Religions of Melanesia

Religions of Melanesia: A Bibliographic Survey

Garry W. Trompf

PRAEGER

Religions of Melanesia

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Religions of Melanesia A Bibliographic Survey

Garry W. Trompf

Bibliographies and Indexes in Religious Studies, Number 57 G.E. Gorman, Advisory Editor

Westport, Connecticut London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available at www.loc.gov

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2006 by Garry W. Trompf All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced , by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. ISBN: 0-313-28754-6 ISSN: 0742-6836 First published in 2006 Praeger Publishers, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.praeger.com Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984). 10

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In Memory of Bill

"The Old Wizard"

Contents Foreword by G.£. Gorman Preface Introduction: Methods in the Organization of the Bibliography

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Part One: The Study of Melanesian Religions The History of the Study of Melanesian Religions

Part Two: Bibliographical Survey A

General and Inter-Regional Studies

B

Regional Studies Irian Jaya (West Papua) 2 New Guinea Coast and Hinterland

3 33

35

147 149 193

(written with Friedegard Tomasetti)

Author Index Title Index Culture Index Subject Index

3 New Guinea Islands

259

4 New Guinea Highlands

297

5 Papuan Coast and Islands

355

6 Southern and Papuan Highlands

417

7 Solomon Islands

443

8 Vanuatu

479

9 New Caledonia

509

10 Fiji

529 559 593 645

657

What's up? Are the natives unfriendly? My book says: 'Natives friendly all along this coast!' My book says - . Travers in Joseph Conrad, The Rescue, iii, 3.

Foreword As is the case in Melanesian religion ... , traditional religion has not only shown in the recent past a remarkable capacity to develop and adapt its own beliefs and practices when confronted by both the world religions and 'modernity' but has also greatly influenced much of the belief and practice of these same world religions and to an extent the direction in which the forces of modernity have sought to steer traditional society. Peter Clarke in The World 's Religions I occasionally look in despair at the vast archive of notes and observations in my filing cabinets, knowing that only tiny portions of what could be put in print are condensed in the following pages. Still, I note with a mixture of gloom and impatience that few general textbooks on comparative religion give more than a page to Melanesia, and what the region has to offer is typically buried under sweeping comments about 'primitive' traditions. G.W. Trompf, Payback: The Logic of Retribution in Melanesian Religions

Professor Trompfs work, Religions of Melanesia: A Bibliographic Survey, is the third in Bibliographies and Indexes in Religious Studies devoted to religions of the Pacific region . In 1991 Tony Swain gave us Aboriginal Religions of Australia: A Bibliographical Survey; Douglas Haynes and William Wuerch followed in 1995 with Micronesian Religion and Lore: A Guide to Sources, 1526-1990. Now, in 2005, Garry Trompf provides us with a comprehensive work on the religions of Melanesia. The period of time taken to complete this trilogy is an indication in part of the complexity of preparing even a representative bibliography, let alone a much more comprehensive work such as the one in hand. As Professor Trompf has said in another context, he looks ". . .in despair at the vast archive of notes and observations in [his] filing cabinet" - a feeling familiar to many bibliographers of religion.

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Foreword

But in this instance the years taken to achieve fruition are also due to the complexity of Melanesian religion and the breadth of literature in this field. As Peter Clarke has observed, Melanesian traditional religion has shown ".. .a remarkable capacity to develop and adapt its own beliefs and practices when confronted by both the world religions and 'modernity'." It is this adaptability that has made Melanesian 'traditional' religion a 'modern' religion, and therefore more complex than religions in other regions less open to external influences. Like Micronesian religion , the sister religions of Melanesia are a combination or confluence of many elements and many influences. While these religions are not systematized in the way that other religions tend to be, there are certain enduring, common features to most religions of Melanesia; these revolve around death, initiation and the yearly cycle. The phenomenon of death is represented by ancestor worship in all Melanesian religions. It is commonly held that ancestor worship is a means of controlling behavior of the living, of preserving the traditional moral code of the people and of contributing to social cohesion. The second feature, initiation, is again common throughout Melanesia and is reflected in its various religions. Sometimes this takes the form of initiation of boys into manhood, and sometimes initiation into secret societies. In both forms of initiation there is considerable instruction by the elders in the initiates' moral responsibilities, their ancestors, taboos, rites, etc. Both ancestor worship and initiation are characterized by various rituals that are integral to the fabric of Melanesian society, and the same is true of the third common characteristic, 'celebrations' held annually or cyclically. Again common throughout Melanesia, such celebrations can be seen to incorporate many elements, from ancestor worship to fertility to taboos - all intended to help ensure a productive life in the coming round of things , including horticultural abundance. But it is perhaps dangerously misleading to try to reduce Melanesian religion to a handful of ritualistic principles, and in fact any detailed study is bound to show the complex interweaving of forces and influences in these religions. Peter Clarke's observation about the development and adaptability of Melanesian religions is most clearly evident in the emergence of the cargo cults across much of Melanesia. During the twentieth century, under the influence of Western culture and religion, there developed a significant emphasis on eschatological regeneration as an overarching concern across all three aspects of these religions . No longer just a yearly feast of the dead, but an expectation of imminent return of the dead, for example, came to characterize the cargo cults, which even today have a significant following in many countries of Melanesia. The continuation of traditional religious views alongside the accommodation (or syncretism) apparent in such movements as the cargo cults helps to give Melanesian religions their complexity. What present developments suggest, then, is that a deep understanding of the religions of Melanesia requires one to be familiar with a range of viewpoints from a variety of disciplines - history, anthropology, social geography, sociology, politics, psychology, philosophy and obviously religious studies.

Foreword

xi

Compounding the complexity of disciplinary foci is the fact that the field of comparative religion tends to attract scholars or writers who work from two distinctly opposed traditions. On the one side are those who seek to reconstruct a people's worldview on the basis of data from specific cohorts. On the other are those who take a much more diffident view of their ability to reconstruct the interior world of another people or of representing their collective beliefs in any definitive sense. These two schools, as it were, are often in conflict, and for some reason this is more apparent in the study of Pacific (both Micronesian and Melanesian) religions than other traditions. From a scholarly perspective one result is a literature that is characterized by a daunting spread across disparate disciplines and by often conflicting, or sometimes mutually exclusive, approaches within disciplines. To understand this literature we require a solid bibliographical guide, which heretofore has not existed, and it has devolved on Professor Trompf to rectify the situation. In this compilation Dr Trompf provides scholars and students of Melanesian religion with a single, comprehensive guide to the available literature in the field. To achieve this aim he offers in-depth treatment of the several disciplines related to Melanesian religions, ranging widely across time and format to ensure that he has collected as much information as possible on the available literature, whether this be readily accessible or more elusive. In this volume Professor Trompf offers an introductory essay ("The History of the Study of Melanesian Religions") that places the subsequent bibliography in context and summarizes key concepts and ideas. Anyone seeking an introduction to the religions of Melanesia should begin with this essay, which offers clear commentary on sources of information, as well as on the principal ideas and movements within Melanesian religions. This is followed by the classified bibliography of 2188 entries that treats the core components of Melanesian religious lore to a level of comprehension belied by the compiler's modesty. The annotations, though economic in description and evaluation, direct users to the most appropriate sources clearly and succinctly. Professor Trompf has combined these features in a volume that is accessible to all who might use it - students and scholars of Melanesian religions, as well as to those from the various cognate disciplines (sociology, anthropology, history, philosophy, folklore studies, missiology, etc.). This bibliography is commendable both for its comprehensive treatment of the various aspects of Melanesian religion and also for its straightforward arrangement and succinct assessment of the most important publications in the field. Religions of Melanesia: A Bibliographic Survey is a valiant and successful undertaking, and a welcome addition to Bibliographies and Indexes in Religious Studies. Professor G E Gorman FLA FRSA Advisory Editor Victoria University of Wellington

Preface It is an illusion that an author finishes a book; but it is a patent truism in any case that no one ever finishes a bibliography. Such a potentially endless task simply has to be relinquished. In my case a number of conditions dictated the precise timing of the surrender. Among them was a combined sense of frustration that I had not completed the job earlier and an honest reckoning that some of my best contacts were only made near the finale. And then there was the strange business of setting up the great body of the text but not knowing how long it would take to uncover and write in all the tiny details of an irritating residuum. Sometimes it has taken years for me to locate a rare book; more recently whole articles, apparently inaccessible, have been e-mailed to me in the twinkling of an eye. Day by day, week by week, the last gaps have been plugged through dogged searching, but never with much surety as to when it would all really end - because new publications would be announced and the bibliographies of other scholars' publications could cite works I had never heard of in the first place. The complexity of academics' arguments, furthermore, the demand for a grasp of many languages, the requirement to travel around the Melanesian region - indeed the globe - to make new discoveries, and the fear of not arranging the materials to the precise specifications of the publishers, all preyed upon a busy man like a nightmare. When, from midway through a twenty-year gestation, I was joined by perfectionist Dr. Friedegard Tomasetti, the dream of completion loomed in sight, yet only after the sometimes excruciating ordeal of getting fine details right - the orthography of vernacular words, the notation of figures and tables, let alone maps and illustrations, even in articles and not just monographs, and so on. Countless little bouts of laboriousness and angst went on... until, awaking one morning, I suddenly found myself a disburdened soul, or at least one knowing that I was in no position to do anything more - bar an unlikely future request for a second edition! This book is meant to follow upon and keep up the high standards set by predecessors who have broached other parts of the Pacific region in this Series, and I have been especially inspired by my colleague Tony Swain's Aboriginal

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Religions of Australia: A Bibliographical Survey (Number 18). I am very grateful to Prof. Gary Gorman, who has been extraordinarily patient with my slowness, and astute in his final assessments of content and presentation in his capacity as series editor. I honor the support given to me by Greenwood's Alicia Merritt, Pamela St. Clair, Melissa Festa, Suzanne Staszak-Silva, and Elizabeth Potenza during the project's pre-publication history. That the resources for the making of this bibliography are manifold goes without saying. It has taken over ten years of searching around the world to complete. Some libraries were more crucial than others. Of the Australian libraries, the Fisher Library at the University of Sydney was primary, not only for its own collection but because its inter-library loan section, with staff under the leadership of C6ng-n.m Dao doing me unstinting service. The Mitchell Library, Sydney, and the National Library of Australia, Canberra, ran a close second and third. Next came the Hallstrom Library of the Australian School of Pacific Administration, which was so unwisely dismantled (at its location on Sydney's North Head) during my labors (see Focus [AusAid], March, 1998: 2021); and I could not have kept up with developments in Pacific Christianity without the Missiology Resource Centre at St Columban's College, North Turramurra (and the kindness of Fr Don Wodarz and Fr Dr Cyril Hally). For Irian Jayan publications I relied especially on the Anthropology Department collection of the Universiteit te Utrecht, Holland, and on the good services of my previous doctoral student David Neilson and Franciscan stalwart Alphonse van Nunen, from their respective bases in and around Jayapura, the capital of Indonesia's easternmost province. For Papua New Guinea, the New Guinea Collection of the Michael Somare Library, University of Papua New Guinea (UPNG), the Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies' stocks, both Port Moresby, and the Adolph Noser special collection of the Divine Word University , Madang, proved invaluable, as did the Library of the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London for wider Melanesia, with rarities on French colonies from the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, and on Fiji from both the Alan Tippett Collection in St Mark's Institute Library, Charles Sturt University, Canberra Campus, and the Pacific Collection at the University of the South Pacific (USP) Library, at Suva. The list could go on. Of American resource centers, the University of California library system proved best. The Pacific Collection in the Dean E. McHenry Library of the University of California, Santa Cruz, was used most over the years (though by now the Melanesian Studies Resource Center of the San Diego campus can do better, especially with its microfiche holdings . Not a few personal collections yielded little marvels, and so many individuals deserve acknowledging that the list would fill many pages. For help with real rarities in Australia, I make special mention of Rev Greg Fox (on Vanuatu), Barbara Naismith (New Britain), William Emilsen (New Caledonia), Christine Weir (Fiji), along with the Canon Needham (Australian Board of Mission) and Mac1eay Museum Libraries (Papua), and the Baillieu Library of the University of Melbourne (generally). In Europe, some unexpected treasures were revealed by helpful Profs Jan van Baal and Jan Pouwer, Drs Anton Ploeg,

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xv

Ton Ottow, and Klaus Neumann, and out of the depths of libraries at the Instituut voor de Tropen, Amsterdam; [Rijks]Universiteit te Leiden; Katholiek Universiteit Nijmegen; and the University of Edinburgh. In Melanesia itself, I was grateful to have access to smaller libraries of the Bomana Holy Spirit Seminary and the Melanesian Institute (Papua New Guinea); of the Catholic Seminary (Sekolah Tinggi Filsafat Teologi) , Abepura, and the Franciscans (including Alphonse van Nunen's private collection), Jayapura (both in Irian Jaya); of the Pacific Theological College and the Pacific Regional Seminary (Suva, Fiji) ; of the Melanesian Brotherhood (Honiara, Solomon Islands); of the Universite de la Nouvelle Calectonie and the Centre Culturel Tjibaou (Noumea, New Caledonia); of the Emalus Campus Library of USP and the Vanuatu Cultural Centre (Port Vila, Vanuatu); and of the Siatoutai Theological College (Tonga). As inspirers I honor the late professors Jan van Baal (Utrecht) and Peter Lawrence (Sydney), and for keeping me abreast of new publications especially professors Theo Ahrens (Hamburg) and both Pamela Stewart and Andrew Strathern (Pittsburgh). Apart from those mentioned above, help with single items or bringing expertise to single chapters was generously provided by Dr Frederic Angleviel, Dr Jeremy Beckett, Fr Dr Janusz Bieniek (also my research companion in West Papua), Rev. John Garrett, Fr Dr Patrick Gesch, Kirk Huffman, Rev. Dr Freek Kamma, Rev. Dr David Neilson, and Drs Andrew Thornley and Christine Weir. For searching and filing I could not have done without Rena McGrogan, Ruth Lewin, Paul McDonald, Dr Christopher Hartney, Dominique Wilson, and my offspring Joshua and Sasha Trompf. For always being willing to help with finishing huge tasks, and indeed for the typing of this very introduction, I here readily appreciate Margaret Gilet; I gratefully acknowledge Peter Johnson for showing rare genius in preparing the maps; Mark Johnston and Simon Barker for solving computer problems; Rodolphe Clement and Franscesca Di Lauro for their skills at specification formatting; while for bringing many obscure pieces to light, and helping with the Subject Index and some proofing at the end of the whole process, deep thanks go to Ania Szafjanska. Hours of word processing and 'net-scaping' in pursuit of details were given to this bibliography by my intrepid Research Assistants Drs Raul Fermindez-Calienes and Hazel Elliot. To these two go my heartfelt thanks, and to Rev. Dr Fermindez-Calienes goes the honor of being the longest server on the project, for, even though he moved back to the United States, three of the four indexes owe themselves to his labors (with the marvels of modern communication making them accessible!). To have him with me researching in Tonga, Vanuatu and Fiji on an International Development Fund Grant was an added boon. But how much less accurate or fined honed would this bibliography be without the collegiality, scholarly acumen, and utter generosity of time and spirit provided by Dr Friedegard Tomasetti, Honorary Associate of the Department of Studies in Religion, who revealed a consummate knowledge of German sources (see Part II, B2) and prevented the perpetration of silly errors, unsatisfactory lacunae, and commentarial superficialities. In view of the

XVI

Preface

recent, sad loss of her husband, and acknowledging the pluck and intellectual commitment she showed in persisting with this massive bibliography to its end, I dedicate the book, with a mixture of profound gratitude and fond memory, to her husband, Bill Tomasetti. A Patrol Officer with a rich experience, Bill was my first welcoming neighbor at UPNG, and "the old wizard," as my son called him, came to play entertaining host to me and my family before his quiet passing in the Blue Mountains of Australia. Garry W. Trompf FARA Professor in the History ofIdeas Department of Studies in Religion University of Sydney The Day of St Expeditus, 2005

Introduction Methods in the Organization of the Bibliography This book falls into two parts. Part I presents a history of the study of Melanesian religions . The numbered and annotated items of the Bibliography proper follow as Part II, and its layout requires some preliminary explanation. After a General and Inter-Regional section, the second Part covers the peoples and cultures of Melanesia from west to east. The category General covers all bibliographies, and then proceeds from works with the broadest coverage of religious issues in Melanesia as a whole to those encompassing materials in large areas of the region (e.g., western and eastern Melanesia, or Papua New Guinea en bloc). For Melanesia-wide and cross-cultural studies that are more thematic and more tightly focused by academic disciplines, three rubrics have been applied for organizing the materials: Traditional (referring to the smallscale tribal religions as they were 'upon contact' or before 'non-Pacific religious influences'); Contact and Adjustment Phenomena (cargo cults, new religious movements or any conceptual and institutional adaptations taking place because of missionary and/or colonial intrusiveness); and Emergent Melanesian Christianity (concentrating on 'positive' indigenous responses to mission work, and on indigenous thought and activity revealing the 'Melanesianization' of Christian (and other related) messages. Beyond the General, the chapters cover the following: 1, Irian Jaya (West Papua), or that western half of the great New Guinea island and its outliers; 2, the lower inland, hinterland, coastal and closer island cultures of New Guinea (or the north of the mainland of what is now Papua New Guinea); 3, the New Guinea islands (New Britain, New Ireland and Manus and their outliers); 4, the New Guinea highlands (or those highland areas north of the established Papua/New Guinea 'colonial border'); 5, the Southern Highlands and Papuan highland and plateau peoples (from Ok Tedi to the Daga Valley, and thus to the south of the traditional border); 6, the Papuan coastal and island cultures (from the Western Province eastwards across to Misima Island); 7, the Solomons (including Bougainville, taken by the bibliographer as more 'ethnically connected' to the western Solomon Islanders); 8, Vanuatu (formerly

