years old, . . . .wanted turntables so he can do the DJ effect and so he got into that. He seems to be cultivating this image of being a DJ. He tells us he doesn’t want to go to real school; he wants to go to DJ school. Anyway, through talking to different fathers or friends about music, he discovered that all of the fathers liked “The Boss” and so he decided he needed to get into that kind of music. It helps that some of Bruce Springsteen’s songs refer to cars and William loves cars. So he’s a big fan of “The Boss.” He likes the Driving in My Car38song and Born in the USA39. (Alexandra, 001 PI) William also likes The Prodigy, a rough-around-the-edges electronic dance band with a musical style that includes rave, hardcore techno, industrial, electronic rock, and punk. Alexandra and Peter find it necessary to censor some of The Prodigy lyrics when William is around. 37

It should be noted that ABBA is a Swedish pop/rock group that had wide popularity in Australia. Indicating the rock song Fire from Springsteen’s Live 1975-85 album. Words and music by Bruce Springsteen. 39 Heartland rock song. Album: Born in the USA. Words and music by Bruce Springsteen. 38

187

Yeah, one of his favorite Prodigy songs . . . we have to turn down the volume for the first 30 seconds because it’s just full of profanities and he says, “Why are you doing that?” and we say “It’s [the CD] loading.” (Alexandra, 001 PI) William’s hip-hop fascination stems from his desire to perform “cool moves.” Alexandra states that “cool moves” are the reason that William has requested to start learning hip hop next year. Savannah reports that when William is in the car and a CD is playing, William spends his time “doing cool moves” and to further explain, she moves her arms through the air to provide a demonstration (001 IVR). Because the children prefer to listen to different CDs, and “often [there is] some disagreement on some songs” (Alexandra, 001 PI), the family has developed a system for choosing listening selections in the car. Savannah explains that, “. . . either we [Savannah and William] agree or we take turns saying a song that we want” (001 IVR). Real Men Sing in the Car Macy Campbell and Mika Petrov have fathers who sing in the car. Both John Campbell and Joe Petrov admit that, while driving, they sing along to CDs and/or the radio and even sing aloud when no recorded music is playing. Their daughters were quick to make video recordings of their fathers’ automobile-related musical activities. Macy recorded her father singing in the car on the way home from FG1 (Video 005-015). From her backseat position (sitting next to Lila), Macy focuses the camera on the back of her father’s head, the car console, and the snow-banked streets visible through the windshield. As he drives, John sings along to Hallelujah from the Scrubs (Original TV Sound Track) CD. Macy reports that her father has a “good voice” and when he is in the car sings “a lot.” “My dad always sings. My mom doesn’t sing. My dad does” (FG2).

188

John brakes for a red light and a round crystal, suspended on a black cord hanging from the rearview mirror, swings back and forth to the beat of Hallelujah. While the car is stationary, Lila whispers to him, “Macy’s recording right now.” John immediately stops singing. He asks, “Oh! Is she?” Macy rapidly assures him, “You can sing!” Once given the go-ahead, John resumes his singing as the light turns green. As the video continues to roll, John sometimes hums during a verse; however, once the chorus returns, he boisterously sings the lyrics. When he drives solo, Joe Petrov is a talk radio junkie; however, when Mika is riding with him there is always music in the car. Joe does not have CDs in his car. All music comes from the radio. He explains: If we’re not sitting and just kind of singing songs in the car, we’re listening to the radio and singing something along with the radio. And, I’d say that’s about 80% of the time. We sing together a lot. Right now it’s Christmas songs on the radio. A lot of times when Mika is in the car, I’d say maybe 30% or so, we’re listening to Classical music and a lot of times it’s just sort of in the background and we’re just being quiet and, you know, just enjoying the music. I think those are the times that we’re just trying to relax and de-stress. (Joe, 003 PI) Mika notes that it is not just listening to music and singing that is going on in the car. She reports that her father also dances while he is drives. “Yeah, sometimes he takes both hands off and he drives with his knees and goes like, [she demonstrates by raising her arms into the air and then swaying her body left and right to the music] and I sing” (003 IVR). She adds that she also dances with him. I always say, “Daddy, can we dance?” So, I dance in the car even in my seat. Once, I stood up and he said, “Sit down right now!” and then he turned off the music. So then I sat back down. (Mika, FG2)

189

Mika collected two “music on the go” videos. The first video (Video 003-011), shows Mika and her father driving home from FG1. The strains of jazz vibraphonist’s Joe Locke’s arrangement of For the Love of You plays in the background while Mika occasionally sings along and she and her father discuss where to get food for dinner. The second video (Video 003-013) opens with Mika sitting in the backseat of Joe’s car singing along to Hey Baby (Drop It to the Floor) by Pitbull. Mika holds the video camera in her left hand and bounces it in the air as she records herself singing, “La, la, la, my baby, La, la, la, baby, La, la, la . . .” As the end of the song fades away, Joe changes the radio channel to Dynamite by Taio Cruz. Mika becomes upset and begins yelling at her father, “No, put it back on, quick! I love la, la, la baby! Nooooo, please!” During IVR, Mika bounces up and down in her chair and sings along with Hey Baby. At the point in the video where she begins complaining about the radio station switch, Mika places both elbows on the table, claps her hands over her eyes, and bows her head. She takes her hands away, watches for a few more seconds, and then shakes her head back and forth. “That was terrible,” she comments. She sits up straight and articulately explains what happened during and after the video. Umm, la, la, la, la, baby is my favorite one, but then he turned it on Dynamite, but I just forgot that Dynamite was my favorite so I said, “Put la, la, la, baby back on.” So then he put it back on and he wasn’t singing, but on Dynamite he was. So when he put la, la, la, la baby back on he wasn’t singing and I said “Cheer up” and then he started singing. (Mika, 003 IVR) Like Macy, Mika reports that her father sings in the car “a lot” and that the two of them often sing together. “Like today. We’re doing the music stuff and we were singing. We were coming back from church. We were singing and we were going to the library.”