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Introduction

the New Hebrides); 9, New Caledonia (including the Loyalty Islands); and 10, Fiji (though excluding the Lau group as Polynesian). For each chapter, geographical subdivisions have been forged, with culture maps added for guidance, and the tripartite rubric mentioned before - the traditional, adjustment, and indigenous Christian - are applied throughout, with a disentangling of complicated and disparate research findings in view. Some readers may have expected or preferred this bibliography to have been solely dedicated to the plethora of Melanesia's 'native' religions. Most entries concern these small autochthonous traditions, in any case, but I have eschewed the temptation to treat them under thematic headings (art, ritual, sorcery, and so forth), and even decided not to accentuate claimed distinctive features of given regions, as if each area offered different brands - "General Motors, Ford and Chrysler" - of the one general set of "spiritual beliefs, usually of the kind labeled animist. "I Admittedly I have divided the chapters into geographical parts, yet notations of individual cultural variation have almost always outweighed generalities. As important as such diversity may be, though, a survey of religions in the Melanesian region can hardly be limited to 'tribal' expressions. How could one neglect those unusual, collective responses to colonialism and social change - especially the so-called 'cargo cults' - for which the region is world famous? Fortunately for readers, the relevant phenomena lend themselves to an easier structuring of materials, and that is why the sections in each chapter on Contact and Adjustment Movements have been created. That there has been massive religious change towards Christianity, moreover, suggests 'a general sense of direction' in religious affairs, providing at least the similitude of a manageable field for a bibliographer, certainly justifying the sections on the ways peoples have adopted and adapted to the newly introduced faith. All this being the case, though, even the subject matter of the tri-sections is commonly interlocked, and sometimes the placement of an item in one position or another has simply been dictated by the weight of an author's interests or the critical importance of one aspect over others. Perhaps some of my readership will be irritated at the inclusion of materials documenting such a radical religious shift, romantically hoping that the work would still remain focused on 'primitives' - in pristine isolation as it were. I could not compromise scholarship with this kind of ploy, or commit to such a methodological absurdity. Melanesia's 'old' traditions were never untouched: since first entering the field my long ethnohistorical researches have taught me that the region's societies have been constantly interacting with each other, modifying their cosmologies and rituals in the process over untold years. Such alterations could have been more momentous for small human groups than we normally presuppose, even if they did not result in the kind of relative uniformities of belief and practice we are witnessing today, with the rampant 1

To quote yet contest M. Kelly, "750 Papua New Guineas in Search of Literature." In

Words and Worlds: Studies in the Social Role of Verbal Culture, ed. by S. Knight and S. Mukherjee. Sydney Studies in Society and Culture, 1. (Sydney: Sydney Studies in Society and Culture, 1983), pp. 55-56.

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XIX

Christianization of the whole Pacific island zone. Now, considering Melanesia has been approached by investigators from many fields - by differing types of social scientists, for a start, and not only anthropologists - what principles of selection affected the final shape of the survey in the following pages? Primarily governing the inclusion of items in this bibliography was evidence of an author's serious effort to comprehend relevant religious issues, or the presence of materials important for understanding Melanesian religiosities. Since for rural Melanesians the phenomena English-speakers call religion, culture, life- and folk-way, even the material mode of subsistence, were virtually the same thing, difficult choices had to be made. Decisions were usually dictated by writers' aims; works in such academic disciplines as politics, economics, geography, etc. which treat religion very secondarily, or fictive and poetic productions of indigenous writers, only occasionally received attention. In general, too, very small pieces - hundreds of brief notifications of interesting data, for instance, in such journals as Pacific Islands Monthly and The Papuan Villager - being necessarily disregarded.2 If there are any serious omissions, the bibliographer can only plead lack of time and energy to unearth every stone. In any case, it will be found that many items have not been given entries of their own but included with another publication. Sometimes this will be because of spatial restraints while in other instances this is because the writings appeared (or were discovered!) too late in the piece. Some journals carry more relevant articles than shown in the listings, yet one can at least be assured of an introduction to - and thus a judicious selection of all periodical resources. Principles of inclusion and exclusion had to be applied, moreover, to all kinds of publications that were 'border-line cases.' General ethnographies with chapters on religion were included and there were very few such works without these (though some were so broadly cast as to be irrelevant).3 Political, economic, and gender-focused studies were only included if their themes connected with our more flexible understanding of religion (as linked with warriorhood, reciprocity, or the pursuit of material security). Volumes and articles on human issues with pointed reference to Melanesian religions 4 have very rarely been given space. Introductions to world religions and cultures or entries in encyclopedias of religion were quite excluded if over-compressing information,5 as were world anthropologies or works on thematics in global 2 The same goes for various in-house missionary periodicals (e.g. , Southern Cross Log) , or published newsclipping services (e.g., Pacific Issues). See also under 0031. 3 E.g., A. Lewis, The Melanesians (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945), chs. 14-16 (growing out of his Ethnology ofMelanesia, pub. 1932). 4 E.g., W.J. Goode, Religion among the Primitives (Glencoe, 111: Free Press, 1950) chs. 8-9; J. Campbell, The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology (New York: Penguin, 1976 edn.), chs. 2, 5; E. Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973) ch. 8. 5 Cf., e.g., H. Wouters, Volken en volkenkunde. (Gei'llustreede Salamander, 16). (Amsterdam: Querido, 1963); Y. Bonnefoy (comp.) , American, African and Old European Mythologies (trans. W. Doniger), (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,

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Introduction

cultural studies.6 Writings on Melanesia deliberately directed to objects of study other than religious life have been left unplaced.7 Travel and human interest books in search of the primitive, or documented visits to the islands by celebrities, were almost always left aside, unless they contained otherwise unobtainable data.8 History books dealing only with the dimensions of colonial 1991) pp. 88-110; and infra, Part A, n. 98 (surveys); C.E. Loeliger "Melanesia." In The World's Religions, ed. by R.P. Beaver et al. (A Lion Handbook) (Hertford: Lion Publishing, 1994 edn.), pp. 142-44 (newly expand. edn., 2005, ed. bye. Partridge, pp. 113-14); J. Guiart, "Oceanic Religions and Missions ." In Encyclopedia of Religions, (gen.) ed. by Eliade. (New York: Macmillan, 1987) vol. 11, p. 46-53 (newly expanded edn. , Thomson & Gale, 2005 , ed. L. Jones, vol. 10, pp. 6783-94) (yet. cf. 0080; 0138); B. Colless and P. Donovan, "Religions of the Pacific." In A New Handbook of Living Religion, ed. by J.R. Hinnells (London: Penguin, 1998 edn.) pp. 555-57; J. Barker, "Religion." In The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society , ed. by M. Rapaport (Honolulu: Bess, 1999), ch. 19; Trompf, "Indigenous Religious Systems," and "Cargo Cults." In The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia , ed. by. B.V. Lal and K. Fortune, pp. 175-77, 253-56. (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2000) (most of these last references being Pacific-wide). 6 E.g., R. Keesing, Cultural Anthroplogy: A Contemporary Perspective (New York: Holt, Reinehart and Winston, 1975) ch. 17 (cf. 1785) (world-wide); M.J. Herskowitz, Economic Anthropology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960); M. Sahlins, Stone Age Economics (Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1972) (economics); C.H. and R.M. Berndt, The Barbarians: An Anthropological View . New Thinkers Library. (London: e.A . Watts & Co., 1971) chs.11-14 (inter-group perceptions) ; M.D. Sutton and E.N. Anderson, Introduction to Cultural Ecology (Oxford: Berg, 2004) (ecology). 7 E.g., such studies as 1.D.E. Schmeltz, Beitriige zur Ethnographie von Neu-Guinea: Die Stiimme an der Sild-Kilste von Niederliindisch Neu-Guinea. Internationales Archiv fUr Ethnographie, 16. (Leiden: Brill , 1905) (heavy social structural stress); V.J. Baker, "Elders in the Shadow of the Big Man." Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 139, 1 (1983): 1-17 (political); W.e. Clarke, Place and People: An Ecology of a New Guinea People (Berkeley; University of California Press, 1971) (ecology) ; L.R . Goldman, Premarital Sex among the Huli (Sydney: University of Sydney, 1988) (sexology); P. Hage and F. Harary, "Pollution Beliefs in Highland New Guinea." Man 16,3 (1981): 367-75 (semiological and taxonomic); J. Friedman and 1.G. Carrier (eds.), Melanesian Modernities. Lund Monographs in Social Anthropology, 3 (Lund: Lund University Press, 1996) (modernization, yet cf. 0811). 8 Earlier, e.g., B. Pullen-Burry, In a German Colony (London : Methuen, 1909); B. Grimshaw, The new New Guinea (London: Hutchison, 1910) (yet cf. 1925); F. Coombe, Islands of Enchantment: Many-Sided Melanesia, Seen through Many Eyes, and Recorded (London: Florence Cooombe, 1911); inter-War: e.W. Collinson, Life and Laughter 'midst the Cannibals (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1926); K. Bushell, Papuan Epic (London: Seeley, Service & Co. , [1936]); F. Clune, Prowling in Papua (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1942); K. Woodburn, Backwash of Empire (Melbourne: Georgian House, 1944); post-War: e.g., E. Cheesman, Six-Legged Snakes in New Guinea: A Collecting Expedition to Two Unexplored Islands (London: George G. Harrap, 1949), and Things Worth While (London: Hutchinson, 1958); O. Ruhan, Mountains in the Clouds (Adelaide: Rigby, 1963); R. Gardi, Tambaran: An Encounter with Cultures in Decline in New Guinea (trans. E. Northcott) (London: Constable, 1960); D.M. Davies, Journey into the Stone Age (London : Travel Book Club, 1965); E. Durack, Seeing

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xxi

possessions, expatriate figures and policies were not included, and if monographs about missionaries are listed it will only be because they contain valuable material about emergent indigenous Christianity, and have been left out when too broad, as, for instance, most world- or Pacific-wide surveys of mission affairs. 9 Atlases have not been represented, though for the topographic placement of cultures much use was made of S.R. Wurm and S. Hattori, Language Atlas of the Pacific Area, and V. Keck, 1. Wassmann et al., Historical Atlas of Ethnic and Linguistic Groups in Papua New Guinea;IO and for plotting the extent of mission influences a variety of cartographic sources came in handy.!1 Theses, some of them being our only source of certain through Papua New Guinea: An Artist's Impression of the Territory (Melbourne: Hawthorn Press, 1970; N. Lewis, An Empire of the East: Travels in Indonesia (London: Picador, 1995 edn.), ch. 17; even the recent B. Allen, The Proving Grounds: A Journey through the Interior of New Guinea and Australia (London: L Flamingo, 1992 edn.) (on indigenous quests for manhood to inspire whites); T. Flannery, Throwim Away Leg (Melbourne: Text, 1998) (more zoologically focussed), and P. Raffaele, The Last Tribes on Earth: Journeys among the World's most Threatened Cultures (New York: Macmillan, 2003) (too broad). Cf., e.g., Maslyn Williams, Stone Age Island: Seven Years in New Guinea (London: Collins, 1964) (celebrity); J. Senes, La vie quotidienne en Nouvelle-Caledonie de 1850 a nos jours (Paris: Hachette, 1997) (pioneer). Yet cf. 1837. 9 On these principles excluding, e.g., H. Zoller, Deutsch Neuguinea und meine Ersteigung des Finisterre-Gebirges (Stuttgart: Union Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1891); A. Julien, Histoire de l'Oceanie (Paris: PUF, 1942); C.H. Grattan, The Southwest Pacific to 1900: A Modern History - Australia, New Zealand, the Islands, Antarctica (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963) (colonial possessions); C.A.W. Monckton, Last Days in New Guinea (London: John Lane, 1922), etc. (colonial figures); J. Watsford, Glorious Gospel Triumphs as Seen in my Life and Work in Fiji and Australia (London: Charles H. Kelly, 1900); Papuan Missionaries of the Unevangelized Fields Mission. Papuan Triumphs (Auckland: Institute Printing and Publishing Society, 1953; S. M. Barlow, Arrows of his Bow (Chicago: Moody Press, 1960); R. Godden, The Story of Charles Godden and the Western Pacific (Sydney: Wentworth, 1967); R.H. Green, My Story (Melbourne; [self-published], 1978); W. Fugmann, Und ob ich schon wanderte im finstern Tal...: Von Leben und Sterben zweier Zeugen Jesu Christi (Neuendettelsau: Freimund-Verlag, 1982); H. Morton, Flying For God (Sydney: BioKingdom Enterprises, 1986); A. Forissier, Presences de Marie. Fondateurs et fondatrices maristes (Paris: Nouvelle Cite, 1990) (missionaries); W. W. Scudder, Nineteen Centuries of Mission (New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1899); RH. Montgomery, Foreign Missions. (Handbooks for the Clergy). (London: Longmans, Green, 1902) (as examples of world-wide mission surveys); J.W. Burton, Modern Missions in the South Pacific (London: London Missionary Society and Methodist Overseas Missions of Australia and New Zealand, 1949) (Pacific-wide); E.A. Jericho, Seedtime and Harvest in New Guinea ([Adelaide:] New Guinea Mission Board, UELCA, [1961]) (records of mission staff only). 10 Respectively: (Canberra; Australian Academy of Humanities and the Japanese Academy, 1982), and (Basel: University of Basel Institute of Ethnology, 1995), esp. Vol. 1, pI. 3; Vol. 3, pts. 4-6. II See, e.g. N. Gunson's contribution to Atlas of the World's Religions, ed. by N. Smart (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) pp. 86-95, 220, 223. Other atlases used include those by D. King and S. Ranck, and C. McEvedy.

xxii

Introduction

cultures,12 could not be listed in their own right - this is a formalist bibliography - and the same goes for archival sources,13 unpublished conference proceedings and working papers, or many precious (separate and unbound) mimeographed pieces. 14 A tiny modicum of microfiche presentations have been allowed entry if a few hard copies of them exist, and, 12 E.g., on traditional materials, K. Luckert, 'Mythical Geographies of the Dead in Melanesia' (Doctoral dissert. , University of Chicago Divinity School, Chicago, 1986) (general) ; M.A. Woods, 'Kamula Social Structure and Ritual' (Doctoral dissert., Macquarie University, Sydney, 1982) (Kamula); K. Lindergard, 'Haruai Male Initiation Rituals' (Doctoral dissert., University of Stockholm, Stockholm, 1997) (Haruai); A.L. Abramson, 'Culture, Contradiction and Counterculture in the Life-World of a Fijian Chiefdom' (Doctoral dissert., University of London, London, 1992) (highland Fiji) (specific); on adjustment movements, A.M. Maahs, 'A Sociological Interpretation of the Cargo Cult of New Guinea and Selected Comparable Phenomena in Other Areas of the World' (Doctoral dissert., University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, 1956) ; on emergent Melanesian Christianity, e.g. , G.B. Batley, 'An Analytical Evaluation of the Emic Christian Theologizing Taking Place among the Samban People of Papua New Guinea' (Doctoral dissert., Melbourne College of Divinity) (Melbourne, 1993) (Samban); S.K. Thorgeir, 'Purism, Syncretism, Symbiosis: Cohabiting Traditions on Mota, Banks Islands, Vanuatu' (Doctoral dissert., University of Oslo, 1999); though also infra, Part A, ns. 91, 93, 95 . For resource theses about missions, start with W.A. Smalley, "Doctoral Dissertations on Mission: Ten Year Update, 1982-1991." International Bulletin of Missionary Research 17, 3 (1993): 97-125. 13 Cf., e.g., C.A. Schmitz, "The Archives of Myths for Melanesia and East Indonesia at the Frobenius Institute, Frankfurt am Main." In Folk Religion and the World View in the Southwestern Pacific (Frobenius Institut Symposium, Tokyo) (Frankfurt: Frobenius Institut, n.d. [1960s]) pp. 13-19 [cf. 0849]) (this archive never really being developed, certainly not along the complex taxonomic lines suggested by Schmitz, e.g. , in "Mythus und Kultus in Melanesien: Probleme und Moglichkeit." In E. Haberland et al [eds.], Festschrift fur Ad. E. Jensen (Munich: Renner, 1964) esp. pp. 544-45); B. Jones, "The Melanesian Archive." Australian Anthropology Society Newsletter 22 (1984): 9-10. Other archival collections, I should note here, are often on microfilm (e.g., 'Reitz Collection' of the Lutheran Missions in New Guinea [Neuendettelsau; Rhenish, etc.]; Sacred Heart Missionaries), but others are not (e.g. , SVD [Society of Divine Word] Gen. Archiv. , Rome; Lutheran Archives in Adelaide). For examples of manuscriptal but nearpublished materials, e.g., R. Lornley and D. Eastburn, 'The Mendi.' Unpublished typescript bound as a book (Mendi: Mendi High School, 1976) (traditional); J.F. Wagner, 'The Outgrowth and Development of the Cargo Cult.' Mimeographed MS (Ulap: Lutheran Mission, Kalasa Circuit) (adjustment) ; P. Rhoads, 'The History of the Evangelical Alliance Mission in Irian Jaya.' Typescript (n. pI. [Irian Jaya] : Directed Study #595, 1988) (Christianity). Photographic collections rating mention here are the William Macarthur Scrapbook pictures (Sydney's Mitchell Library PXA 4358-1) (mainly Torres Strait); Haddon Collection (University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge); De Boismenu Collection (comp. Tromp£), New Guinea Collection, Michael Somare Library, UPNG; and F.E. Williams Collection (National Library of Australia, Canberra) (all Papua). 14 As with many of G.S. Parsonson's essays; although cf. A Chowning, "The Real Melanesia: An Appraisal of Parsonson's Theories." Mankind 6,12 (1968): 641-52, and the entry 1870 below on what he did publish.

Introduction

XXlll

although I should draw attention at the last to the massive listing of writings on Papua New Guinea made by Terence Hays,15 no Internet site is ever listed in its own right.

15 Internet address: www.papuawc b.org/b ib/ha vs/ng/ intro.htrnl for Hays, Bibliografi New Guinea- Bibliography. Note also item 0650 in the Bibliographical Survey.

Part One The Study of Melanesian Religions

The History of the Study of Melanesian Religions Melanesia is the most complex ethnic scene on earth. This great panoply of islands was recognized by early European explorers as inhabited by black, African-looking peoples, stimulating the French savant Dumont d'Urville to name them the 'black islands' of the Pacific Ocean, as distinct from Polynesia ('many islands') and Micronesia ('small islands'), where the peoples were lighter-skinned.] Melanesia conventionally spans along a wide line stretching almost five thousand kilometers from Vogelkop, West New Guinea (or Indonesia's easternmost Province of Irian Jaya), to the main and western islands of Fiji. Its 570,000+ km 2 of territorial zones include the great and mountainous land mass of New Guinea, the second largest island in the world, with its archipelagos and outliers, and takes in the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia and Vanuatu (the New Hebrides) . These islands were being inhabited through a discernible easterly movement of dark-skinned, crinkly-haired peoples from between 72,000 BP and 3,000 BCE within the region's enormous tropical compass. Our bibliography addresses the populations originating from this spread. It includes a large section on general treatments of Melanesia, and then, in its listing and commenting on works about separate regions, it proceeds from the west to the east. 2 ] On J.S .c. Dumont d'Urville, see R.P. Lesson, Voyage autour du monde.. .sur La corvette La Coquille (Paris: P. Pourrat, 1838-39) 2 Vols. 2 This book does not treat far-western 'fringe' Melanesian cultures, as sometimes claimed for the Kei , Am, and Tanimbar Islands (and even Timor), or the eastern ('Polynesian') Fijian Islands (the Lau group). It also excludes from consideration Polynesian enclaves (e.g. , Tikopia, Ontong Java, Rennell, Bellona, Nukapu Atoll), let alone Micronesian ones (e.g., Wuvulu). Pace N. Thomas (see Bibliographical Survey 0157) (Melanesia vis-a-vis Polynesia); C. Moore,New Guinea: Crossing Boundaries and History (Honolulu: University of Hawai'j Press, 2003) (Malay/west New Guinea interface). Possible Australian connections are left unexplored, yet cf. D.R. Moore,

4

Study of Melanesian Religions

There are as many as 1,500 discrete indigenous languages in Melanesia, with virtually the same number of 'cultures' and thus traditional 'religions.'3 Only rarely does one find obvious lexical equivalents to the English word religion in its current usage, yet terms for 'worship' and 'the ways of the forebears' are almost invariably present as relevant indicators. 4 Conditions of relative isolation have dictated an extraordinary multiplicity of cosmologies and countless nuances of meaning. Territorial sizes of cuituro-linguistic complexes vary, ranging from some containing very small clusters of villages (e.g., Mis, near Madang town) to the occupancy of vast valleys and mountainsides (Enga, New Guinea highlands). The most populous areas on contact were in the highlands of New Guinea. The vast majority of the region's cultures were on that land mass, in any case, and were landlocked, although so were the mountain peoples of the other large islands. Since unstable inland affairs inhibited journeying, durable goods and valuables far out-traveled humans, being moved from point to point along trade routes between the ocean and central ranges; and while along the coasts and between islands there were well known, long-distant deep-sea trading expeditions - Melanesia yielding the oldest clear evidence of oceanic navigation - these were exceptional beside smaller shoreline and hinterland networks. 5 The Melanesians were mostly horticuituralists (perhaps the world's first);6 they also domesticated pigs and Islanders and Aborigines at Cape York: An Ethnographic Reconstruction Based on the 1848-1850 "Rattlesnake" Journals of 0. W. Brierly and Information he Obtained from Barbara Thompson (Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, 1979), and cf. n. 38 below. 3 G.W. Trompf, "Melanesian Religions." In The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics , ed. by R.E. Asher. (Oxford: Pergamon, 1994) Vol. 5, p. 2442. Also in Concise Encyclopedia of Language and Religion, ed. by J.F.A. Sawyer and J.M.Y. Simpson. (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2001) pp. 75-77; cf. W.A. Foley , "The Languages of New Guinea." Annual Review ofAnthropology 29 (2000): 357-404. 4 As exemplified in a lexical survey by Trompf, "Themes in Traditional Melanesian Religions." In Melanesian Religion and Christianity, ed. by idem. (Madang: Divine Word University Press, 2006) p. 3. 5 E.g., I. Hughes, New Guinea Stone Age Trade. Terra Australis, 3 (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1977); J. Specht and J.P. White (eds.), 0148: 161-435. The great antiquity of boat usage in the Melanesian region can be inferred from the early date of Buka Island's occupation (at Kilu , from 32,000 BP); cf. M. Spriggs, "Pleistocene Human Occupation of the Solomon Islands, Melanesia." Antiquity 62, 237 (1988): 70306; S. Wickler, The Prehistory of Buka: A Stepping Stone Island in the Northern Solomons (Canberra: Australian National University, 2001). The best indicator of the long-distant movements and trading of dark-skinned peoples across northern Melanesia is the pottery style Lapita. See P. Swadling, with R. Wagner and B. Laba, Plumes from

Paradise: Trade Cycles in Outer Southeast Asia and their Impact on New Guinea and Nearby Islands until 1920 (Brisbane: Papua New Guinea National Museum and Robert Brown, 1996) pp. 205-09; Spriggs, The Island Melanesians (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); along with Melanesia's oldest grave site (1100 BCE) recently found at Efate,Vanuatu. 6 Swadling (with K. Kaidoga), Papua New Guinea's Prehistory: An Introduction (Port Moresby: National Museum and Art Gallery, 1981); Trompf, In Search of Origins: The

History of Study

5

dogs, yet relished hunting wild game and (where placed for it) seafood. Technological achievements were relatively uniform - stone and bone tools, wooden framed building constructions , some pottery, etc . - although expressions of material culture were almost inevitably related to belief-patterns, and thus varied. Factors of geographical separation, moreover, worked against any possibilities for political unity, let alone culturo-religious homogeneity. Except in certain pockets of the region (as among the Kiriwina, Trobriand Islands, or on Viti Levu, Fiji), the sense of any 'paramount political authority' was lacking, and thus the uncertain survival of acephalous societies engendered ritual variegation - in handling the sensitivities of inter-tribal exchange and in managing conflict. 7 Melanesian traditional religions were not 'systematic' or 'ordered.' The typical absence of permanent priesthood and 'credal formularies' meant that adaptations and experimentations often occurred through 'guiding' religious experiences (including dreams) and consensus decision-making about right practice, these flexibilities belying older anthropological assumptions that 'primitive religions' were static. Despite numberless divergences in traditional ways of life, however, certain regional and distinctive or thematic elements have shown in the wake of modern researches, helping to salvage a sense of Melanesia as a distinct culturo-religious zone. The temptation to generalize about Melanesian cultures, and to compare them to those in neighboring areas, of course, calls for extreme caution, even if the urge will not go away. To contrast Melanesia's 'magic' with Polynesia's 'religion,' for instance, is a facile move. 8 To admit, by comparison, that Austronesian patterns of belief and behavior in both Polynesia and Micronesia tend to be cosmologically 'vertical' and socially hierarchical while Melanesia's orientations are more 'horizontal', is a sensible - though not inviolable - analytical rule to follow (0061). Dramatic religious changes throughout Melanesia over the last centuryand-a-half, largely the result of contact with the outside world, have added to the region's complexity. The nature of these changes has to be gauged in terms of 'encounter context' - whether contact was early (1860s-70s, for example), or later (from the 1930s on), and whether the external impact was extreme, medial or minimal. 9 The special nature of responses to intrusion in the region have made it famous in the world of religious studies, especially through the phenomenon of the so-called cargo cult. As a result of evangelization processes, Beginnings of Religion in Western Theory and Archaeological Practice. Studies in World Religions, 1 (Elgin, Ill.: New Dawn Press, 2005 edn.) pp. 142-47. 7 With prehistoric developments in mind, start with D. Feil, (1066); cf. J. Golson, "The Remarkable History of Indo-Pacific Man." Search 3 (1972): 13-17 (for a seminal article). 8 See R. Firth, Human Types (London: Abacus, 1956 edn.) ch. 4. Cf. P. Jorion and G. Delbos, "La notion spontanee de la magie dans Ie discours anthropologique." L'Homme 20 (1980): 91-103 for the persisting temptation to use the term magic in anthropological writing (following J.G. Frazer, M. Mauss, etc.). 9 M. Meleisea and P. Schoeffel, "Discovering Outsiders," 0213 , pp. 119-52.

6

Study of Melanesian Religions

moreover, at this point in time over 90% of Melanesians connect themselves to some Christian mission , church or allegiance, and the varying currents, styles and effects of Christianity need accounting for in scholarship. This bibliography seeks to do justice to the Melanesian religious scene as a whole, so that a triadic subdivision has been applied throughout its listings, with 'The Traditional [Religions],' 'Contact and Adjustment Phenomena,' and 'Emergent Melanesian Christianity' being covered in turn. Certainly, with such international interest in Melanesia's new religious movements, and with the emergence of indigenous churches and theologies comparable to those attracting extensive study in Black Africa, a wide encompassment of relevant literature on religion is necessary. 10

The History of the Study of Melanesian Religions Up until the sixteenth century, Melanesia was barely known in Western geographical terms. Admittedly the longest-running trade route on earth originated near New Guinea, on the small Spice Islands off the western coast of Halmahera (Indonesia).11 It is likely that islanders were taken from the Bird's Head (Vogelkop) coast and exchanged as slaves at points along the spice route; and perhaps the unidentified black people used for human sacrifice in Rome ca. 17 BCE were Melanesians. 12 Ancient utopian literature depicted mysterious islands in the farthest east, and rumors of landmasses beyond Halmahera could have inspired such tales. 13 From the eighth century CE far west New Guinea was known to Sumatran and Chinese traders, and it was counted within the Majapahit Kingdom during the late Middle Ages, falling part of a local Muslim ruler's domains in early modern times. 14 It was not until the sixteenth century, however, that the coasts of New Guinea and the Solomons had been cartographically plotted as a significant island chain east of the Spice Islands . IS 10 Thus Trompf on "Melanesian Religion in All its Aspects." Catalyst 18,2 (1988): 15562. II P.O. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984) pp. 101-03. 12 W.W. Fowler, "The Carmen Saeculae of Horace and Its Performance." In Roman Essays and Interpretations, ed. by Fowler. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1920) pp. 111-26. 13 J. Ferguson, Utopias of the Classical World. Aspects of Greek and Roman Life (London: Thames and Hudson, 1975) ch. 14, cf. ch. 12. 14 See B.H.W. Koentjaraningrat, Penduduk Irian Barat (Jakarta: Penerbitan Universitas, 1963) p. 55; J.F. Onim, 'A Regional History of Desa Wersar Kecamatan Teminabuan' (Abepura: MS, 1977 [rev. 1999]); P.H.W. Haenen, Weefsels van wederkerigheid: sociale structuur bi} de Moi van Irian Jaya (The Hague: CIP-Gegevens Koninklijke Bibliotheek,

1992). 15 For a convenient summary of the state of knowledge by 1601, A. de Herrara, "Descripci6n de las Indias Occidentales, de Antonio de Herrara, etc. en Madrid, etc." In M. Fleurier, Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769, to the South-East of New Guinea, etc. (London: n. pub., 1791) pp. 17-18, cf. also P. Fernandez de Quir6s, Historia del descrubimento de las regiones Australes, ed. by J. Zaragosa. Biblioteca HispanoUltramarina (Madrid: Manuel G. Hernandez, 1876-82) 3 Vols. (in English in the Hakluyt

History of Study

7

Other Melanesian complexes became landfalls over the next two centuries (New Hebrides [Espiritu Santo], 1606; Fiji, 1643; New Caledonia, 1774); and by 1928 the great New Guinea island - as the world's "Last Unknown" - had been crossed by European explorers for the first time. 16 As of now, just into the new millennium, there are perhaps two Melanesian societies, both in eastern highlands Irian Jaya (West Papua), without 'definite contact' and access to 'global culture.' A historical study of literature about the religious life of Melanesia requires a monograph to avoid scholarly injustice. It is not only that the region is ethnographically so rich. Whole theories about religion have been made out of the Melanesian data - the experience of mana (spirit-power) being most famous in this regard 17 - and of course important foundation theoreticians of modern scientific anthropology have made their mark through fieldwork in these islands (Malinowski, Haddon, Rivers, Seligman[n], Hocart, Leenhardt, Thurnwald, Margaret Mead, Bateson, Raymond Firth , etc.).18 The story of Series, 2 [1967 reprint] , Vols. 14-15), de Quiros taking over the crucial Mendafia exploratory expedition to discover the Solomon Islands after the latter's death in 1595. 16 Start with D.L. Oliver, The Pacific Islands (Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press, 1975 edn.). Cf. G. Souter, New Guinea: The Last Unknown (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1963) pp. 160-05. 17 For one review, H. Philsooph, "Primitive Magic and Mana." At 1561: 182-203, cf. below, n. 51. Theories about the soul and taboo/tabu are not to be forgotten. See Trompf, In Search of Origins, op. cit., pp. 84,107-9, cf. , e.g. , W.H.R . Rivers, 0141 (diffusionist) ; R. Lehmann, Mana: DerBegriff des auj3erordentlich WirkungsvoUen bei Sudseevolkern . Staatliche Forschungsinstitute in Leipzig: Institut fUr VOIkenkunde: Ethnographie und Ethnologie, 1 (Leipzig: Institut fUr Volkerkunde, 1922),2 Vols (against depersonalizing mana); E. Arbman, "Seele und Mana." Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft 27 (1930): 29394; and also, W.E. Harney, Taboo (Sydney: Australasian Publishing, 1944) (other approaches). Consider also A.M. Hocart's posthumous Social Origins (London : Watts and Co., 1954); W. La Barre, The Ghost Dance: The Origins of Religion (New York: Delta, 1970) chs. 7-10. 18 E.g., M.W. Young, "Malinowski and the Function of Culture." In Creating Culture: Profiles in the Study of Culture, ed. by D.J. Austin-Broos. (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1987) pp. 124-40; I. Langham, The Building of British Social Anthropology: WH.R. Rivers and his Cambridge Disciples in the Development of Kinship Studies. Studies in the History of Modern Science, 8 (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1981) chs. 4-6; H. Kuklick, The Savage Within: The Social History of British Anthropology 1885-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992) (Rivers, A.e. Haddon, e.G. Seligman, etc.); Rivers, History and Ethnology. Helps for Students of History, 48 (London: Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, 1922) pp. 8-28; Haddon, History of Anthropology (London: Watts and Co., 1910) esp. ch. 10; R. Lowie, The History of Ethnological Theory (New York: Holt, Rinehardt and Winston, 1937) pp. 212-16, 242-52 (on M. Mauss, R. Thurnwald); Trompf, Origins, op. cit. , pp. 50, 236 (Hocart, though not clarifying his support of Rivers' approaches); J. Clifford, Person and Myth (see 2026) ; J. Guiart, 2028 (Leenhardt); L. Foerstel and A. Gilliam eds., Confronting the Margaret Mead Legacy: Scholarship, Empire, and the South Pacific (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992); M. Mead, "End Linkage: A Tool for Cross-Cultural Analysis."

8

Study of Melanesian Religions

scholarship would have to account for shifts in interpretative orientation, let alone the relationship between missionary and anthropological researches, and between these and other academic disciplines, especially Religious Studies. We would naturally want to know in more depth than can be provided here, in any case, who or how many investigators broach societies from structuro-functionalist viewpoints, are 'intellectualists' as against 'Durkheimians' and cultural ecologists, read myths a La Levi-Strauss, apply psychoanalysis, or carry out work under the influence of such theorists of comparative religion as Mircea Eliade. 19 And a reckoning would be required of various significant scrutinies of the 'primitive mind' or the social scientific and comparative studies of cultures or religions that understandably contain some reflection on Melanesians and Melanesianists,20 as do all sorts of books, scholarly to popular, exploring some interesting social themes crossculturally.21 In About Bateson, ed. by J. Brockman. (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1977) pp. 173-78; R. Firth, "Notes on the Social Structure of some South-Eastern New Guinea Communities." Man 52 (1952): 65-67 (Mead, Bateson, Firth). Some of the above-mentioned theorists, of course, used Melanesian findings as the springboard for a general philosophizing, cf., e.g., Malinowski, Freedom and Civilization (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1947) pI. 4, ch. 9; pI. 5, ch. 3; Bateson "Experiments in Thinking about Observed Ethnological Material." Philosophy of Science 8 (1941): 55-64; Mead, Male and Female: A Study of Sexes in a Changing World (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962 edn.) esp.ch . 7. 19 For background, e.g., I.e. Jarvie, The Revolution in Anthropology (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967) (on structural-functionalism); the Melanesianist P. Lawrence on "Tylor and Frazer: The Intellectualist Tradition." In Creating Culture, ed. by Austin-Broos, op. cit., pp. 18-34 (intellectualist respect for individual thinking versus Durkheimian emphases on collective behavior); M. Harris, The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture (New York: Thomas Crowell, 1968) ch. 23 (cultural ecology); G. Roheim, Magic and Schizophrenia, ed. by W. Muensterberger (New York: International Universities Press [1955)), cf. B.G. Burton-Bradley in 0364: ch. 17; J. Layard, "The Incest Taboo and the Virgin Archetype." In Images of the Untouched, ed. by J. Stroud and G. Thomas. Pegasus Foundation Series, 1 (Dallas: Dallas Institute of Humanities and Culture, 1982) pp. 143-69 (Melanesianists as Freudian and Jungian respectively); Trompf, "Mircea Eliade and the Interpretation of Cargo Cults." Religious Traditions 12 (1989): 21-38 (Eliade). 20 Thus, to take famous names, Andrew Lang, "New Guinea Folk-Lore," introducing H.H. Romilly, From My Verandah in New Guinea (London: David Nutt, 1889); Lucien Levy-Bruhl, L'ame primitive. Travaux de l'annee sociologique (Paris. F. Alcar, 1927) chs. I, 5; Hocart, Kingship (2061) pp. 70-77; and Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Culture (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1935) ch. 5. C£. , further, W.A . Lessa and E.Z. Vogt (eds.), Reader in Comparative Religion: An Anthropological Approach (New York: Harper and Row, 1979 edn.) pp. 36ff., 433 ff., etc. 21 For unusual material, e.g., R. Pettazzoni, Confessions of Sins Among Primitive Peoples. Congres International des Sciences Anthropologiques et Ethnologiques, etc. (London: Royal Anthropological Institute, 1934) (academic); F. Quilici, The Mysterious World of Magic (London: Bay, 1980) pp. 156-238; J. Braddock, The Bridal Bed (London: Corgi, 1960) (both popular).