190

When asked what kinds of songs they were singing, Mika replies, “My favorite, Dynamite, Glee Six, Katie Perry, and Miley Cyrus” (004, IVR). Boot Ballet Joe and Mika Petrov are not the only car dancers. One of the most charming videos (Video 005-021) features the Campbell family driving to Macy and Lila’s dance lessons on a Saturday afternoon. John is behind the wheel. He and Irene are engaged in conversation up front; Macy and Lila sit in the back seat. Macy sings along to Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap by AC/DC playing on the radio. She converts the lyrics “dirty deeds done dirt cheap” into “dirty deeds and a-thunder cheeks.” In an email discussion about this video segment, Irene wrote, “How were we listening to that??! Probably the background music for fond memories of our youth before we had any idea about what those lyrics could mean” (Irene, personal correspondence, December 30, 2011). Fortyfive seconds into the AC/DC song, Irene reaches for the dial and changes the radio station. Irene: Here’s some Classical music. Macy: Okay. Irene: Classical music is beautiful. Macy: Uh huh. [Macy begins humming along with the new music.] Irene: This is a very famous violin piece. (Video 005-021) John and Irene begin chatting again while Haydn’s Flute Concerto in D Major fills the car. Macy turns the camera lens on her lavender-booted feet and begins her own choreographed movement. The right boot wiggles side to side followed by the left.

191

Together, the boots point left; the boots point right. The toes are lifted and held steady for a moment before being lowered to repeat the wiggling action. As the music becomes more dramatic, the boots follow suit. They point left and hold . . . right and hold . . . apart and hold . . . then cross on top of each other (and hold) before returning back to the Asection of this wiggling action dance piece. Irene turns around and asks, “Are you recording the music, baby?” Macy: I’m recording my feet dancing and this [the camera] takes up sound, too. Irene: Oh audio and video. Macy: Uh huh. Irene: Oh, very good. (Video 005-021) The dancing boots continue for another three minutes and the video ends. That there is video of Macy’s dancing feet comes as no surprise. In FG1, during a discussion about singing while dancing (or dancing while singing), Macy shares, “Sometimes I sing in the car and sometimes I move my feet. So, [I’m] dancing in my seat but I really can’t stand up.” (FG1). Singing Siblings As Alexandra, Savannah, and William Ritter drove home from FG1, Savannah used her video camera to record much of the trip (Video 001-006). During the 17 minutes and 52 seconds of recorded video, Alexandra rotates CDs to provide a varied repertoire of songs: Build Me Up Buttercup–soul song Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)–soul song Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)–soul song Jumpin’ Josie–traditional American song

192

Macarena–dance-pop song Somebody’s Watching Me-synth-pop song These songs elicit a combination of responses from Savannah and William: listening, singing along with the lyrics, singing along with what they think are the lyrics, singing along using consonant and vowel sounds (often to instrumental portions of the CD), and arguments about who sings which part of a song if the song has both lead and backup singers. Alexandra does not participate in the sing-along activity. Savannah explains that her mom and dad do not sing in the car because, “they’re actually really concentrating on driving” (001 IVR). When viewing her video during IVR, Savannah becomes most excited about the portion of the video that contains the song Somebody’s Watching Me. As soon as she hears the opening tones, she makes a fist with her thumb extended up and pumps her arm in the air. “Ooooh! I love this song!” she exclaims (001 IVR). She rocks her head back, laughs out loud, holds her palms out and up, then slaps both hands to the side of her head. Savannah leans forward, arms on the table, hands still clapped to the sides of her head to better watch. Savannah and William sing “Na, na, na, na, na, na . . .” along with the instrumental opening. Part way through this introduction, Savannah switches to “whooh, whooh, whooh . . .” and sings a countermelody. During IVR she explains, “What I really like is if somebody is singing, I can add out parts like [she sings] “whoo, whoo, whoo.” (Savannah, 001 IVR). The song alternates between a lead singer (male), who speaks lyrics, and Michael and Jermaine Jackson (who the children perceive as a single female singer), who sing the

193

back-up and chorus. During the drive home, Savannah does her best to keep up with both the male and female parts. Sometimes, she substitutes her own words for what she thinks are the lyrics with comical results: I'm just an average man With an average life I work from 9 to 5, I pay the price I’ve lived a home, [All I want is to be left alone]40 In my average home, But, why do I always feel like I’m Charley zone [I’m in the twilight zone] (Savannah, Video 001-006) Other times, Savannah substitutes elongated consonant sounds until she reaches a word that she does know: Mmmmmmm, the sho’er, [When I'm in the shower,] Mmmmm mmmm. . . hair, [I'm afraid to wash my hair,] (Savannah, Video 001-006) William does not participate in any of the singing after the instrumental introduction ends. He does, however, interject comments about being the “average man” at various points during the song. “I’m pretending I’m the average man” and “Hey . . . I’m . . . Hey, I’m pretending to be the average man!” After a steady stream of such comments, Savannah tells him, “I don’t want you singing it.” While she watches this portion of the video, Savannah becomes quite animated. She puts her left fist into the air and waves it as she speaks. She explains, “And my brother is like, ‘I’m going to be the boy and you’re going to be the girl’” referring to which child will sing which part of the song. Savannah continues, (yelling):

40

Text in brackets denotes the original song lyrics.