History of Study

9

The contact history of Melanesia, what is more, has been very complicated, being affected by stages of exploration, world wars and the resistances of mountain terrain. 22 To illustrate such points very briefly, German ethnographic research was seriously curtailed after World War I in what had been Deutsch-Neu-Guinea; theft of unpublished research papers occurred along the northern coast of New Britain during the Japanese invasion of World War II; many coastal cultures were being investigated over a generation before highland ones were; and then, if the Australian Papuan and New Guinea Highlands are taken as cases for consideration, Africanist-influenced interests in social structure blinkered many scholars from seeing highland religions for what they were until the 1980s. 23 A complete history of studies into Melanesian religions, I have already begun suggesting, has to account for the input from various nationalities both before and beyond the time the indigenous persons themselves start writing about their own situation. This bibliography could hardly be limited to Anglophone literature: the Dutch have published so much on West New Guinea (West Papua), the Germans on the New Guinea side of Papua New Guinea, and the French on New Caledonia and Vanuatu (New Hebrides). Eastern European scholars were prominent in earlier stages of investigation and are appearing on the scene again; North American work reflects the boom in post-War anthropology by people of many backgrounds; and of late Melanesians themselves had made significant contributions (occasionally in linguefranche). Missionary researchers have generally been more culturally diverse across the board than 'secular' ones, and their work has been less strictly anthropological, being carried out with conversion in view. The study of religions in Melanesia cannot and ought not be reduced to ethnographic/ethnologic/anthropological inquiry, and although there has been some tendency among anthropologists to be exclusivist about their rights over the 'domain of the primitive,' missionary description was for years setting the scene for a wider agenda. The study of Melanesian religions should properly include ethnohistory and oral history, even comparative law, especially when it comes to putting phenomena of traditional religions in the time-context of field workers' visitations (and B. Jinks, P. Biskup, and H. Nelson (eds.), Readings in New Guinea History (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1973) ch. 6, pt. 3; J.L. Whittaker et al., (eds.), Documents and Readings in New Guinea History (0400) esp. sects. 3-4. 23 E.g., W.D. Smith, Politics vs the Science of Culture in Germany 1840-1920 (London: Oxford University Press, 1991) ch. 9 (German scholarship); C. Laufer, "Hiltruper HerzJesu-Missionare und Missionsschwestern 31/2 Jahre im japanischen Konzentrationslager." Missionsleiden von Missionsfreunden: Hiltrup-Shichtsien-Rabaul 1941/45 (Hiltrup: MSC, 1946) p. 13 (theft, the most important lost theses being by Sacred Heart Fathers losef Theiler on the Tolai, and Otto Futscher on the Butam, a now extinct culture between the Tolai and the Baining, all East New Britain cultures); lA. Barnes, "African Models in the New Guinea Highlands." Man 62 (1962): 5-9 (the most influential Africanist article), cf. below for the effects and for an anthropological turning-point (cf. 1174). 22

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anthropologists have only recently come to terms with 'the historical dimension').24 As for Melanesian religion in its other aspects, other disciplines require appropriate entailment. Consider the multi-disciplinary needs for a solid history and sociology of adjustments in situations of contact and social change. So-called cargo cults, interestingly, have been as much the object of sociological, social-psychological and historical enquiry as anthropological. When it comes to post-contact developments, church, mission and general religious history will obviously have to be involved, as also social work, peace studies, missiology and contextual theology . The new discipline of Religious Studies/Studies in Religion (including Comparative Religion) has come to take in all these academic pursuits in a multi-disciplinary, polymethodic fashion, gathering up strands of scholarly endeavor otherwise left dangling in separatio. In the sequences of labor, the earliest reportage on Melanesian religions came from missionaries. Milanese Foreign Mission Congregation pioneer Ambrosoli and English Wesleyan Waterhouse were documenting "superstitions" on Rook (Umboi) and Fiji respectively in the mid-1850s (0840, 2045 , cf. also 2004, 2059) , while the first description of a New Guinea mainland culture was made at Doreh Bay by German Lutherans Geissler and Ottow, acting as an 'advanced guard' for Dutch Reformed personnel (0511), and perhaps the first published ethnographic monograph of lasting value in its treatment of a Melanesian culture-complex was Wesleyan missionary Thomas Williams' Fiji and the Fijians of 1858.25 The first great monograph on The Melanesians (pub. 1891) was by an Anglican priest, Robert Codrington, whose linguistic and ethnographic work for the Melanesian Mission ended up affecting debates about the very nature of language (via Friedrich Max MUller) and introduce mana to scholars already applying the term 'animism' to 'primitive' societies. 26 So-called totemism, having been identified in Australian 24 See, e.g. A. Bensa's groundbreaking Chroniques kanak: l'ethnologie en marche. [Spec. Issue of] Ethnie-Document 18- I9 (1995). Cf. D. Gewertz and E. Schieffelin (0325). 25 We can learn something of Williams' personality through the study of his well known son-in-law and painter Norman Lindsay, a thoroughly paganic soul by comparison! See J. Hetherington, Norman Lindsay: The Embattled Olympian (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1973), esp. pp. 5-6, cf. Lindsay, The Cousin from Fiji (Sydney: Ure Smith, 1945). Regarding Geissler and Ottow's report, its translation into English by J. Godschalk is due to be published in the series White On Black. Gen. eds., F. Tomasetti and Trompf. (Sydney: School of Studies in Religion, 2006- ). 26 See 0081-2 ; and Codrington's Melanesian Languages (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885), cf. G.W. Stocking, "R.H. Codrington." In The Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. by M. Eliade. (New York: Macmillan, 1987 edn ) Vol. 3, p. 558 (new 2005 edn., Thomson & Gale, 2005, ed. L. Jones, Vol.. 5, pp. 1847-48). For F. Max MUller (comparative philologist and acclaimed 'father' of comparative religion), see his The Science of Language (London : Longman, Green and Co., 1891 edn.) 2 Vols., with his attentions helping Europeans to put Melanesia "on the map," note, e.g., the ninth edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature (Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1899), index. Vol., pp. 159,311 , 331,411; cf.

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Aboriginal cultures, was also a hotly debated topic; it was commonly believed that spiritual connections between an animal or plant and a social group (such as clan, moiety, "sept") marked an early stage in the foundation of religion (after fetishism, before magic) . A variety of examples of Melanesian totemism was first set up for viewing by missionary observers in 1892, this time by Methodists, and the differences they presented helped clarify that belonging to a totem group was above all a means of securing social solidarity.27 The tradition of missionary anthropology was to persist and strengthen over future years, in the general ethnography of West Papua/Irian Jaya, New Guinea, and New Caledonia - more noticeably among Catholics. 28

also W.N. Gunson, "Victorian Christianity in the South Seas." Journal of Religious History 8, 2 (1974): 188, 191-92. Later on mana, see Hocart 0109, and also G . van der Leeuw, Phiinomenologie der Religion (Ttibingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1933) pt. I , 1-2. On animism/animatism in turn-of-the-century theory , E.B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (London, (1871] , 1903 edn.) Vol. 2, chs. 12-15; R.R. Marett, The Threshold of Religion (London : Methuen, 1909) pp. 1-32, and slightly later, A.P. Lyons (1367, cf. 1044). For contemporary defense of the concept of animism, e.g., M.D. Stringer, "Rethinking Animism: Thoughts from the Infancy of our Discipline. " Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute New Series 5 (1999): 541-6. 27 J.T. Field et al., "Notes on Totemism." Annual Report, British New Guinea (1897-8): Append. C, pp. 134-7 (with cases being from Kiwai, Mawatta and Tubetube (coastal and island Papua), Saibai Island (Torres Strait), Tolai (New Britain), and Fiji, and with the best known of these missionaries being George Brown, comparing totemism among the Tolai and the Samoans (Polynesia) as in 0912. Cf. also 0905, 1848, and T. Swain, Interpreting Aboriginal Religion (Adelaide: Australian Association for the Study of Religions, 1985), ch. 3. 28 E.g., J. van Baal, "Past Perfect." In Crossing Cultural Boundaries: The Anthropological Experience, ed. by S .T. Kimball and J.B. Watson. (San Francisco: Chandler, 1972) pp. 87-101 (a great academic anthropologist honoring his missionary predecessors); S.R. Jaarsma, '''More Pastoral than Academic.. .' Practice and Purpose of Missionary Ethnographic Research (West New Guinea, 1950-1962)." Anthropos 88 (1993): 109-33, with another version as "A Challenged Perspective : Missionary Ethnography in West New Guinea." In Anthropologists and the Missionary Endeavour, ed. by A. Borsboom and J. Kommers, see 0637: ch. 3; J. Boelaars, 0617 ; yet cf. A. Ploeg, 0574: 227-39 (complicating the picture) (all on West Papua/Irian Jaya); F. Tomasetti, 0864, cf. J. Triebel (ed.), Der Missionar als Forscher: Beitrdge christlicher Missionare zur Erforschung fremder Kulturen und Religionen. Missionswissenschaftliche Forschungen, 21 (Gtitersloh: Gtitersloher Verlagshaus G. Mohn, 1988) (Lutherans in New Guinea); G. Gusdorf, "Situation de Maurice Leenhardt en l'ethnologie fran~aise de Levy-Bruhl a Levi-Strauss." Le monde non-Chretien 71-2 (Jul.-Dec. 1964): 139-92; M.R. Spindler, "The Legacy of Maurice Leenhardt." International Bulletin of Missionary Research 13,4 (1989): 170-74; also as "Maurice Leenhardt, 1878-1954: Building Indigenous Leadership." In Mission Legacies: Biographical Studies of Leaders of the Modern Missionary Movement, ed. by G. Anderson et al. American Society of Missiology Series, 19 (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 1994) pp. 494-9; and cf. above, n. 18 (New Caledonia).

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From early on 'secular' ethnographers often had to 'break into' research fields already under the considering eyes of some missionaries who had reports and sometimes their own publications in view. Bronislaw Malinowski's diary on the years 1914-15 makes for some interesting reading in this respect: one can tell that he hardly got anywhere in his work among the Papuan coastal Mailu (Papua New Guinea) because William Saville of the London Mission Society evaded passing on information he wanted for his own book: In Unknown New Guinea (pub. 1926) . Thus Malinowski moved eastwards and found 'independent discovery' easier on the Trobriands.29 It was there that he achieved some of the highest standards of field research in the whole history of anthropology (1551, 1556), being almost three years in the field - albeit maintaining a strong (structuralist-) functionalist stance.3 0 His exceptional attainments should not detract from the fact that his contemporaries relied on missionaries' assistances more than he did (e.g., Seligman[n] on Eric Giblin in 1910) or even accepted a necessary co-authorship (e.g., Jenness and Ballantyne in 1920; seeI515-6). We need to remind ourselves that Richard Neuhauss, who published the first multi-volume study of Melanesian cultures, could have produced little without the Lutheran missionaries who advised him about religious affairs on the Huon Peninsula and wrote contributions to his work (cf., e.g., 0647, 0841, 0845, 0856); and that pioneer investigations by Sacred Heart missionaries provided a basis for Hans Nevermann's general ethnography of Manus ten years before Mead arrived in 1928 to research for the most widely read of all books about traditional Melanesia: Growing up in New Guinea (1043, 1046, cf. 1045).31 Later on we find Peter Lawrence, author of the most widely referred to text on cargo cults, Road belong Cargo, but also general ethnographer of Madang cultures, openly admitting that he stood on the

29 Malinowski, A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967) pp. 21-136 (only the Quaker Greenway helped him with the Mailu); cf. Saville, 1463; and [Malinowski], Malinowski Among the Magi: 'The Nature of Mailu ' [1914] , ed. by Young. (London: Routledge, 1988) esp. chs. 5-6 (cf. 1464). 30 I.e., religious elements being explained almost exclusively in terms of the functions they played in societal structures and in response to the basic biological needs of humans. See esp. his Die Dynamik des Kulturwandels (Vienna: Humboldt Verlag, 1946), p. 92; A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays (New York: Galaxy, 1960 edn.), ch. 7; cf. R. Firth (ed.), Man and Culture: An Evaluation of the Work of Bronislaw Malinowski (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957); Young (ed.), The Ethnography of Malinowski: The Trobriand Islands 1915-18 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979); cf. idem, Malinowski's Kiriwina: Fieldwork Photography, 1915-1918 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998). Young has gone on to provide biographical background to Malinowski's opus in Malinowski: Odyssey of an Anthropologist, 18841920 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), with more work to come. 31 For general historical reflections, esp. P. Pels, "Anthropology and Mission: Towards a Historical Analysis of Professional Identity." In The Ambiguity of Rapprochement: Reflections ofAnthropologists on their Controversial Relationship with Missionaries, ed. by R. Bonsen, J. Miedema, and H. Marks. (Nijmegen: Focaal , 1990) pp. 77-100.

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shoulders of an inquisitive giant: Emil Hannemann, Lutheran missionary.32 The earlier contributions of missionary research are perhaps no better symbolized than by the interesting fact that Maurice Leenhardt (Protestant missionary to New Caledonia and a founder of the Journal de la Societe des Oceanistes [1945- ]) followed Marcel Mauss in the Chair of Cultural Anthropology at the Sorbonne (in 1942), and was in turn succeeded by Claude Levi-Strauss. The latter could not avoid reading Leenhardt on the mythic mode of existence he called cosmomorphisme. 33 During the first half of the twentieth century, as we might have expected, secular scholarship on Melanesian religion remained predominantly European, and a somewhat isolated activity dominated by theoretical debates in the great cities of the West. Only a few years before Malinowski's first field trip, James George Frazer, author of the renowned Golden Bough, who had come to hold a chair in Social Anthropology, penned the first 'master work' devoted to a major theme in Oceanic religions, that of beliefs about the after-life (0099); and he could not forbear relating the data to his model of magic preceding religion.34 The Finnish scholar Gunnar Landtman, intrepid field-researcher though he was, always had theories about the origins of religion in the back of his mind, and used the sacrificial offerings of the Papuan coastal Kiwai to 'falsify' Robertson Smith's hypothesis that the beginning of sacrifice lay in sacramental communion. 3S The Englishman John Layard was led to psychoanalytical theory, and, significantly, out of a distaste for both Malinowski's dogmatizing function ism and a falling out with the renowned Pole. Layard himself could claim to be the first 'truly field anthroplogist,' at least by a few months ahead of Malinowski, since, after Alfred Haddon and William Rivers had sent them both off from Melbourne on their respective adventures in 1914, Layard was laboring on Malekula before his counterpart reached Kiriwina (in the 32 Oral Testimony, May 1988, cf. 0818: 11-27,66-74, 81-89,99; 0792. See below, n. 55. 33 E. Dandel and Leenhardt, "La mythique d'apres ethnologie de Maurice Leenhardt." Diogene 7 (1954): 50-71; Clifford, Person and Myth, op. cit., pp. 201£f., ; Trompf, "Melanesians and the Sacred." In Religion et sacre en Oceanie, ed. by F. Angleviel. (Paris: Universite de la Nouvelle-Caledonie & C.O.R.A.I.L), pp. 50-51; and cf. above, ns. 18, 28. Note also Leenhardt' s earlier founding of the periodical bulletin Etudes Melanesiennes in 1938. Mauss considered Melanesian exchange systems in and used Malinowski in Essai sur le don (pub. 1925), translated into English as The Gift by 1. Cunnison. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1967 edn.) ch. 2. For another important case of a missionary-turned-academic, see below n. 85. Length in the 'field' gave missionaries special advantages, but we are not to forget early longer-term non-missionary residents, e.g., in German New Guinea, R. Parkinson (0341), even O. Schellong (0847). 34 E.g. , in Vol. I, pp. 88, I 1I-12, 334ff. Cf. Frazer's The Golden Bough: A Study of Magic and Religion (London : Macmillan, 1911-36) esp. Vol. 1, pp. 338ff. ; Vol. 9, pp. I97ff. 3S Landtman, "The Origins of Sacrifice as Illustrated by a Primitive People." In 0056: pp. 103-12, cf. 1364 and W.R. Smith, esp. Lectures on the Religion of the Semites. Burnett Lectures, 1888-9 (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1901 edn.), lect. 6.

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Trobriands). Malinowski was never to forgive him for that, and, with both back at the University of London he made life so difficult for Layard that the latter suffered a nervous breakdown. He turned to Jungian Analytical Psychology.36 While Layard was writing about the Malekulans with their practices' implications for Western European psychoanalytical frameworks in view (1930s-40s), such an eminent German as Richard Thurnwald (on New Guinea and Bougainville) was working out his understanding of a general social psychology.37 Other Germanic scholars were to work under the preconditioning effects of theory. Diffusionism was in the air, whether reflecting the influence of Adolf Bastian's theory of cultural commonalities (which left a mark on Thurnwald), or appearing as the new, popular hypothesis (of William Perry and Grafton Elliot Smith) that all cultures derived from Egypt. 38 The 36 The story is yet to be told fully; I rely here especially on Kirk Huffman (Oral Test.: July 2003), Curator of the Vanuatu Cultural Centre and a custodian of Layard's papers. See his '''T'soni yu save resis' ('Johnny you can run fast'): Memories of John Layard: Travelling Photos, Songs, Men, Pigs and Spirits amongst the 'Sea Peoples' of Northeast Malekula." In John Layard's Photographs of Vanuatu, ed. by A. Herle. Adelaide: Crawford House [forthcoming]). Layard never finished writing up his voluminous notes, and paradoxically his biggest book (1919) was based on a few weeks of intense research on an islet culture that had not been his main focus of attention! 37 Please note that the time-lapse between fieldwork and writing up allowed for Jungian insights to affect Layard's analyses. For Thurnwald, e.g., "Die Psychologie des Totemismus." Anthropos 12-13 (1917-18); 496-531 and 0974; cf. M. Melk-Koch, Auf der Suche nach der menschlichen Gesellschaft: Richard Thurnwald. Verdffentlichungen des Museums fUr Volkenkunde Berlin, New Series, 46 (Berlin: Museum fUr Volkenkunde Berlin, 1989). Thurnwald founded the series Forschungen zur Volkerpsychologie und Soziologie (Berlin, 1925-35), among others. For other early attempts by Melanesianists at psychological issues, pace Malinowski (as at 1554-5), note E. Stephan, "Beitrage zur Psychologie der Bewohner von Neu-Pommern." Globus 88, 13-14 (1908): 205-10, 216-21 respectively; Seligman, "Anthropological Perspective and Psychological Theory." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 62 (1932): 192-228. 38 For diffusionist views, Trompf, Origins, op. cit., esp. 146-47. Bastian was a 'weak' diffusionist, cf. K.-P. Koepping, Adolf Bastian and the Psychic Unity of Mankind: The Foundations of Anthropology in Nineteenth Century Germany (Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1983), and for Bastian on Melanesia, e.g., Inselg ruppen in Oceanien: Reiseergebnisse und Studien (Berlin: F. DUmmlers, 1883). For the Perry/Smith 'strong' view, see Smith's Diffusion of Culture (London: Watt, 1933) (esp. maps, including Melanesia). Cf. 1.L.A. de Quatrefages, The Pygmies (Trans. F. Starr). The Anthropological Series (New York: Macmillan, 1985) for background on Melanesians' diffusion from Africa; and note that Rivers and Haddon are important for limiting the discussion of diffusionism to 'cultural migration' within the Melanesian region itself; e.g., Haddon, "Migrations of Cultures in British New Guinea." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 50 (1920): 237-80, cf. Rivers' theories about the spread of kava drinking, accounted for by R. Brunton (see 1936). Others, however, wanted to test wider possibilities, such as explaining the diffusion of Australian cultures from Melanesia, e.g., 1. Mathew, Eaglehawk and Crow: A Study of the Australian Aborigines Including an Inquiry into their Origin and a Survey of

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German school of culture history (Kulturkreislehre), which was eventually developed by Fritz Graebner and upheld for decades in German anthropology, had its decided effects on eminent Melanesianists (such as Felix Speiser, working in the New Hebrides, and to a lesser extent Carl Schmitz, in northeast New Guinea).39 The 'Viennese master' Wilhelm Schmidt, another pronounced representative of the Kulturkreislehre, drew on the field findings of his proteges to uncover vestiges of primitive monotheism, even layers of Vater- and Mutterrecht relevant to this, and to publish their results in his journal Anthropos (founded in 1906).40 On gauging the weight of European scholarly trends on inter-War research, it is perhaps fair to assert that among the 'Germanics' the adventurous Swiss Paul Wirz, who worked in West Irian (Irian Jaya) during the 1920s, was the field-researcher least determined by Old World debates, even while, as he steered between diffusionist, culture-history and Schmidtian theories, he harbored his own special images of indigenous life as "truly natural. "41 Among the rest, Margaret Mead - along with her third husband Australian Languages (London: David Nutt, 1899) ch. 1 (on the Tasmanians deriving from New Caledonia), cf. M. Prentice, Science, Race and Faith : A Life of John Mathew (Sydney: Macquarie University, 1999). An up-to-date assessment of Melanesian influences on Australia from across the Torres Strait is found recently in T. Swain, A Place for Strangers: Towards a History of Aboriginal Being (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993) ch. 4. 39 For the background to this Kulturkreise approach in Friedrich Ratzel and Leo Frobenius, consult EJ. Sharpe, Comparative Religion: A History (London: Duckworth, 1986 edn.) pp. 180-84. See also Graebner, esp. "Kulturkreise und Kulturschichten in Ozeanien." Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 37 (1905): 28-53; Die Methode der Ethnologie. Ethnologische Bibliothek mit Einschluss der altorientalischen Kultursgeschichte, 1.8 (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1911); cf. A.E. Jensen 0111; Speiser, e.g., 0149-50, 1850; and Schmitz, 0144, 0348. For relevant guidance on theorical placements, W.E. MUhlmann, Homo Creator: Abhandlungen zur Soziologie, Anthropologie und Ethnologie. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1962), esp. chs. 11-12; R. Heine-Geldern, "One Hundred Years of Ethnological Theory in the German-Speaking Countries: Some Milestones." Current Anthropology 5, 5 (1969): 413-16, and note the earlier survey on New Guinea by E. Schlesier (0048). 40 E.g. , W. Schmidt, Der Ursprung der Gottesidee: Eine historisch-kritische und positive Studie (MUnster: W . Aschendorff, 1912-55), 12 Vols. ; cf. L. Luzbetak, "Wilhelm Schmidt's Legacy." International Bulletin of Missionary Research 4,1 (1980) ; 14-16, later as "Wilhelm Schmidt, S.V.D. , 1868-1954: Priest, Linguist, Ethnologist." In Mission Legacies , ed. by Anderson et al. , op. cit., pp. 475-85. Schmidtian influences on earlier Melanesianist research are very clear in J. Meier, 0905 ; and if Schmidt ' s followers were interested in evidences for a 'High-God,' Deus otiosus, etc. as signs of primitive monotheism, Jensen made famous the quest for the dema (suffering, dying, sometimes dismembered) deity; see esp. Jensen, Mythos und Kult bei Naturvolkern (Wiesbaden; Franz Steiner Verlag, 1951), with a long overdue collection of reviews on this study in Current Anthropology 6, 2 (1965): 199-215. 41 Start with A.E.R. Schmidt, Paul Wirz: Ein Wanderer aufder Suche nach der "wahren Natur." Basler Beitrage zur Ethnologie, 39 (Basel: Ethnologisches Seminar der Universitat und Museum der Kulturen Basel, 1998), esp. pp. 81-88, 162-234.

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Englishman Gregory Bateson - at least had their own agendas to test, although, as a student of Ruth Benedict and Franz Boas, Mead was hardly unlearned in the history of American social interpretation, and New Zealander Reo Fortune, her second husband, was determined to apply Rivers' anti-Freudian theory that fear more than libido motivated humans. 42 One 'secular'/academic researcher from between the Wars deserves special mention, since he remained in Melanesia for 21 years: F.E. Williams, government anthropologist of Papua, and an Oxford man appointed to assist Lieutenant-Governor Hubert Murray.43 Williams' importance lies in the fact that he wrote with such distinction and influence about a whole range of religious phenomena: his chief monographs were perhaps of the standard ethnographic kind (and on a greater variety of cultures than even Mead) (e.g., 0665, 0731, 1043), yet he also documented religious change and mission influence. He introduced to modern scholarship the world's most famous new religious or 'revitalization' movement (except perhaps for the North American Indian Ghost Dance). This was the so-called 'Vailala Madness' (in 1919-20), and it was this phrase that was most commonly used in Melanesian adjustment phenomena until the terminology for 'cargo cult(s/ism)' came into vogue. 44 42 Consider 0516, 0574, 0606; and Mead, Letters from the Field 1925-1975. World Perspectives, 52. (New York: Holt and Reinhardt, 1977) chs. 2, 4,6; cf. Mead and R.L. Bunzel (eds.), The Golden Age of American Anthropology (New York: George Brazillier, 1960). See also D.F. Tuzin and T. Schwartz, "Margaret Mead in New Guinea: An Appreciation." Oceania 50,4 (1980): 241-47; P. Grosskurth, Margaret Mead: A Life of Controversy (New York: Viking/Penguin, 1988) pp. 2lff. See also Bateson (e.g., 0757), cf. R. Basham, "Gregory Bateson (1904-1980)." Oceania 52,1 (1981): 1-5; P. HarriesJones, Ecological Understanding and Gregory Bateson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1955), ch. I; Fortune (e.g., 1514), cf. G. Gay, "'Being Honest to my Science:' Reo Fortune and J.H.P. Murray, 1927-30." The Australian Journal of Anthropology 10, I (1999): 61; M. Young, "Reo Fortune (1903-1979)." Canberra Anthropology 3, 1(1980): 105-08; while awaiting C. Thomas' University of Waikato doctoral thesis: Reo Franklin Fortune: An Historical Ethnography of an Anthropological Career.' Powdermaker (1023) was another scholar (and female) of note who wrote on Melanesian childrearing just after Mead (1027: chs. 2-7) and, although Malinowski's student, she avoided 'ideological' functionalism. See Powdermaker, Stranger and Friend: The Way of an Anthropologist (London: Secker and Warburg, 1966). 43 See E. Schwimmer, in 1317: 11-13. 44 Cf. A.C. Wallace, "Revitalization Movements." American Anthropologist 58 (1956): 264-81; 1402. In German the contemporaneous usage was Schwarmgeister: thus G . HOltker, 0644; and the most famous popularizer of the usage, Laufer, e.g., "Psychologische Grundlagen religioser Schwarmgeisterbewegungen in der SUdsee." Kairos (Salzburg) 3 (1959): 149-61. Other early epithets for such phenomena were "nativistic movements"; see R. Linton, "Nativistic Movements." American Anthropologist 45 (1943): 230-40, and "prophetic movements", cf. J. van Baal, in his Mensen in verandering (0168: pp. 60-86) by 1967, although Prophetismus was applied as early as the 1930s, as with Lehmann, "Prophetismus in Ozeanien." Christentum und Wissenschaft 10 (1934): 56-86, cf. 0368, and the phrase "new religious cult" even earlier (see 1320).

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Williams, however, was not so 'independent' a scholar: he presented as a colonial officer, was basically a 'weak' functionalist, even 'Durkheimian,' in his approach to religion (reading it as a reflection of society's needs rather than it possessing an integrity of its own), and he took altered states as signals of "mental instability. "45 After the Second World War the balance of research input altered dramatically, with academic scholars starting to enter the arena in increasing numbers. Certainly, with the opening up of the New Guinea Highlands, there were cases of missionaries (some even pre-War) doing foundation work before university-based social scientists made a presence. One thinks immediately of Louis Luzbetak (1165) ahead of Marie Reay among the Middle Wahgi (1171), for example, let alone Hermann Strauss and Georg Vicedom (1189 , 1192) in advance of Andrew and Marilyn Strathern (1178, 1187) among the Mount Hagen groups,46 yet by 1960 signs of stepped-up academic field study in western Melanesia were in evidence. 47 On the western side of the great New Guinea island, we find Jan van Baal, a man who had used his long government service eventually to become in time the most eminent field anthropologist in West Irian (West New Guinea/West Papua)48 being appointed Governor there when Holland was left with a temporary executive authority over the region (1960-2) and before United Nations decisions took that part of Melanesia Indonesia's way. Van Baal's sponsorship of both self-governing institutions and better knowledge of native cultures 'frightened' the Australians into more responsible political and scholarly action. 49 45 1317: 339 (quotation), cf. 1480. See also E. Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (Trans. J.W. Swain). (New York: The Free Press, 1965). 46 For relevant studies, e.g., KW. Muller, 'Missionary Practice of Georg Friedrich Vicedom in New Guinea (1929-1939): A Presentation Based Mainly on his own Writings' (Doctoral dissertation, University of Aberdeen: Aberdeen, 1992) ; G. Sttirzenhofecker, "Introduction", to H. Strauss, The Mi-Culture of the Mount Hagen People. (see 1189: xxiii-xxvii), cf. an early substantial review of the German original by Schmitz in Anthropos 59 (1964): 688-90. Strauss and Vicedom, however, did receive help from a non-missionary, Herbert Tischner, 1189-90 47 See esp. T.E. Hays (ed.), Ethnographic Presents: Pioneering Anthropologists in the Papua New Guinea Highlands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). 48 See esp. 0586 [Dema], and see the review by F. Jachmann in Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 92, 2 (1967): 305-08. In colonial times the Dutch termed their possession Nieuw Guinea and its inhabitants Papoeas/Papuas; under the United Nations Trusteeship both West[ern] New Guinea and West Irian gained currency; and upon Indonesian takeover Irian Barat and Irian Jaya were used successively - as names for Indonesia's easternmost province. A recent move by the President of Indonesia to rename the Province "Papua" failed in the Senate. Advocates of the liberation and independence of this part of Melanesia (and they include the present bibliographer) prefer the usage West Papua. 49 Van Baal, "Nieuw Guinea: Post-Koloniale Kolonie." In Indologenblad, compo by L.G.M. Jaquet. (The Hague: Ministerie van Buitenlandse, 1985) pp. 9-26. Cf. A. Ploeg, "A Colonial Governor in Dutch New Guinea." Journal of Pacific History 26,2 (1991):

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The initial powerhouse for Australian research was the Department of Anthropology at the University of Sydney, under the leadership of Adolphus P. Elkin. An Anglican priest and covert 'Smithian' diffusionist, Elkin was much more concerned with Aboriginal studies, but he made sensible enough assessments of what was going on and what was needed in work on Meianesia.50 Three colleagues given his support before and during the War were intensely interested in Melanesian religion, both traditional and changing. Two were the other members of his initially small department: Arthur Capell, Australia's most famous linguistic anthropologist (also an Anglican priest, and a diffusionist!) and Ian Hogbin (working on an offshore Sepik island, in the Morobe, and in the Solomons). These two assisted Elkin in the editing of the journal Oceania (founded by 1930, and the most cited periodical in this bibiography).51 A third colleague was Englishwoman Camilla Wedgwood (a student of Haddon and Malinowski), who temporarily worked under Elkin in 1934 and not long after became Principal of one of the Sydney residential colleges.52 As Anthropology consolidated, some well known scholars were to 363-66; P. Hasluck, A Time for Building: Australian Administration in Papua New Guinea 1951-1963 (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1976) Pt. 4; H.H. Jackman, "Irian Jaya: A Very Personal View." Catalyst 14, 3 (1984) : 232. Note that van Baal sponsored missionary and secular anthropologists alike, J.V. de Bruijn, Anthropological Research in Netherlands New Guinea since 1950 by the Bureau of Native Affairs, Hollandia, Netherlands New Guinea . Oceania Monographs, 10. (Sydney: Australasian Medical Publications, 1959); cf. above n. 28. 50 E.g. , Elkin, Social Anthropology in Melanesia: A Review of Research (London: Oxford University Press, 1958). Cf. T. Swain, 1nterpreting Aboriginal Religion, op. cit., p. 104. Note that Raymond Firth temporarily headed Sydney's Anthropology Department, 1931-2. 51 See e.g., 1845-6 (Capell) ; 0880-1 , 1796, cf. L.R. Hiatt and C. Jayawardena (eds.) , Anthropology in Oceania: Essays Presented to 1an Hogbin (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1971); J. Beckett, Conversations with Ian Hogbin. Oceania Monographs 35 (Sydney: Oceania, 1989) (Hogbin). Note that both Hogbin and Capell addressed mana, the former with "Mana." Oceania 6, 3 (1936): 241-44, and the second with "Mana." Ibid. , 8 (1938-9): 89-96. On Oceania and its early history, W.F. Connell et al., Australia's First: A History of the University of Sydney (Sydney: Hale and Iremonger, 1995) Vol. 2 1940-1990, p. 187. 52 Elkin also supporting the latter appointment, cf. D. Wetherell and C. Carr-Gregg, Camilla : c.H. Wedgwood 1901-1955: A Life (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 1990) pp. 70-72, 85 (Wedgwood converted from Quakerism to Anglicanism in Sydney). Note also that she taught at the national School of Pacific Administration (ASOPA). Her impetus to work in Melanesia came from having to complete and edit researches by the unexpectedly deceased Bernard Deacon on Malekula in the New Hebrides, see 1910, cf. M. Gardner, Footprints on Malekula : A Memoir of Bernard Deacon (Edinburgh : Salamander Press, 1984). Deacon started in the tradition of structuralist A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, the first Professor of Anthropology at Sydney, and was expected to take his place; cf. Deacon and Radlcliffe-Brown with two separate articles under the same title: "The Regulation of Marriage in Ambrym." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, etc ., 57 (1927): 325-42, 343-48. Another woman in the