194

And I’m like . . .’Noooo! [slaps left hand on her forehead] I want to be the boy and the girl. My brother wants me to do that, but I’m like, “I want to do both of the parts.” (Savannah, 001 IVR) This description of the singing relationship between Savannah and William perfectly illustrates her next comment. When asked who sings the most in the car, Savannah answers immediately, “Ummm, me!” (001 IVR). Backseat Singers During FG1, when she was asked, “Where is there singing in your family?” Elizabeth Ramirez immediately responds, “In the car.” She continues: “I’m the one who leads the music so we all make up a song. I tell my family what songs that we made up and we sing them, sing the songs that we made up and we have lots of fun with them. . . .My mom and dad sing together. When we’re getting a little tired in the car and they sing us a nice lullaby. (Elizabeth, FG1) Amalia Ramirez agrees that the family members are active car singers: In the car we sing or we’ll have a CD playing in the car, or we’ll sing along with the radio, or we’ll have our own songs that we’ll sing. And then, you’ll even see our youngest as she’ll be making up songs and just come up with things and her own lyrics and stuff. She’s a 3 year-old and here she’s having fun with stuff and coming up with stuff. Elizabeth has been doing that for the longest, but she’s older. So they both do that. So, it’s fun to see that. (Amalia, 002 PI) Elizabeth recorded 13 videos in the car while her mother was driving. All the singing came from the back seat and in most cases accompanied CDs playing in the car. The recordings were a mix of Christian praise songs sung in English, Spanish, and Patua, a Jamaican dialect. Elizabeth, wearing her purple parka and occasionally her Secret Agent sunglasses sings along to: Route 254 and America the Beautiful41 from Club VBS42 41

Composer: Samuel E. Ward. Lyricist: Katharine Lee Bates.

195

Just Wanna’ Say43 Surely Goodness44 Mercy Shall Follow Me El Ritmo de la Vida45 I Believe46 It’s Only47 Santo, Al Tocarlo, and Lluvia by Jose Luis Reyes She sings the lyrics accurately and is always on pitch. Elizabeth and Rhianna also sing an unaccompanied rendition of Rudolph the RedNosed Reindeer (Video 002-064). Elizabeth introduces the song as “Now it’s time for my sister’s favorite, Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.” Elizabeth holds the camera so that it records only her face. She and Rhianna begin singing Rudolph together. Elizabeth also sings two ancillary portions of the song. She sings, “It glows” (after “Folks would even say it glows” and, “Ha-ha-HA” (after “All of the other reindeer laughed and used to call him names”). Rhianna, sitting in her car seat on the opposite end of the back seat, sings loudly with Elizabeth. Someone out of video range rhythmically taps along with the two singers. Three year-old Rhianna is a solo performer in Video 002-068. She is bundled up against the cold weather and is strapped into her car seat. Her face, surrounded in the white fur trim of her hood is barely visible over a yellow fleece scarf wrapped around her

42

VBS = Vacation Bible School. These songs are part of a Vacation Bible School package available to churches. 43 Recording artist: Israel Houghton. Words and music by Israel Houghton, Aaron Lindsey, and Tommy Sims. 44 Recording artist: Israel Houghton. Words and music by Israel Houghton, Aaron Lindsey, Tommy Sims, and Chevelle Franklin. 45 Recording artist: Julissa. Music and words by Bárbara Larrinaga. 46 Recording artist: Danny Gokey 47 Recording artist: Danny Gokey.

196

neck. She sings exuberantly and adds her own lyrics along with a few melodic twists to Frère Jacques.

Figure 15. Rhianna’s Deer are Sleeping. (Video 002-068) According to Elizabeth, Rhianna makes up songs “all the time” (002 IVR). Elizabeth shakes her head back and forth and makes an open-palmed arm gesture for each place she lists, “In the house. In the car. In the movie theater” (002 IVR). Elizabeth recounts a recent trip to see a film. “When we were in the movie theater she was singing quietly, but it was like, ‘Shh keep it down!’ A man said that.” She adds, “We’re musical. Musical family, musical children, musical parents” (002 IVR).

197

Discussion The children’s video recordings of their families in the car support the first finding of the Vauxhall Motors survey: cars are an excellent place to sing. All of the participating children and most of the participating parents sing in their vehicles. According to the children, there are three non-singing parents: Alexandra and Peter Ritter (Savannah explains that her parents are too busy driving to sing) and Irene Campbell (Macy reports that her mother never sings in the car.) These parents did, however, indicate that they are car singers on the Parent Questionnaire. In the children’s videos, when parents are not heard and seen singing in the car, they are carrying out the technical aspects of supplying recorded music in their vehicles–loading CDs and running the radio. In 1938, Drexler determined that mothers were more musically active around children than fathers. This finding was made in a day and age when many mothers were home with their children while fathers were at work. A family automobile was a rarity. Today’s highly mobile society just might have leveled the musical playing field for fathers. The fathers participating in this study are as likely as the mothers to musically engage their children when they are in the car. In light of Doxey’s (1990) research that revealed a child’s musical ability is particularly influenced by the beliefs and attitudes of her father, riding in the car with dad may form a foundation for future musical success. Musical activities in family vehicles range from listening to music as a method to de-stress (Petrov) to full-blown, top-of-the-lungs singing (Phillips). There is also a wide variety of music, which often reflects the personal taste of the driver. The Ramirezes prefer Christian praise music; the Petrov’s lean toward contemporary pop and rock music

198

(Tatiana plays Russian pop and rock); and the Campbell and Phillips families, housesdivided, play 70s/80s rock (the fathers) and production numbers such as Broadway musical songs (Irene Campbell.) Joanne Phillips and the Ritters seem to defer musical selections to their children. Peter Ritter, however, still reserves the right to veto specific music; as much as he loves him, William will never hear Neil Young in his father’s car. The musical values and beliefs of one family member will influence the attitudes and behavior of others. Most of the participating children seem to have embraced their parents’ music. Byng-Hall’s (1995, 1998) script theory, the transmittal of patterns of behavior from one generation to the next, is evident in how Irene Campbell has passed along her love of Broadway music to Macy and Lila and how the Campbell children along with the Phillips children are enthusiastic about the music their fathers prefer. These are two examples of top-down musical identity development whereby parents pass along musical values to their children. Just as Peery and Peery (1986) determined that continuous exposure to Classical music increased a child’s likelihood of preferring that music, the participating parents, by sharing “their” music, are also making it the children’s music and contributing to their musical identity. Radford (1990) wrote that the musical identities of parents and their children can be shaped by the interactions between them. Radford’s statement indicates that children also have the power to influence the musical identity of their parents. One only has to recall the forlorn tone of Peter Ritter’s voice when he admitted “I still miss Dane Zanes” to recognize how true this can be. Joanne Phillips, likewise, shares in the enjoyment of Philadelphia Chickens, in part, because of her children for whom the CDs were