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acquire their doctorates in the subject after the War. 53 Catherine and Ronald Berndt (the latter of 'South Australian German' background) left off their wartime Aboriginal studies for research in the eastern New Guinea highlands; 54 while Queenslander Mervyn Meggitt worked with the western highland Enga in the 1950s, although the appointments he took up later were in the United States. Eventually Meggitt and Peter Lawrence, another Australian, put together the first book of collected essays on the region's traditional 'belief-systems': Gods, Ghosts and Men in Melanesia (pub. 1965, see 0117). Lawrence (studying in the Madang District for a Cambridge doctorate) was in contact on and off with the Sydney Department of Anthropology (as when at the Australian School of Pacific Administration, 1957-60), and he eventually returned to take a Chair in Anthropology in 1971. By then Englishman Jeremy Beckett (who undertook his doctorate on the Torres Strait through the Australian National University) had already taken a Sydney appointment. 55 From the 1960s the scene was set for a veritable international expansion of research into west Oceanic cultures. The study of religion has been dominated for most of the post-War era by anthropologists, but Pacific historians came into the picture early on, with the newly established discipline of Religious Studies and the development of a critical missiology bringing crucial latter-day impacts . Australian scholars have been numerically stronger than other groups because of Australia's trustee role in the very culturally complex Papua New Guinea,56 yet Americans (mainly West Coast Sydney department, Phyllis Kaberry, is perhaps less important for Melanesian than for Aboriginal study, yet deserves mention here; see, e.g., 0727; cf. C. Cheater, "From Sydney School Girl to African Queen Mother: Tracing the Career of Phyllis Mary Kaberry." In First in Their Field: Women and Australian Anthropology, ed. By J. Marcus. (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1993), esp. pp. 138-40. 53 Immediately after the War, however, Elkin found himself edged out of influence, especially by the ASOPA 'think tank' (operating first at Madang and Lae), whose members queried his academic training. See T. Wise, The Self Made Anthropologist: A Life of A. P. Elkin (Sydney: George Allen & Unwin, 1985) esp. pp. 161-62, cf. G. Gray, "I Was Not Consulted: A.P. Elkin, Papua New Guinea, and the Politics of Anthropology, 1942 to 1950." Australian Journal of Politics and History 40,2 (1994) : 195-213. 54 Unfortunately the Berndts' earlier fortunes in Australia are badly documented, cf. Firth, "The Berndts: An Overview." In Going It Alone? Prospects for Aboriginal Autonomy, ed. by R. Tonkinson and M. Howard. (Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, 1990) pp. 3-5 ; and see R.M. Berndt, "Professor A.P. Elkin - An Appreciation." Mankind 5,3 (1956): 89-101 . 55 0108: xv-xvi, and Oral Test.: Beckett, March, 1999 (with Beckett, who arrived in 1966, also helping me piece together the history of the Sydney Anthropology Department), cf. Connell et al., op. cit., p. 190. 56 Taking the foundations of some relevant Australian institutions (other than Sydney) successively, researchers into religion have included Roderic Lacey (e.g., 1123), oral historian starting from the University of Melbourne who also served at ASOPA, Sydney; Marie Reay (e.g., 1171) at Australian National University (ANU); Michele Stephen (e.g., 0352) at LaTrobe University; Deane Fergie (1031) , University of Adelaide; Robert

20

Study of Melanesian Religions

academics)57 have been prominent, sometimes from postings in Australianfounded institutions58, and Europeans - as a conglomerate, including Britain and Ireland - have hardly been far behind. En passant, one should note that the Universities at London and Cambridge have been crucial for Papua New Guinea highland research;59 Hamburg, Gottingen, Berlin and Basel - to name but a few - for work on (once German) New Guinea, Basel again on Vanuatu, and the Sorbonne - obviously enough - on New Caledonia and Vanuatu. 60 Postgraduate degrees taken under Melanesianists involved the possibility of the region becoming the most over-studied region in the world. Some brakes were pressed against this prospect through permit controls imposed by newly independent governments, a new deference to indigenous Melanesian scholarship, and through an academic crise de conscience - among anthropologists quite markedly - that Western 'voyeurs of the primitive' were perpetuating colonial

mentalites. 61 By the 1970s, in any case, one general methodological tendency was becoming too obvious and problematic. The dominance of anthropological Tonkinson (1928, 1934), University of Western Australia; with Lawrence being temporarily at the University of Queensland (cf. infra), etc. Close by, New Zealand scholarship also requires recognition, e.g., C. Berndt. 57 Esp. Langness (e.g., 0334), Clifford (2026), Poole (1096), Tuzin (0737). 58 E.g., Roger Keesing (0113) at the ANU ; Ann Chowning (e.g., 0078) at the University of Ppua New Guinea (UPNG) and subsequently Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand. 59 Of note, Britons Ralph Bulmer and Andrew Strathern (e.g., 1115, 1639) came to take chairs at UPNG, both being highlands specialists (cf. on Bulmer, see A. Pawley, 0133), as also Marilyn Strathern (1202). Important English scholars Anthony Forge and Michael Young (eg., 0721, 1522) have been based at ANU, where Keesing was to move. Cf. J. Wilson and Young, "Anthropology at the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies: A Partial History." Canberra Anthropology 19, 2 (1996): 62-79. 60 For indications, Schmitz (e.g., 0850), Schlesier (0143); Fischer (0097), Jachmann (later Tomasetti) (0110); Ahrens (e.g., 0359); Keck (0795); Wassmann (e.g., 0805); Guiart (connected to the Institut Fran~ais d'Oceanie at Noumea) (e.g., esp. 0328, cf. idem , Julius Calimbre: chronique de trois gentJrations, trois femmes et trois maisons. Cahiers pour I'intelligence du temps present, 21 [Noumea: La Rocher-a-la- Voile, 1998], pp. 129-37); and Bonnemaison (e.g., 1843-4, cf. B. comme big man: hommage a Joel Bonnemaison [Paris: PRODIG, 1998] ; Identites et mutation dans Ie Pacifique a l'aube du troisieme millenaire: homage a Joel Bonnemaison, 1940-1997. Actes du Colloque tenu a I' Ambassade d' Australie a Paris, 29-30 mai 1997, Universite du Montaigne, Bordeaux 3 [Talence: CRET, 1998]). See also above, ns. 37-9. 61 On the last matter, note, e.g. , M. Schiltz, "Practitioners and Parties: The Politics of Anthropology and the Theories of Anthropologists." Research in Melanesia 6, 3-4 (1982): 25-35 ; A. Strathern, "Research in Papua New Guinea: Cross-Currents of Conflict." Royal Anthropological Institute Newsletter 58 (1983): 4-10 (signs of anxiety); R. Gordon, "The Myth of the Noble Anthropologist in Melanesia" . A[ustralian} A[nthropological} S[ociety} Newsletter 10 (Feb., 1981): 4-17 (highly sarcastic); cf. J. Guiart, "Ethnologue de la Melanesie: critique et autocritique." L'Homme 25 (1985) : 7395 (restrained).

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research was not doing justice to the massive religious change towards Christianity. Part of the problem lay with a longer-term inheritance from the history of social science, with anthropology having tended to breed relativism and agnosticism .62 Hopes of uncovering the 'culturally pristine,' moreover, based on un- or anti-historical premises, blinded many field workers to changes that might have already occurred in societies before they arrived, and still today missionaries already working in or near anthropologists' 'domains' will too often appear to the latter - generally now more secular, intellectually avant-garde and personally more sophisticated than ever before - as 'cultural contaminants,' if not culture destroyers. A few anthropologists consciously warned local people off missionaries; others could never say anything in their favor on principle.63 Lack of interest in religion per se could also warp the ethnographic scene: when Lawrence and Meggitt introduced Gods, Ghosts and Men with the contrast between the 'more religious' coastal dwellers and the 'more secular' highlanders, the dichotomy was pre-conditioned by a lack of focus on religion in highland research,64 and an important 1987 conference paper by Marie Reay (1174) was symptomatic of the need to restore the true picture. By then the more recently 'discovered' highlanders, in the region's most populous parts across the spine of the great New Guinea island, were joining the churches in large numbers. When it came to addressing the various dimensions of religious study, there were signs of inadequacies in other disciplines and a consequent jostling of positions. A surprising number of post-War sociologies around the world failed to consider either primal culture or religion as research topics. When Melanesian cargo cults came up for consideration, after the British applied anthropologist Lucy Mair popularized the phrase in academic literature from 1948 (see 0209), the question arose as to whose subject 'turf the intriguing

62 Cf. esp. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Essays in Social Anthropology (London: Faber and Faber, 1962) ch . 1; E. Gellner, Postmodernism, Reason and Religion (London: Routledge, 1992) pp. 40-71. 63 E.g., R. Keesing, "Christians and Pagans in Kwaio, Malaita." Journal of Polynesian Society 76 (1967): 81-100; and on him, D. Whiteman, 0462; 19-33. Cf. R.W. Robin, "Missionaries in Contemporary Melanesia: Crossroads of Cultural Change." Journal de la Societe des Oceanistes 36 (1980): 261-78 (general antipathy against missionaries as cultural disintegrators). 64 0117: 16-22. I.e. , social structural, economic, conflictual and ecological issues dominated the picture, see esp. L.L. Langness, 'Bena Bena Social Structure' (Doctoral Dissert., University of Washington, Seattle, 1964); Meggitt's first book, The Lineage System of the Mae Enga of New Guinea (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1965); A. Strathern's earlier work One Father, One Blood: Descent and Group Structure among the Melpa People (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1972), and A.P. Vayda (ed.), Peoples and Cultures of the Pacific (see 0607), cf. his reconsiderations in "Failures of Explanation in Darwinian Ecological Anthropology : 1." Philosophy of the Social Sciences 25,2 (1995): 219-49. For an earlier critique of the Lawrence/Meggitt position, see Chowning, 0916.

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phenomena lay in. 65 Anthropologist Lawrence and sociologist Worsley drew swords on the matter, a tussle compounded by the former's political conservatism and the latter's Marxism (0242).66 Missiologists and missionary anthropologists usually felt that adjustment movements were more grist to their mill than anybody else's, for, after all, they were the ones most concerned about whether or not indigenes were getting the Gospel straight (cf., Kamma, e.g., 0525;67 Strelan, 0229; Tippett, 1706). Another sign of academic limitations showed up in the way 'art objects' were approached. We do indeed find some early interest in contextualizing Melanesian art within religious worldviews, after the by now notorious time of those collectors who hunted for museum pieces, and Haddon for one began his Pacific studies with this concern. 68 Vet apart from a few fine ethnographic exceptions (e.g., F. Williams, 1388; Schmitz 0348; Guiart 1970; Forge 0720), and from the occasional emphasis that Melanesian artists were bound to follow

65 Mair, Australia in New Guinea (London: Christophers, 1948) p. 68. Hannemann may just have beaten her to press, in a missionary publication, cf. 0810, Almost all previous usages of a serious nature were in mimeographed form, and apart from a paper by Hogbin ('Cargo Cult.' [mimeogr. , University of Sydney Archives, 1945]) and perhaps R. Inselmann ('Letub' [Masters dissert., Hartford Seminary, Hartford, 1944], and see 0818), the discourse of 'cargo cultism' was the missionaries' as much as anybody's, see F.E. Pietz, 'Thoughts on a Cargo Cult' (mimeogr., Lae: n. pub., 9 Oct., 1947); G. Pilhofer (ed.), 'Auszug aus einem Bericht tiber den 'Cargo Cult.' In 'Kalasa Gebiet vor dem Krieg, geschrieben von unserem verstorbenen Bruder Wacke' (mimeogr., n. pI.: n. pub., May, 1947), along with station reports and mission newsletter material listed by Pilhofer (0442: Vol. 2, p. 188, n. 525), and possibly other such pieces (not yet sighted) by A. Walck and A.C. Frerichs. Apparently the first publications using the phrase 'cargo cult' were in Pacific Islands Monthly, 17,9 (1947): 69; 17, 12 (1947): 49-50; 18,2 (1947): 58, yet for still earlier possibilities [New Guinea Research Unit], 'Bibliography of Cargo and other Nativistic Movements in New Guinea' (mimeogr., Port Moresby: New Guinea Research Unit, 1972) esp. pt. 13; 1. Strelan, 'A Bibliography for the Study of the History and Morphology of Cargo Cults and Related Movements in Melanesia' (mimeogr. , Lae: Martin Luther Seminary , 1975); E. Hermann, "'Nem Bilong Kago Kalt' em i Tambu Tru!": Rezeption und Konsequenzen des Konzepts "Cargo Cult" am Fallbeispiel der Yali-Bewegung in der Madang Province, Papua New Guinea' (Masters dissert., Eberhard-Karls-Universitat, Ttibingen, 1987) ch. 2. 66 See Worsley's account of his troubles with the Australian security agency , "Foreword" to L. Foerstel and A. Gilliam (eds.), Confronting the Margaret Mead Legacy, op. cit. Cf. Lawrence, Daughter of Time University of Queensland Inaugural Lectures (Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1968), pp. 6-11 . 67 Cf. S. Kooijman, "In Memoriam F.c. Kamma 16 Februari 1906 - 24 September 1987." Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 144 (1988): 411-18. 68 Haddon, The Decorative Art of British New Guinea (Dublin: Hodgis, Figgis and Company, 1894) (Inter alia on Trobriands items before Malinowski researched there). See also M. O'Hanlon and R.L. Welsch (eds.), Hunting the Gatherers: Ethnographic Collectors, Agents and Agency in Melanesia (New York: Berghahn Books, 2000).

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traditional designs,69 most studies failed to bring art and religion together, with many art books containing inadequately informed commentary. German Africanist Ulli Beier, who became founding Director of the Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies (from 1974), made some difference here (e.g., 1544).7° As for the discipline of history, most Pacific historians, who are rather secularminded, felt religious or missionary history should be left to specialists (to such scholars as Gunson, Hilliard, Laracy, Latukefu, Langmore, Wetherell, etc.; e.g., 0424, 1330, 1701,2143), when in fact no good historical work can be done in Oceania without a thorough grasp of such matters. Relevant enquirers in legal studies, for their part, often found themselves caught between understanding the rationale of customary law and gauging its practical implications for the courts (e.g., 0347, 0388).7 1 Once the decade of the 1980s unfolded post-modern philosophical criticism had seriously bitten among social scientists and even bigger problems arose. Indeed, its impact on anthropology produced a kind of identity crisis. Basically the objectification or outsider reconstruction of 'the other' fell questionable, and exercises in the 'general ethnography' of any traditional, small-scale people looked hegemonic or presumptuous.72 To ease the blow the methods of phenomenology, with its accentuation of inter-subjectivity, was one 69 E.g., R. Piddington, An Introduction to Social Anthropology (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1957) Vol. 2, pp. 516-20; R. Firth (0096: 30-36). 70 Cf. also Beier, Papua New Guinea Folklore and the Growth of Literature. Discussion Paper, 34 (Port Moresby: Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1978). To help estimations, T.L. Liyong (introd.), The Hunter Thinks the Monkey is not Wise; The Monkey is Wise, but he has his own Logic: A Bibliography of Writings by Ulli Beier, Obotunde Ijimere and Co. (Bayreuth: Clin d'Oeil, 1996 edn.); M.M. Gierck, "Natural Talent." Eureka Street (Melbourne) 15, 1 (2005): 26-29. 71 Early lawyers in the field were Robert Williamson (e.g., 0165 [note Haddon on this as an advantage in the Introduction, p. xviii]), and Rivers (see supra, n. 18). 72 Of some assistance, J. Fabian, "Presence and Representation : The Other in Anthropological Writing." Critical Inquiry 16 (1990) : 753 -72 (methodological challenge); F.V. Harrison (ed.), Decolonizing Anthropology: Moving Further towards an Anthropology of Liberation (Washington, D.C., Association of Black Anthropologists, American Anthropological Association, 1991) (anti-hegemonic challenge); V. Hubinger, Grasping the Changing World: Anthropological Concepts in the Postmodern Era (London: Routlege, 1996) (global) ; J. van Bremen and A. Shimizu (eds.), Anthropology in Asia and the Pacific. Anthropology of Asia Series, [4] (Richmond, U.K., Curzon, 1999); B.M. Knauft, From Primitive to Postcolonial in Melanesia and Anthropology (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999) (Pacific and Melanesia); cf. T. van Meijl and P. van der Grijp (eds .), European Imagery and Colonial History in the Pacific . Nijmegen Studies in Development and Culture Change, 19 (Saarbrucken: Verlag flir Entwicklungspolitik Breitenbach, 1994) (long term historical conditioning). There was a newly perceived problem, too, that male interests and consciousness dominated anthropological method, cf., first, K. Milton, "Male Bias in Anthropology." Man New Series 14, 1 (1979): 40-54, and then S. Schrater, 0349; M. Drum, 'Women, Gods, Ghosts and Men in Melanesia' (Honors sub-thesis, School of Social Enquiry, Deakin University, Geelong, 1993).