199

purchased. Parents who make musical choices based on the preferences of their children engage in Dissanayake’s (2000) “mutuality.” This give-and-take musical behavior “strengthens the bond between adult and child” (Johnson-Green & Custodero, 2002, p. 48). The contained environment of a vehicle along with easy access to recorded music has created a new musical setting for families. For those who rue the fact that families no longer gather in the parlor to sing songs around the player piano, it is not the behavior that has been abandoned, only the venue. Families (at least these five) are still singing together. They’re just doing it as they speed along the highway at 65 miles an hour.

200

Chapter 8: Family Portraits and What They Communicate The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the musical lives of five families. The guiding precept of the investigation was to learn more about the activities that comprise family musical life. What are the activities and their frequency? Where and when do they occur? Who participates? How are the participating families’ musical lives similar or different? As past research about this topic has always been conducted from an adult point of view, the research design purposefully included strategies to elicit and include a perspective from children. After the parents completed a Parent Questionnaire and an in-home Parent Interview, a 6-year-old girl from each participating family became an active participant in the research process. The children’s voices were expressed three ways: the five children (1) attended three focus groups where they discussed family musical behavior; (2) video recorded family musical activity for one week; and (3) described, explained, or clarified family musical behavior while watching their video recordings during an individual interview. In addition to the verbal information that they provided in the focus group and interview settings, the children made 250 video recordings totaling close to 14 hours. The number of videos and the total amount of video time for each child is displayed in Table 3 below. A complete list of the videos and their time of day, length, and captured musical activity can be viewed in Appendix S: Family Videos, page 343.

201

Table 3 Children’s Video Submissions Child Participant

Total Number of Videos

Total Video Time

1. Savannah Ritter

54

4:56:0048

2. Elizabeth Ramirez

53

2:09:53

3. Mika Petrov

21

0:46:43

4. Carly Phillips

56

1:33:23

5. Macy Campbell

66

4:14:56

The video recordings along with children’s reported information and commentary supported, contradicted, and added to the information collected from their parents. The children’s contributions to this research provided a unique perspective on family musical activity that has remained, up to this date, unexplored. Family Musical Behavior The primary family musical activity reported by both parents and children and captured in the video recordings is singing. Families sing in their kitchens, living rooms, hallways, bedrooms, bathrooms, and in their cars. Singing accompanies routine daily activities such as toothbrushing, handwashing, bedtime and waking up rituals, as well as annual family celebrations. Family members sing spontaneously, a cappella, along with CDs or other media prompts, and as conversation. Songs come from traditional American

48

Hours: minutes: seconds.

202

repertoire, past and present top hits, Broadway show tunes, seasonal songs,49 worship songs, or the families’ culture or heritage. Family members also sing self-composed songs and/or songs that contain improvised lyrics set to familiar melodies. This creative singing behavior, captured through the children’s video recording project, was exhibited by three of the mothers (Alexandra Ritter, Amalia Ramirez, Joanne Phillips); two of the fathers (Peter Ritter; Jorge Ramirez), four of the participating children (Savannah Ritter, Brianna Ramirez, Mika Petrov, Macy Campbell), and one of the siblings (Rhianna Ramirez). Three of the parents (Jorge and Amalia Ramirez; Joanne Phillips) and one of the participating children (Macy Campbell) along with her sister, Lila, were video recorded singing self-composed songs. The self-composed Ramirez songs are never varied and are part of the family’s singing tradition. Joanne Phillips and the Campbell sisters, Macy and Lila, created spontaneous songs that were usually inspired by an element in their environment. The second most frequent musical activity is playing instruments. Four of the families have pianos in their homes that are played by various family members. Two of the participating children (Savannah Ritter, Macy Campbell), three siblings (Frankie and Randy Phillips; Lila Campbell), and one parent (Peter Ritter) take piano lessons and practice frequently. Three parents (Peter Ritter, Irene Campbell, Frank Phillips) play piano duets with their children on a regular basis. Mika Petrov normally plays piano on her own, but receives occasional help from her mother, Tatiana, a classically-trained

49

The child participants’ video recording project began on January 14th. Recorded videos revealed that Christmas music was still being played and sung in the Ritter, Ramirez, Petrov, and Campbell family homes.

203

pianist. The Ritter, Ramirez, and Phillips families also play instruments at extended family celebrations. Other musical activities include moving to music and watching musical performances. Three families dance together while playing Wii Just Dance Kids (Ritter, Petrov, Phillips). Families attend concerts and performances in local venues (all of them) or by logging onto YouTube (Ritter, Petrov, Phillips). Some of the families also celebrate their cultural heritage through musical activities. The Ramirez family includes many Spanish songs in their singing, the Ritters engage in musical activities provided by a German language school, and the Petrovs do likewise through a Russian community organization. Joanne Phillips noted that music “just falls into its place . . . ” (004 PI). Her observation is applicable to all of the participating families. Singing, playing instruments, and listening and moving to music are a part of daily life. There is no one time for music; however, much of the families’ music-making is linked to daily routines and schedules. Because the participating children and most of their siblings attend school, during weekdays family musical activity is clustered in the morning and in the late afternoon or early evening hours. DeNora (2000) wrote that music in the course of daily life turns each day into a musical montage. The participating families in this study confirm that family musicmaking is a series of musical moments woven throughout each day. Family members sing, play instruments, listen to and move to music in response to where they are and what they are doing.

204

The Children’s Voice The initial data gathered in this research study came from the parents in each family who discussed family musical activities from an adult perspective. The information they provided was self-reported and based on recollection. The initial phase of the children’s portion of this research was also dependent on recall and self-reported information. At FG1, the children discussed what they knew or remembered about family musical activities. The children were often in close agreement with their parents about what constitutes family musical behavior; however, they offered additional behaviors that they considered musical and in some cases information that their parents might find surprising. It is likely that all parents do not know everything there is to know about their children, and the families in this study were no exception. During the Parent Interview, Alexandra Ritter noted that while she and Peter still sing to 5-year-old William, they no longer sing to Savannah at bedtime. It was a surprise to her when Peter said that recently Savannah had been requesting a goodnight song from him. During IVR, Savannah provided evidence that she likes to have someone sing to her at bedtime. Her recollection that being sung to is “peaceful” and “good for me” indicated that this is a practice that is important to her (see Lullaby and Goodnight, p. 158). Macy Campbell had a strong reaction to a discussion about bedtime singing in FG1 that, despite her shouted words to the contrary, might reveal that she, too, would like her parents to sing to her (see Groupthink, p. 227). Amalia Ramirez is convinced that her daughter Elizabeth loves to be awakened by her mother’s singing in the morning, but Elizabeth has a very different

205

opinion (see Reveille, p. 153) and matter-of-factly declared that the practice is “annoying.” (After listening to Elizabeth expertly sing the entire song that her mother sings to her, I suspect that there is a possibility that Elizabeth truly does appreciate her mother’s efforts.) Other inside information that the children shared included stories about how a sibling doesn’t like to practice piano (Lila Campbell) or lose a game of Just Dance Kids (William Ritter). The videos that the children recorded revealed activities that their parents overlooked or about which they were unaware. Macy Campbell’s video of her dancing boots is one such example (Video 005-021). Macy’s choreography is performed in the back seat of the family automobile, away from parental viewing. Other private musical behaviors occur when parents are not nearby. The children reported that they listen to music boxes (Savannah Ritter, Mika Petrov, Macy Campbell) or sing to the radio (Elizabeth Ramirez) when they are alone in their rooms and that they create spontaneous songs on the toilet (all of them) or while playing online computer games (Mika Petrov). Most parents (with the exception of Alexandra Ritter who shared that Savannah makes up songs about the family dog) neglected the family pet when reporting family musical activities. Parents may be unaware of how important pet-related musical activities are to their children. During the focus group sessions, singing and dancing with pets garnered a large amount of excited chatter. Mika Petrov dances with her dog, and Savannah Ritter and Macy Campbell make up songs about and sing to their respective dog and cat. Macy also declared that when she puts her head on a purring Jack-Jack, she

206

hears music. Two of the children (Savannah Ritter, Mika Petrov) chose a pet-related video as their favorite recorded video to share at Focus Group 3 (FG3). The video segments that the children chose to share with each other at FG3 are indicative of which family musical activities they value as important or meaningful. Their verbal explanations of why they chose a selected video were limited; however, each child’s selection was an apt portrayal of the essence of her family’s musical life and her role within it. Savannah Ritter explained that she selected Bonnie’s birthday video (Video 001050) because it featured her family, her beloved Bonnie, and showed Bonnie “singing.” While the video portrays a warm family scene with Bonnie’s birthday at its core, the real star of the video is Savannah who sings solo to Bonnie and then “makes” Bonnie sing back. Savannah is in charge of what to sing and ultimately even in charge of the dog’s musical response. This video exemplifies Savannah’s chief musical role in the Ritter household. Two children selected favorite videos which included recorded music that is a favorite genre of one or more of their parents and also has cultural ties to their family supporting that young children are influenced by the musical tastes and choices of their families Campbell (1998). Elizabeth Ramirez chose a video of her sister Rhianna, bundled up in her car seat, singing along to Israel Houghton’s I Just Wanna Say (Video 002-071). Elizabeth’s only explanation for choosing this video segment was because Rhianna “sounds so cute” (FG3). The song and the recording artist, however, represent two characteristics that are the heart of Ramirez family musical life: music as an

207

expression of worship and connections to their cultural roots. I Just Wanna Say is a Christian rock song, a genre of music commonly played by Elizabeth’s parents, and Israel Houghton professes to have been “raised in a Hispanic church,” (Music and Life, 2006) providing a cultural link to the Ramirez family. Mika Petrov’s favorite video (Video 003103) is the one that shows her dancing in her basement with her friend Madison and her dog Rocky. Because the video was lengthy, Mika chose to share only the portion that included Rocky. The recorded music that accompanies the dancing activity is one of her mother’s Russian pop CDs, the only musical link to Mika’s parents during this activity. This is not surprising as Mika’s videos revealed that most of her music-making is conducted without her parents. Rocky is Mika’s most frequent in-home musical coplayer. Mika said that she shares many musical moments with him. “I take his paws. Sometimes I just hold on. Sometimes I put him on the floor and dance with him” (Mika, FG3). Mika and Rocky’s musical interactions may also be indicative of sibling musical behavior. Four-legged Rocky becomes a surrogate sibling who musically interacts with Mika, an only child. A concert was the top video pick for Carly Phillips (Video 004-057). Carly’s oldest brother Frankie plays violin in a school string program. Phillips family musical life characteristically consists of group activities, and Frankie’s concert was no exception. On Wednesday evening, the entire Phillips family, including grandma and grandpa, traveled to Frankie’s elementary school to attend the 4th grade strings concert. Carly shared that she chose this video because “I like violins.” Carly also declared that in the future, “I’m either going to play the violin or the viola when I’m in 4th grade . . . or the cello” (004