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Study of Melanesian Religions

recourse;73 but the most typical response was to reduce one's agenda in the field to a 'thematic' element, or to analyze features that patently distinguished a chosen culture vis-a-vis others. Since 'religion' or 'worldview' could be taken as one (usually highly interesting) focus of attention, it was always going to attract researchers in Melanesia. Even then, apart from the odd monograph on a single Weltanschauung - Roger Keesing's Kwaio Religion (pub. 1982) comes first to mind (see 1786) - Melanesian studies more typically went through 'rounds of the penchant,' various themes being pursued pari passu or in small successive waves . Favored topical issues included ritual homosexuality, the body, the imaginal and symbolic, the sense of identity in time and space, socio-cosmic ranking, and most significantly 'altered states.'74 Colloquia - especially those organized by Bernard Juillerat on trance and shamanism (pub. 1977) and Michele Stephen on sorcery and altered states (in 1982-83, pub. 1987) - were particularly useful in reinvigorating the anthropology of religion, and allowed for the prospect of new theories of religion to develop from the rich field of Melanesian traditional lifeways. Stephen, for one, tested a new theory about the role of the unconscious in the use of magic and sorcery, working mainly from a Jungian base (see 1423). Other general theories - of ritual (by Roy Rappaport), iconic as against literary knowledge (by Harvey Whitehouse) and holographic world perspective (by Roy Wagner) - clearly deserve mention.7 5 73 For theory, start with P. Ricoeur, "Hegel and Husser! on Intersubjectivity." In Reason, Action, and Experience: Essays in Honor of Raymond Klibansky, ed. by H. Kohlenberger. (Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 1979), pp. 13-30. For a turning-point in Melanesian studies, J. Mimica, 'Omalyce: An Ethnography of the Ikawye View of the Cosmos' (Doctoral dissert., Australian National University), Canberra, 1981. 74 E,g., G. Herdt, 0106, 0330 (homosexual rites); A. Strathern, 0355 , D. van Oosterhout (cf. 0636) , foreshadowed by M. Leenhardt, 2015) (body). I. Hodder (ed.), 1586 (symbolism); A. Gell, esp. 0693 (time); 1. Weiner, esp. 1631; G. Gillison, 1266 (identity and environment) ; G. Senft (ed.), Referring to Space: Studies in Austronesian and Papuan Languages. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, 15. (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1997); G. Bennardo (ed.), Representing Space in Oceania: Culture in Language and Mind (Canberra: Pacific Linguistics , Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies , Australian National University , 2002) ; M.N. MacDonald (ed.) , Experiences of Place . Religions of the World (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Divinity School, 2003) ; Tomasetti , "Papua New Guinea," In Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature , gen. ed. by B. Taylor. (New York: Thoemmes Continuum, 2005) Vol. 2, pp. 1261-3 (place); D. de Coppet and A. Iteanu (0084) (cosmos and society); and Juillerat et al., 0112 (altered states). Marxists also showed an interest in "ritual production," M. Godelier' s work being seminal (see 1268). 75 Esp. Rappaport, Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Whitehouse, Arguments and Icons: The Divergent Modes of Religiosity. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) (making much use of F. Barth, 1084); Modes of Religiosity: A Cognitive Theory of Religious Transmission. Cognitive Science of Religion Series, [1] (New York: AltiMira, 2004) , cf. 0398; Wagner, An Anthropology of the Subject: The Holographic Worldview in New Guinea and its Meaning and Significance for the World of Anthropology. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001) ; cf. Symbols that Stand for Themselves (Chicago: Chicago

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25

But of course, since the Melanesian religious scene had long been complicated by social change and religion conversions, the greater attention to traditional religion in particular among aforementioned scholars only enriched one component of Melanesianist studies, when the range of possible relevant research projects was already widened and beckoning attention in the last quarter of the twentieth century. The fact was obvious that Christianization was the great mass movement in the region, and that Christianity was 'vernacularizing' or being taken over from expatriate 'control.'76 Some academic anthropologists had already been sensitive to the adjustment interface between indigenous peoples' traditions and the new faith they were welcoming : van Baal, Jan Power and Erik Schwimmer come immediately to mind (e.g., 0168, 0611, 1477), and Canadian Kenelm Burridge was unusual yet valiant in taking missionization seriously as an object of anthropological analysis. 77 Burridge's protege John Barker became insistent in the 1980s that Melanesian Christianity was a basic datum which his social scientific contemporaries would be quite unrealistic to neglect (e.g., 0248),78 although it was the German Friedegard Tomasetti (Jachmann) who first dared to admit (in 1976) that fieldwork of the future would inevitably have to start in local church congregations, working 'back' and 'out to' tradition (1255, cf. 0864).7 9 Meanwhile missiological studies were sharpening, especially at the Melanesian Institute (Goroka, Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea) from the late 1960s, with German Lutheran Theo Ahrens (later to receive a chair in Mission Studies at Hamburg), Italian Catholic Ennio Mantovani, a neo-Schmidtian analyst, and American Protestant Darell Whiteman (current editor of the journal Missiology) (e.g ., 0122, 0247, 1708).80 At intellectual forums organized within Melanesian nations themselves, certainly, mutual respect was in the air, so that anthropologists and missiologists were developing a "viable relationship" to meet practical needs, University Press, 1986), cf. 1238. For a recent collection on Rappaport, see E. Messer and M. Lambek (eds.), Ecology and the Sacred: Engaging the Anthropology of Roy Rappaport (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001). 76 Contemplate 0251 ; and see W. James and D.H. Johnson (eds.), Vernacular Christianity: Essays in the Social Anthropology of Religion Presented to Godfrey Lienhardt (New York: Lilian Barber Press, 1988) for the concept. Islam's impact on Irian

Jaya has to be acknowledged, even though it is as yet a limited influence among Melanesians; see esp. D. Neilson, 0493, cf. also [Melanesian Institute], "MuslimChristian Dialogue in Melanesia." Melanesian Journal of Theology I, I (1985): 91-96; and on the question of religious freedom, with Muslim contributors, see L.K. Pat (ed.), Religious Freedom in Papua New Guinea . Special issue of ibid., 10, I (1994). 77 Burridge, In the Way: A Study of Christian Missionary Endeavours (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1991). 78 Note the instances in his review of Loeliger and Trompf (0206) in Pacific Studies 11, 1 (1987): esp. 172-73, cf. also 1488-90. 79 Also first popularizing the rubric Old Time/New Time for analytical purposes (1255: 139-92, developed by Trompf, 0064: 1, 137). 80 Mantovani (ed.), 25 Years of Service: The Melanesian Institute; its History and its Work. Point Series, 19 (Goroka: Melanesian Institute, 1994).

26

Study of Melanesian Religions

even if mutual suspicion reigned in international scholarship and fuss was made over some anthropologists' tendencies to render Melanesian Christianity as "invisible" or a kind of out-of-place "gothic theatre."8l The immense linguistic competence and local knowledge of many missionaries was now better recognized, for, while some of the greatest latter-day fieldworkers academia has ever produced researched in Melanesia - Kenneth Read as the most sensitive (e.g., 1287), Marie Reay, Ralph Bulmer, Michael Young, and especially Andrew Strathern as the most enduring (e.g., 1218, 1522-4, 1176-85) - most 'secular' researchers were 'fly-by-nights' compared to missionaries . Even the linguists working for such apparently 'partisan' organizations as the Summer Institute of Linguistics and Wycliffe Bible Translators were expected to undertake more committed fieldwork, and spend more time at it, than universities would normally require or allow for teaching staff and postgraduates in Linguistics .82 Like Linguistics, Religious Studies/Comparative Religion has been in most quarters relatively latecoming and marginal as a part of university curricula. On the Continent its representatives effectively distinguished themselves from theology as 'historians of religion' (thus, especially Religionsgeschichte) during the first half of last century, yet the discipline of 'Religious Studies' in its currently distinctive sense really only began burgeoning during the 1960s - and rather more strikingly in the Anglophone world than anywhere else. The first appointments to Religious Studies lectureships in the Australian university system, interestingly, were made by 1972, yet 'off-shore': at the University of Papua New Guinea (UPNG), away from the prevailing secular constraints of mainland public institutions, and in a 8l For early significant reflections on the anthropology/missiology relationship by two missiologists: A. Tippett, "Anthropological Research and the Fijian People." International Review of Missions 44,174 (1985): 212-19; D.W. Wright, "What Can Missions Learn from Post-War Shifts in Anthropology?" Evangelical Missions Quarterly 29,4 (1993): 402-09. See also B. Defendahl, "On Anthropologists vs. Missionaries." Current Anthropology 22 (1981): 89; F. Bowie, "Anthropology and Missionaries (Comment)." Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford 24, 1 (1993): 64-6; J. Piepke (ed.), Anthropology and Mission: SVD International Consultation on Anthropology for Mission (Studia Insituti Missiologi Societatis Verbi Divini, 41), St. Augustine: Anthropos-1nstitut, 1998; Borsboom and Kommers (see 0637, 0640.), Cf. Trompf, 0303 (first quotation); and see B. Douglas, "Encounters with the Enemy? Academic Readings of Missionary Narratives on Melanesians. " Comparative Study in Society and History 43 (2001) ; 37-64; idem, From Invisible Christians to Gothic Theatre: The Romance of the Millennial in Melanesian Anthropology." Current Anthropology 42, 5 (2001): 615-50 (other quotations). Cf. also 0309. 82 For background, e.g., E.E. Wallis and M.A. Bennett, Two Thousand Tongues to Go (New York : Harper and Row, 1964), cf. 1. and M. Hefley, Uncle Cam: The Story of William Cameran Townsend (Waco: Word Books, 1974). Note that, as was earlier the case (above n. 33), colonial administrative officials would stay as long in Melanesia as many missionaries, and were people abounding in experiential knowledge, e.g., 1.K. McCarthy, Patrol into Yesterday: My New Guinea Years (Melbourne: Cheshire, 1963).

History of Study

27

yet-to-be independent nation deemed 'highly religious.' It was there, during the 1970s and 80s that most of the groundwork was done to till the 'distinctive field' - the critical study of Melanesian religions - and put it on the academic map.83 Our bibliography eventually comes as the end-product of this concentration of study. The two lecturers, Carl Loeliger and Garry Trompf (e.g., 0062-5, 0206), worked within the UPNG History Department, along with competent ethnohistorians (the journal Oral History [1974-93] being founded in that context).84 Trompf was in any case trained in Pacific prehistory and ethnohistory at the University of Melbourne, where there was as yet no Anthropology department,85 and he had developed a distinct (now somewhat tamed) distaste for much anthropology as unhistorical and voyeurist. Loeliger and Trompf also took a non-confessional, yet 'broad ecumenist,' non-partisan approach to religious change in the region, and found themselves sharing common research orientations with leading members of the Melanesian Institute, and with Theo Aerts (of the Holy Spirit [Catholic] Seminary at Bomana, near Port Moresby), who was one of their successors (0066,0244-5). The major challenges facing Religious Studies scholarship were as follows: 1. Domination of the traditional materials by anthropologists, usually unsympathetic to religious change, and with most investigators just specializing on 'their' chosen culture.86 2. A narrowing of focus on cargo cults as the only Melanesian new religious movements worth social scientific attention, when there were so many other types (cf. 0206: xi-xvii) . 3. Studies in the developing 'Christianization' of Melanesia were overly confined to mission history (dwelling on expatriate figures) and infected by competing, confessionalistoriented writing. 4. Indigenous reflection on religious life had been barely published. 5. The grasp of Melanesian religion "in all its aspects" (see n. 10) was badly needed, so that Melanesians themselves could obtain a general picture of and frame of reference to it, rather than a hundred-to-one unconnected ethnographies and many separate denominational histories. 6. Related to this last problem, there were books on religion across smaller regions of the vast zone of Melanesia (e.g., 0340, 1310), but a detailed, critical and yet all too necessary overview of its commonalities and varieties was still lacking. 7. Melanesian religions were hardly known in the whole world of comparative

83 See E.J. Sharpe, Comparative Religion, op. cit., p. 297. 84 John Collier/Kolia, the editor through most of the journal's career, moved it to the Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, where it was eventually to be taken on by A. Strathern. Vincent van Nuffel, previously taking courses in Comparative Religion in the Anthropology program, joined the two new lecturers in the History Department. 85 Some prior University of Melbourne research in Melanesia had been significant, as by Ivens (see esp. 1783), who was a Research Fellow there in the 1920s, and who, like Leenhardt, had been a Protestant (in has case Anglican) missionary anthropologist before embracing academia. 86 Important exceptions here include Mead (0665); Ploeg (0193), A. Strathern (1639).

28

Study of Melanesian Religions

religion. 87 No one prevenient discipline had equipped scholars to do the 'proper and complete' study of religion even locally, let alone regionally . Religious Studies was both polymethodic and multidisciplinary,88 and while it carried the disadvantage of being at one level too broad for 'purists' in other disciplines, it bore the advantage of making up for prior theoretic deficiencies if a scholar's working expertise was achieved in the social sciences , historical and legal studies, missiology or comparative theology. 89 The first general monograph on Melanesian Religion was produced by Trompf in 1991 (0064, cf. also 0061), though it was preceded by general surveys of Oceanic religions (e.g., by Nevermann [0129]; Guiart [0101)),90 and by volumes of collected essays (edited by Lawrence and Meggitt [see above], Habel [0103], and Mantovani [0122)). Trompf produced the first grand-scale monograph on a major set of themes in Melanesian religions with the book Payback (1994) (0065), although before then Frazer's remarkable 'armchair' study of afterlife beliefs (0099) and a few other thematic works had been in existence (e.g., 0127, 0140). Region-wide surveys of cargo movements were already available (esp. Worsley, 0242; Steinbauer, 0227 [pub. 1971)), but detailed cross-denominational mission history came very late (esp. Garrett, 0265-8), even then not doing justice by Irian Jaya. 91 Much work both in the separate 'zones of study' and the interrelating of them was waiting to be done. Out of the program of Religious Studies at UPNG, as the challenges to create a new balance were being met, indigenous scholars cut their teeth academically on religious subjects (e.g., 0682, 1476, 1483, 1761), and they were also encouraged to do so in such church-financed publications as Catalyst (1971- ) and Point (1972-), both organs of the Melanesian Institute. Interaction between those in Religious (and religion-related) Studies and other disciplines were stepped up from the 1980s. The Continent, and especially German and German-writing schools, fostered styles of 87 E.g ., in Eliade, Patterns of Comparative Religion (New York: Meridian, 1958) (ten scattered and superficial references to Melanesia), yet cf. 0093: esp. pp. 25-33 ; 0182: pp. 125-59. Although a leading Dutch scholar of comparative religion, T. van Baaren, made some efforts at active research, 0497, cf. 0503; and of course one must remember that theoretical anthropology has always been on the edge of comparative studies in religion. Cf. Van Baal, Symbols of Communication: An Introduction to the Anthropological Study of Religion (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1971). 88 For a defense of this disciplined 'ambition,' esp. J. Waardenburg, Religionen und Religion: Systematische Einfuhrung in die Religionswissenschaft. Sammlung Goschen, 2228 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1986) (taking into account antecedent currents of research into religions before the development of the discipline's 'constellation of interests' as we have it now). 89 As well as a knowledge (at least) of the main European languages of scholarship and the key lingue franche of the region. 90 Cf. also Guiart's short book Oceanie, religions et mythologies (Paris: Flammarion, 1981). 91 D. Neilson, 'Christianity in Irian (West Papua)' (Doctoral dissert., University of Sydney) (Sydney: 2000).

History of Study

29

anthropological scholarship on traditional Weltanschauungen and local adaptability that were much more sensitive to religious issues than ever before (Hauser-Schaublin , 0645; Wassmann, 0805, etc .), and scholars there became more confidently insistent about the significance of religious change (e.g. , Ahrens, 0359; Kempf, 0815; Otto and Borsboom, 0217).92 Out of a Religious Studies context in Australia, inter alia, came the first detailed monograph study of a single (and major) cargo cult (Gesch, 0744) and the first Melanesianauthored full-scale study of the relationship between traditional religion and customary medicine (Sibona Kopi's doctorate on the Motu, cf. 1414).93 But despite these points of contact and opportunities for scholarly exchange, academics - especially those in the social sciences - have been overly cautious about referring to books outside their disciplines . Innovative black authors have been appallingly overlooked, one should add, perhaps the most obvious one being Willington Jojoga Opeba, who was first to stress the importance of dreams in generating religious change and adjustment (1484, yet cf. 0152),94 and first to deconstruct F.E. Wiliams' colonialist imaging of the Vailala phenomena as 'sickness' (1485, yet cf. 0940). The current situation, with less stability in Melanesia as a political region, has seen a weakening of indigenous academic achievement in the field (except in contextual and pastoral theology, as in The Melanesian Journal of Theology, 1985- ).95 The processes of scholarship have become more complicated of late, with both the self-questioning of scholars about their own predispositions and methods, and the use of Melanesian religious material as a springboard for theory about worldwide aspects of religious life. Recent edited collections by Christina Toren and Holger Jebens have scholars asking what assumptions have Westerners brought with them to the field, to the enigmas of "cannibal Fiji," for 92 Note the new sophistication, also, in some French and Anglophone scholarship, as

with Juillerat (e.g. , 0699, etc., though ponder the review by Mimica in Oceania [pub. 1997]); Thomas (2077); Herdt and Stephen (e.g., 0107); Mimica (0886); and Lattas (0940), a lot of this work being psychoanalytically informed, but with idiosyncratic or highly individualistic applications. 93 Both University of Sydney doctoral theses: Gesch, see 0744 (same title, 1982) and Kopi, 'Traditional Beliefs, Illness and Health among the Motuan People of Papua New Guinea' (1998), as also Swain, Place for Strangers, op. cit., see above, n. 38 (same title); G. Martin, 'A Study of Time as Being According to the Keraakie People of South-West Papua New Guinea' (2002) (breakthrough study of time conceptions in a traditional Western Province Papuan Weltanschauung): D. Neilson, see above, n. 91 (first overall history of missionary Christianity in Irian Jaya) ; J. Bieniek, 'Changing Patterns of the Laity's Involvement in the Development of Enga Christianity.' (2001) (applied missiology). 94 Yet cf. also suggestions by Nevermann, 0129: 103, 134. 95 Yet opportunities have opened up for indigenous writers to publish on (nontheological issues in) religion outside Melanesia, e.g., 0376, 1576; and note also exceptional doctorates impinging on religion presented outside Oceania, e.g., J, Muke, 'The Wahgi Opo Kumbo: An Account of Warfare in the Central Highlands of New Guinea' (Doctoral dissert., University of Cambridge, 1993).