208

IVR). Carly’s pronouncement illustrates how “siblings have powerful influences on one another according to their age and ordinal position” (Borthwick & Davidson, 2003, p. 61). The number and length of Carly’s video recordings documented the effect her older brothers’ musical behavior has on their younger sister. Carly recorded seven videos (Videos 004-050 through 004-057) that totaled 22 minutes and 22 seconds at Frankie’s concert. This was the largest amount of video time she devoted to a single activity. In second place (18 videos totaling 15:57), was brother Randy’s piano playing. Video recordings of her brothers’ instrumental pursuits comprised close to 40% of Carly’s total video recording time. This supports the possibility that Carly places importance on and intends to pursue the musical activity that her older brothers model. Macy Campbell chose a video that most characterizes her personal music-making and represents a large and important slice of her families’ collective musical goal. She shared a portion of her 20-minute Story video (Video 005-067). The initial origins of Story, combined with Irene Campbell’s childhood fascination with the musical Annie, gave birth to the Campbell family’s passion for being involved in children’s musical theater. The segment that Macy chose to share shows her at her song-creating best. She spontaneously and without restraint creates her own lyrics and melodies to engage in the storyline that her parents report is most common for her–a doll character becomes embroiled in a conflict with friends at school while “putting on a show.” In characteristic Broadway musical style, Macy’s favorite video ends in a big flourish as she performs both parts to alternate the singing between the heroine and her supporting cast.

209

The videos that the children selected to share with each other allowed deeper insight into the musical core of each family. Through them I learned that a single family member can be a family’s driving musical force (Ritter), parental musical tastes and goals are passed along to children (Ramirez, Petrov, Campbell), the musical behavior of older siblings have an influence on younger ones (Phillips), and that families can develop a unifying musical identity (Phillips, Campbell). Cultural and Religious Connections Cultural “beliefs, values, mores, and traditions” can be “transmitted, preserved, and reconstructed” through music (Jorgensen, 1997, p. 47.) The diverse cultural heritages of the participating families provided an opportunity to document how families’ use musical activities to reinforce and pass along cultural heritage, spiritual beliefs, and language skills. Peter and Alexandra Ritter have seen to it that some of their family music-making is drawn from their respective cultural backgrounds. Alexandra introduced Savannah and William to the children’s musical group The Wiggles primarily because of its Australian origins. When Peter sings to Savannah and William during toothbrushing time or at bedtime, the songs are exclusively German. The German link is further strengthened each Saturday morning when Savannah and William attend a German language school where songs and games are part of the instruction. Alexandra noted, “William likes to sing in German even though he doesn’t really understand the words.” The family attends a local Oktoberfest celebration each year where they sing and dance. Savannah wears her Dirndl and William wears Lederhosen. The family also participates in a St. Martin’s Day

210

celebration sponsored by the German language school. They march through woods in the November darkness carrying lanterns and singing traditional songs. The Ramirez family relies on singing to reinforce their Christian faith and to help Elizabeth and Rhianna become and remain fluent in Spanish. The core of the family’s singing repertoire is contemporary worship songs and a few traditional hymns, which the family sings in both English and Spanish. The family sings together at church worship services and continues the activity in the car and at home. The messages contained in the lyrics as well as the act of singing the songs transmit spiritual beliefs through a process of informal learning in a social context. Songs that Jorge intentionally composed and sings in Spanish to accompany toothbrushing and handwashing have become an integral part of the Ramirez daily routine. They provide one more opportunity over the course of a day for Elizabeth and Rhianna to practice their Spanish language skills. Jorge explained: When I’m here, I try to refer to the music in Spanish so that they keep listening to the words and the pronunciation of the words in something fun. It’s a lot of work for me to help to articulate the language. . . . It’s another way my wife has for them to learn vocabulary and rhymes and things like that, and numbers and colors and shapes and stuff. (002 PI). Playing and singing along to Russian pop and country CDs allows Tatiana Petrov to stay in touch with her homeland. When Mika is in the car with her mother, these are the CDs to which she sings along. Mika also has access to Russian CDs in the house and uses them as background music when she dances in the basement. They are an additional way to maintain Mika’s Russian language skills and connect her to her heritage. The Petrovs also participate in activities at a local Russian community center. During the midJanuary video recording project, Mika took part in a Russian Christmas performance. Her

211

parents used Mika’s camera to record her as she sang and danced in traditional Russian dress. These musical experiences allow Mika, a very American girl, to learn and practice the customs of her mother’s birthplace. The Ritter, Ramirez, and Petrov families, whether by design or accident, use music as a social process to create a chain of culture specific learning (Day, French, & Hall, 1985). When the Ritter children brush their teeth, the Ramirez children wash their hands, and Mika Petrov dances with Rocky, they are, through their music-making, forming cultural connections with the generations that preceded them. Media Influences Children of the twenty-first century are “immersed in practices that involve electronic media and digital technologies” (Ilari, 2011). CDs, mp3s, and DVDs, along with computers and electronic gaming devices provide a non-stop stream of electronically produced music and sound. All of the participating families rely heavily on technology to provide background or sing-along music in their homes and cars. Fears that modern technology has turned families into passive, consumptive-only entities are not supported by this research. Similar to Littleton’s (2002) and Young’s (2007) findings, the participating families use music-related technology to both prompt and widen the range of their musical experiences. The participating families use recorded music as a prompt for their own singing and often create their own harmonies. Family members almost always sing along with any music that they play through a car or home sound system. There is evidence that both children and parents later sing the songs a capella or try to play them on the piano.

212

Recorded music also has the ability to encourage weak singers who might otherwise not engage in the activity. Amalia Ramirez, who has difficulty with pitch accuracy admitted that she is more comfortable singing along to recorded music than by herself. [I] never sing without the aid of the recorded music. I feel more comfortable having that there unless I’m making up my own song . . . (Amalia, 002 PI) Electronic toys and games are embedded with music that prompts musical behavior. Rhianna Ramirez sings along with every song that she “plays” on her pink electronic Dora the Explorer guitar. When he visits, her grandfather adeptly uses a plastic carrot to tap out accompanying rhythms on a metal cup. Mika Petrov’s online computer games provide her with song material and text to prompt lengthy sessions of spontaneous, improvised singing. The musical game Garage Band, with its accompanying easy-tomanipulate musical instrument-like consoles, creates an opportunity for the Phillips family to come together for a rock and roll jam session. Garage Band provides an opportunity for children who are too young to have developed instrumental playing skills to enter into an equal playing partnership with their parents. Prior to DVDs and video-sharing sites such as YouTube, families wishing to experience musical performances had to purchase tickets, wash and scrub their children, get them appropriately dressed, load everyone in the car, and travel to the performance venue. Today, with the click of a switch or a mouse, families can watch, evaluate, and critique musical performances from the comfort of their own home. The participating families view YouTube performances for a variety of purposes. They seek suggestions for appropriate piano music to play themselves (Ritter), to learn from and compare

213

musical performances (Petrov, Phillips), and to share their own musical performances with the world (Campbell). Hooking up the Wii console to the family TV and installing Just Dance Kids gives children an opportunity to dance alone for extended periods of time for what they perceive is a good cause–racking up lots of points. While sing-along activity during game play appears to be limited (it’s hard to do two things at once), Just Dance Kids is a source for both traditional and contemporary children’s songs that can later be recalled and sung at another time. Just Dance Kids’ inclusion of traditional children’s songs such as The Ants Go Marching Down and Bingo, songs that Suthers and Larkin (1997/1998) noted were in decline, can be reinstated in family repertoires through a fresh new medium. Are We Musical? On the advice of Atkinson and Hammersley (1994) there was no guiding hypothesis behind this research. The qualitative methodology of this study was designed to gather unstructured data through an investigation of a small number of cases to explore a particular social phenomenon. My intent to add to the body of knowledge about family music-making, however, was in response to claims that it is in decline (Feierabend, 1990; Gembris & Davidson, 2002) and that parents lack natural ability to create musical experiences in the home (Cutietta, 2001) and are unable to transmit musical culture or skills (Gordon, 2003; Walters, 2000). I believed that until we develop a body of evidence that documents current family music-making activities and practices, such claims are based only on opinion.

214

An examination of the five participating families does not provide evidence to prove or disprove if 21st century families are guilty of the charge that family musicmaking is in peril. Purposively selected families who cared enough about music to enroll their children in an early childhood music program and participate in this study do not a quorum make; global applications cannot be derived from their musical stories. These five families and their family musical experiences can provide supporting or contrary evidence to some of the current beliefs about families and musical development. The claim that family music-making is in decline cannot be supported or denied by this research. There is no documented body of information that provides a baseline level of past family musical behavior to which the musical behavior of the participating families can be compared. An examination of the participating families has to be conducted within the context of their own merits. Cutietta’s (2001), Gordon’s (2003) and Walters’(2000) concerns about the musical competence of parents can only be addressed by stating that the participating parents and their children frequently engage in musical activities, and there is evidence that particular types of music-making are migrating from one generation to the next within these five families. The crux of the negative assertions about the state of families and music-making may hinge on the absence of a clear definition of what constitutes musical culture, skills, and experiences in the context of family musical life. Are the musical activities in which the five families engage “musical” enough for those who fear that parents are not upholding their end of the musical bargain? An exploration of an answer requires revisiting the various concepts of musicality presented in Chapter 3.

215

Brändström’s 1999 studies combined a survey (Study 1 – pilot) and interviews (Study 2) to solicit how music educators in higher learning define musicality (which Brändström also labeled “musical ability”). Participants in Study 1 were asked to answer the question, “What is musicality to you?” Participants in Study 2 engaged in an interview where the question was the focal point of discussion. Brändström determined that there were two broad views of musicality: “absolute” musicality that is exhibited through measurable musical performance and achievement; and “relativistic” musicality, which places as much value on informal or spontaneous music-making as it does on the pursuit of musical accomplishment. Hallam (2010), too, investigated this question in a study that presented 660 participants with 77 phrases that ended the statement: Music ability is ________ . Some of Hallam’s suggested phrases were: “musical ability depends on having perfect pitch, musical ability is being able to play by ear, musical ability is being able to internalise [sic] sound” (p. 312). Hallam analyzed all the responses, ran them through factor analysis and reported six main themes. The theme that garnered the most response was “generative music”–the ability to perform or produce music. Hallam reported that one of the largest response factors was the ability to play an instrument. Brändström’s (1999) absolute musicality and Hallam’s “generative musicality” findings are linked through their performance and achievement components. This view of musicality is in stark contrast to Brändström’s all-encompassing relativistic musicality. The five families musical behavior falls into both the absolute and relativistic categories. Elements of absolute musicality, as evidenced by enrollment in achievement-

216

and performance-based general music classes, instrumental and voice lessons, and dance classes were video-recorded or self-reported by all families. •

Peter Ritter and his daughter Savannah actively pursue piano instruction. When the extended Ritter family comes together, family members play instruments and sing.

•

Elizabeth Ramirez receives weekly violin instruction. Ramirez family celebrations include singing along to instrumental accompaniment, which includes guitars and Latin percussion instruments.

•

Tatiana Petrov, an accomplished pianist, practices piano every day and is slowly sharing her skills with her daughter, Mika, until she determines the time is right for Mika to begin more formal instruction.

•

Frank Phillips and his son, Frankie, play multiple instruments and participate in musical ensembles.50 They and son Randy, who studies piano, routinely play with each other and with grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins.

•

Lila and Macy Campbell study piano, voice, and dance. They frequently practice both alongside and under the tutelage of their mother Irene and perform in children’s musical theater productions. When the families’ absolute music-making activities are merged with their

spontaneous musical behavior (relativistic view)–those moments that occur throughout the day to create a musical montage–a complete portrait of the activities that comprise their family musical life emerges. Table 4 lists the families’ musical activities and notes if the data about each activity was self-reported (SR) or captured during the children’s video project (including the number of videos and total amount of video time devoted to that activity).

50

Six months after the conclusion of the active phase of this research, Carly Phillips began her piano lessons.

217

Table 4 Families’ Video Recorded Musical Activities Activities

Ritter

Ramirez

Petrov

Phillips

Campbell

16/15:5351

16/10:20

2/1:47

5/5:27

18/27:04

5/39:59

9/47:35

2/4:01

9/34:48

3/9:28

Singing Singing a Song Singing and Listening to Music Singing and Improvising (melodic) Singing and Improvising Lyrics

2/2:58

2/2:14 1/2:01

1/5:43

5/6:46

6/9:12

Singing Previously Improvised Lyrics

2/8:28

3/8:15

1/5:00

4/1:03

9/75:45

5/3:45

Singing a Self-composed Song

5/9:23

Creating and Singing a Song

1/1:10

1/1:04

SR52

2/3:31

27/40:08

3/6:09

5/3:09

3/31:04

Singing and Playing an Instrument Instruments Playing an Instrument Improvising on an Instrument

51

4/67:43

14/49:44

Number of videos that captured this activity/Total number of minutes and seconds this activity was video recorded. In some cases, there is an overlap in activities. For example, in Video 005-057 Macy Campbell is singing in the kitchen while her sister Lila is playing piano in the living room. 52 SR = Self-reported. During interviews and focus groups family members reported this behavior, but it was not captured on a video recording.

218

Listening Listening to Music

9/16:03

Attending a Musical Performance

SR

SR

1/0:43

SR

SR

3/14:05

8/22:22

3/7:42

SR

SR

Music and Speech 1/0:45

Rhythmic Speech Conversing in Song Moving to Music Discussing Music and Musical Performances Studying Music (music classes or lessons)

5/28:40

1/0:54

3/6:00

1/7:59

12/20:13

SR

SR

SR

1/9:56

SR

5/73:46

2/1:13

SR

1/20:00

5/89:39

An examination of the five participating families’ musical activities reveals that their activities bear a startling likeness to the 9 National Standards of Music Education53 that were developed by the Music Educators National Conference to represent the first comprehensive educational standards for music instruction. Collectively, the five families 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 53

Sing Play instruments Improvise Compose Read music [there is no evidence that they notate music] Listen to, analyze, and describe music Evaluate music and musical performances

1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 3. Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments. 4. Composing and arranging music within specified guidelines. 5. Reading and notating music. 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. 7. Evaluating music and music performances. 8. Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside the arts. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture.

219

8. Are aware of relationships between music and other arts (theater, dance) 9. Make connections between music and culture The musical activities evident in these five homes challenge claims that parents are unable to provide an environment that fosters musical growth and development in children. These families are musical. Connections to the Literature Evidence from the participating families supports and in some cases is contrary to research about music and families that has preceded this study. Trevarthen’s (1999/200) suggestion that families may be the origin of an individual’s musical identity through their socio-cultural musical activities and behaviors is supported by the Phillips and Campbell families. Joanne Phillips’ music-making is comfortable, easy-going, and inclusive of those around her, whether it be singing in the car or picking out tunes on the family piano. Frank Phillips, likewise, views music-making as communal endeavor. He still plays in a garage band and hails from a family where getting together to sing and play instruments is a common occurrence. The Phillips children often engage in musical frivolity with each other. They pretend to be rock stars as they sing popular songs in the back seat of the family car, and create and practice songs in the kitchen after school. The communal nature of music-making that has passed down from their parents has taken hold. The competitive and performance aspects of Irene Campbell’s musical background (derived from her preparation for and participation in piano competitions) have carried over into Macy and Lila’s initial musical experiences. Irene and John described how they approached Lila’s first early childhood music class:

220

John: So we went into, and this was Irene’s idea to put them in, put Lila into this. It would be our focus for the week. We would sing the songs on the way home. . . . So, we were very deadline driven, now that I’m thinking about it. Starting on Saturday morning, come hell or high water, I would often . . . sometimes we’d . . . take them– Irene: I think for those initial ones . . . weren’t we both there all the time? John: Oh definitely, for those initial ones. Yeah! And we would watch and we would have a sheet that came home and we would work on the songs and work on making sure that she responded, you know, making sure that [she] gave back to the teacher. Currently, both Lila and Macy actively compete for parts in children’s musical theater productions. The competition aspect of music-making also emerges in Macy’s private music-making. When she plays Story, one of her favorite storylines includes a heroine and her friends competing for parts in a show. Macy’s thoughts about playing piano duets provide insight into how important performance is becoming to her. When I asked Macy what it was like to play piano duets with her mom, she replied, “It kind of makes me worry that I’m going to get it wrong” (005 IVR). Previous research has revealed that there is a connection between parents’ musical backgrounds and a home environment where musical development tends to be nurtured (Bowles, 1991; Custodero & Johnson-Green, 2003; Sundin, 1997). This finding did not apply to all the parents in this study, giving rise to a suggestion that creating a musically rich home environment without an extensive parental musical background is possible. The ten parent participants have mixed levels of formal musical experience that range from limited (3 or less years of musical study), moderate (4 to 8 years), to extensive (9 or more years) as indicated in Table 5.

221

Table 5 Parents’ Musical Backgrounds (formal musical study)54 Limited

Moderate

Extensive

Peter Ritter (2 years) Alexandra Ritter (3 years) Amalia Ramirez (1 year)

Jorge Ramirez (6 years)

Joe Petrov (0 years)

Tatiana Petrov (12 years)

Joanne Phillips (