30

Study of Melanesian Religions

instance, or "cargo cult. "'96 Trompf has gone on to place the history of studies into Melanesian religion within the wider context of Religious Studies (and contemporary religious life) in Australia and Oceania,97 as well as utilize Melanesian data to throw light on distinctive phenomena of religion across world cultures. 98 In view of all these strands of research here surveyed, this bibliography is designed to awaken researchers to the rich and diverse published sources on the subject of Melanesian religious life, and to foster more interdisciplinary habits of mind than have hitherto prevailed in scholarship.

The Overall Picture How, then, to prepare readers for our survey, should we characterize Melanesian religions? Unfortunately, even generalizing about each region of Melanesia has become somewhat hazardous as our knowledge increases. One could try to do this in terms of language, with the Austronesian tongues predominating on the coasts and smaller islands, and various non-Austronesian ones located in the mountains, yet this simple rule-of-thumb comes up against local complexities - as along the Madang and Huon coasts, for example .99 One might appeal to art. Architectural styles can serve as indicators - roundish or 96 Thus C. Toren, (ed.), Mind, Materiality and History: Explorations in Fijian Ethnography (London: Routledge, 1999), cf. 0057; Jebens (ed.), Cargo, Cult and Culture Critique. (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2004), cf. 0936. 97 Trompf, e.g., "A Survey of New Approaches to the Study of Religion in Australia and the Pacific." In New Approaches to the Study of Religion, Vol. 1: Regional, Critical, and Historical Approaches, ed. by P. Antes, A.W. Geertz, and R.R. Warne. Religion and Reason, 42 (Berlin: Walter De Gruyter, 2004), pp. 147-81; "Study of Religion: The Academic Study of Religion in Australia and Oceania." In Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. by Jones, op. cit., Vol. 13, pp. 8767-71; "On the Edge of Asia: Challenge to the Churches at the Fringes of Southeast Asia and Australia." In The Asian Church in the New Millennium: Reflections on Faith and Life, ed. by R. Fernandez-Calienes. Voices from the Edge, 2 (Delhi : ISPCK, 2000), ch. 2. Note here also D.W. Jorgensen and Trompf, "Oceanic Religions: History of Study." In Encyclopedia of Religion, op. cit., Vol. 10, pp. 6799-6805 98 E,g" "La logica della ritorsione e 10 studio delle religioni della Melanesia." Religioni e Societa 12,28 (1997): 48-77 (English version: "The Logic of Retribution and the Study of Melanesian Religions." In Iran and Caucasus, I, ed. by G. Asatrian. (Yerevan: Caucasian Centre of Iranian Studies, 1997), pp. 125-46 (the theory of retributive logic); "La teoria della meraviglia e i culti del cargo in Melanesia." Religioni e Societa 17, 43 (2002): 23-46 (English version: "On Wondering about Wonder: Melanesians and the Cargo." In Beyond Primitivism, ed. by J. Olupona. (London: Routledge, 2004)), pp. 297303, cf. "Wonder toward Nature." Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature, ed. by B. Taylor, op. cit., Vol. 2, pp. 1759-63 (theory of wonder); "On Sacrificing Girard: A View from Melanesia." Threskeilogia (Athens) 5 «(2004): 131-40 (theory of sacrifice); "UFO Religions and Cargo Cults." In UFO Religions, ed. by C. Partridge. (London: Routledge, 2003), pp. 221-38, cf. 0236 (new religious movements). 99 See e.g., V. Keck, 1. Wassmann et al. , Historical Atlas of Ethnic and Linguistic Groups in Papua New Guinea (Basel: University of Basel Institute of Ethnology, 1995) esp. Vol. I, pt. 3: Keck, Madang, fold-out maps 1-9.

History of Study

31

octagonal temples along the northern Irian Jayan coast, for example, high and frontally decorated spirit-houses (haus tambaran/m) in the Sepik, and rising cathedral-likeeravo temples in the Papuan Gulf, or perhaps platform rituals in the Huon Peninsula or eastern/central Papuan districts. Sepik cult masks, and the masks actually worn on New Britain and New Ireland make for points of distinction; as do highland body decorations and mass dances, and special achievements, such as Asmat shields in southwest Irian Jaya, elaborate canoe prow decorations on the Trobriands, or the darkwood weaponry of Fiji. But these are only means of a beginner's entree, before all the exceptions and singularities disclose themselves. Social structure, certain patterns of aggression, and specific sexual relations might appear to be the best way to sort out some religious typology across the board, yet these all only get one so far. That matrilineality (as among the Papuan Massim) and some polyandry (among the mountain Arapesh) bring novelty to religion in a predominantly patrilineal, virilocal set of societies is not pertinent. Kinship and settlement patterns are not overriding determinants, although there will always be schools of ethnological opinion insisting they are. Certainly chieftain societies - mainly along the coast - are obviously more stratified and tabu-constrained, and the greater competitiveness for leadership between big-men in other social contexts makes for more elaborate exchange patterns, especially in the highlands. Yet no old Melanesian tradition imposed a 'totalistic' coherence (see 0073), and it can no longer be said that highlanders are more 'secular' and seaboard or outer island peoples more dependent on spirit beings (see 0117, 0916), because exceptions to previously stated generalizations along these lines are showing up everywhere. Zones of headhunting (south Irian Jaya, Papuan Gulf, Sepik, western Solomons), and of cannibalism (New Guinea Eastern Highlands, Papuan plateau, Fiji) are surely worth noting, along with types of sacrifices (on high altars in the central Solomons, or with giant pig-kills in the southern and west-central highlands of New Guinea), and such phenomena as ritualized homosexuality (0106). But questions as to whether 'high-gods' prevail in one general area, or concerns with ancestors have swamped deity cults in another, fail to yield simple answers. Funerary practices - including cremation, exposure, burial - are only 'irregularly patterned' across the board, as are ritual forms, prosperity magic, sorcery techniques, relational prohibitions and behavioral regulations . All this being the case, are we to be left defeated by complexity? Why give up trying? Doubtless the very challenge of it all will go inspiring provisional attempts, and so it should. Witness, for instance, the interesting stab at generalities by Professor Gorman in the Foreword of this book, with his highlighting of ancestor worship, initiatory rituals, and annual or cyclical celebrations as the basic features. And I myself have not shied away from attempting to tap the 'heartbeat' of the Melanesian religious scene. Elsewhere I have maintained that a characteristic interlocking of warriorhood, exchange activity and attention to the spirit-world, stand as the most useful way of

32

Study of Melanesian

Religions

gathering up the inordinate complexity into a working Gestalt.l OO Above all, Melanesians have traditionally worked for security against enemies, and for 'increase' or fecundity to achieve both a 'superior subsistence' and reciprocity between friends and potential allies; and in the process they have somehow grown worldviews that sustain the pursuit of these concrete goals. In these respects, Melanesian outlooks have been expressive of a basic, fundamental, perennial religio found in traditional societies the world over, one that celebrates victory and "abundant life" and explains the achievements or failures in these things by appealing to spirit forces.l 0l In comparison to other zones of 'primal' religion, though, Melanesia reflects a stronger preoccupation with wealth or prosperity (as against health, for example, in Africa). The special 'materialist' preoccupation of Melanesian traditions thus best explains cargo cults, which are more numerous in Melanesia than anywhere else on earth. Concerns in indigenous Christianity with material or concrete results are also best explained by an analogous broadening beyond just belief and/or 'distinctly religious' ritual, even though newer spiritist and enthusiastic developments in Melanesian Christian worship clearly hark back to spirit possession phenomena and related 'altered states' known from pre-contact cultures. That we have organized the bibliography to treat more than just traditional religious topics now needs no further defense. Melanesia is actually more famous for its transitional new religious movements - whether we call them cargoist, revitalizing, nativistic, or just plain new l02 - than for its plethora of tribal 'belief-systems.' It is irresponsible for scholars, moreover, to disavow the obvious truth about religious change - that almost all Melanesians now 'identify' with some Christian church. It does Melanesians a total injustice if we document only the manifestations of their indigenous inheritance when they have made distinctive "experiments in civilization" (1796) in new expressions of leadership, worship forms, cognitions and emotive power - often in spite of the weight of an externally imparted Christianity. By now, in any case, any research that lacks analysis of the three facets or 'layers of process' dictating the triadic sections of this bibliography should fall under immediate suspicion, as smacking of some prejudice, some suspect 'romanticism,' or just plain negligence.

100 Esp. 0065. For others on this tack, esp. N.McDowell, "It's Not who you are but how you Give that Counts: The Role of exchange in a Melanesian Society." American Ethnologist 7 (1980): 58-70, on Bun in the Sepik region (anthropologically); Ahrens, "On Grace and Reciprocity: A Fresh Approach to Contextualization with Reference to Christianity in Melanesia." International Review of Mission 89, 355 (2000): 515-28, cf. 0246 (missiologically). 101 Trompf, "Salvation and Primal Religion." In The Idea of Salvation, ed. by D.W. Dockrill and R.G. Tanner. Supplem. No. of Prudentia 1988: 208-09. 102 For bearings. Trompf. "Millenarism: History. Sociology and Cross-Cultural Analysis." Journal of Religious History 24. 1 (2000): 103-24.

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Bibliographical Survey

Papuan Coast and Islands General Torres Strait West Gulf Central: Rural and Urban South North Eastern Coastal East: Inner Islands East: Outer Islands

General Traditional Haddon, Alfred C. Headhunters Black, White, and Brown. London: Methuen & Co., 1901. xiv + 426 pp. + maps, figures and illustrations. [Repr.: New York: AMS Press, 1978; abr. edn.: Thinkers Library, 26. London: Watts, 1932.] A survey of village life in the Torres Strait and along the Papuan coast. Preceding the research of C. Seligmann (1312) it is more superficial though pioneering. There are interesting comments on totemism among the Kiwai, and beliefs about magic, tabus, and omens among the Mekeo. Cannibalism is referred to from time to time and the book ends in Borneo and Sarawak outside Melanesia. See also Haddon in lnternationales Archiv flir Ethnographie (pub . 1891) on Tugeri headhunters . 1308

Hurley, Frank. Pearls and Savages: Adventures in the Air, on Land and Sea - in New Guinea. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1924. xiii + 414 pp. + map and illustrations. Even if this is usually taken to be a "picture book," by a famous photographer who flew along the Papuan coast and trekked into the Lake Murray area, its text is useful for the study of religion. The best photographic plates are of the cathedral-like eravo spirit-house structures among the far western Elema and related groups, as on Goaribari Island, and of the interiors of the Lake Murray male-female lodges. Responses to Hurley's aeroplane include pig sacrifices. Rather unthinkingly prejudiced toward the London Missionary Society workers. [Note: a Hollywood film of the same name derives from this book.] 1309

Papuan Belief and Ritual. New York: Parratt, John [King]. Vantage Press, 1976. [xiv] + 103 pp. + map and illustrations. The only monograph devoted exclusively to religions in Papua (almost all of them coastal and island, yet including a few highland cases). A short work, its 1310

Papuan Coast and Islands

357

three parts cover beliefs, ritual, and rites of passage. Relying almost entirely on earlier ethnographies. It is inevitably superficial and more a summary of work by such scholars as Bronislaw Malinowski, Reo Fortune, and Francis Williams. 1311

[Saville, William James Viritahitemauvia]. "Are the Papuans Naturally Religious?" Annual Report: Territory of Papua (19301931): 24-25. [Also in: 0062 (pub. 1975, [Pt. AD; and revised edn. (pub. 1980, Pt. 1).] Important for utilizing early theorists (Ernest Crawley and Edward Tylor) for studying Papua religion. Saville denies the old misconception, shared by certain of his London Missionary Society predecessors in the field , that primitives can live "without a vestige of religion." The Mailu gove ceremony serves as his key to the Papuan sense of the sacred, and he touches on notions of "sacred ceremonial," reincarnation, prayers as not opposed to spells or magic to religion, and eventually on the contemplation of death, with the "final farewelling of the spirits ... to the land of the ancestral spirits" at the gove festival. Seligmann, C[harles] G[abriel] . The Melanesians of British New Guinea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910. 766 pp. + maps [one fold-out], figures, tables [one fold-out] and illustrations. A pioneering general ethnographic study of coastal Papuan cultures in central and eastern areas . The author has most detail on the Mekeo and Roro cultures in the west of his field and on the Massim in the east. Apart from general ethnographic matters his concentration is on ceremonial life and the material items integral to it. 1312

Specht, Jim, and Fields, John. Frank Hurley in Papua: Photographs of the 1920-1923 Expeditions. Bathurst: Robert Brown & Associates, in Association with the Australian Museum Trust, 1984. vi + 193 pp. + map and illustrations. Although this book is about the adventures of a famous photographer, it is the ethnographic photographs themselves that are well worth careful examination, being the best of those that were not included in Hurley's Pearls and Savages (1309 above). As well as coastal areas, some hinterland places are covered (e.g., Lake Murray), so that the book is more Papua-wide than the above-mentioned predecessor. Almost exclusively traditional subjects. 1313

1314

Strong, W.M. "Some Personal Experiences in British New Guinea." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 49 (1919): 292-308. Highly anecdotal, but worth reading to learn what was taken to be most noteworthy as ethnologic data by an interested visitor with connections among anthropologists back in Britain. His interests are in spirit agencies, magic, and counting deficiencies among the Motu, Mekeo, Roro, and Maisin.

358

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Survey

Thomson, J[ames] P[ark]. British New Guinea. London: George Philip & Son, 1892. xviii + 336 pp. + maps [one fold-out], tables and illustrations. The first monograph-length introduction to Papua, then called British New Guinea, the book ranging only over the coastal areas - except for the upper Fly River - because the region had been barely explored. The author's interests are more geographical than anthropological, yet there are interesting ethnographic observations throughout. Religion has higher profile in connection with contact situations and the local use of material objects such as shell. An old beautifully presented book. 1315

Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar] . Sentiments and Leading Ideas in Nativ e Society. Territory of Papua Anthropology Report, 12. Port Moresby : Edward George Baker, Government Printer, 1932. [vi] + 16 pp. [Repr. : in 0062: (pub. 1975, Pt. A).] Takes its cue from Alfred Radcliffe-Brown's theory that a society depends on a system of sentiments. Williams addresses connected issues for Papua under various headings such as the attachment to tradition, pride in culture, individual self-regard, loyalty to the group, the sense of shame, the respect for seniority, reciprocity, and tribal secrecy. The Papuan "duty of revenge" prevents him from saying that these sentiments are all essential for social life. 1316

Williams, Francis Edgar. "The Vailala Madness" and Other Essays. Ed. and introd. by Erik [G.] Schwimmer. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1976. 432 pp. + maps, figures, tables and illustrations. [Also: Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1977.] Included here despite use of the name of a famous essay in its title that might suggest better placement in the next (or a later) section. For Schwimmer has done us the service of collecting relatively inaccessible reports about traditional cultures by Williams (see, e.g., 1389). Mainly coastal Papuan cultures covered, but the Lake Kutubu area (Southern Highlands) also receives attention (1633). Chapter six is on "The Vailala Madness in Retrospect," which should be read in conjunction with the original report (1402); and note Williams' creed of a government anthropologist (he was essentially a Durkheimian, working for the government in the service of good order). 1317

Young, Michael W., and Clark, Julia. An Anthropologist in Papua: The Photography of F.E. Williams, 1922-39. Adelaide: Crawford House Publishing, in Association with the National Archives of Australia, 2001. x + 307 pp. + maps and illustrations. Originating from a National Archives of Australia exhibition, a famous government anthropologist's photographic documentations are here sensibly selected and arranged. Most pictures are from coastal and hinterland contexts from the Elema and the Purari (Gulf Province), Morehead (Western Province), 1318

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and Orokaiva (Northern Province), although a few are from Lake Kutubu (Southern Highlands). Betters Hurley (1309) for the range of photographed subjects it covers, especially ritual life. Cf. also 0041.

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena 1319

Abaijah , J[osephine] M . "The Suppression of Papuan Independence." [Special Issue of] World Review 15, 1 (1976): 13-22. The leader of the Papuan separatist cause speaks out about a failure by Australia and internationally to understand the distinctive history of Papua, which included commonality of religious change during the colonial period . Chinnery, E .W . P[earson], and Haddon, A[lfred] C. "Five New Religious Cults in British New Guinea." Hibbert Journal 15, 3 (1917) : 448-463. One of the earliest accounts of new religious movements in Papua New Guinea. Cases considered are the kava-keva and kekesi rites, and the baigona cult (Orokaivan areas, northern Papua); Milne Bay prophetism (eastern Papua); and the German Wislin movement (Torres Strait). Such agitations were later to be called cargo cults. Although finding them queer, the authors take them seriously as social phenomena - perhaps for the first time in anthropological history. 1320

1321

Premdas, Ralph R . "Secession and Political Change: The Case of Papua Besena." Oceania 47, 4 (1977) : 265-283 + table. About the most important movement for Papuan secession, led by Josephine Abaijah (1319). This essay shows interests expected of a Caribbean political scientist but he does give space to matters of ideology, to the mission background that has historically engendered a sense of Papuan unity (over and against New Guinea), and to appeals to God as a unifying force of this new movement. Premdas writes with 1. Steeves on this subject in a collection edited by D. Hegarty, ct. 1034. Trompf, G[arry] W[inston] . "The Diffusion of Cargoist Ideas, with Special Reference to the Southern Papuan Coast." In Melanesian and Judaeo-Christian Religious Traditions, ed. by G[arry] W[inston] Trompf, Pt. C, Pkg. 3, Opt. 3, 54-62. UPNG Extension Studies [Course Materials]. Port Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea, [1976]. An article introducing the oral historical approach to the spread of so-called cargo cult ideas, using the Vailala movement as the test case, but also showing how other ideas were passed along and beyond the Papuan coast (in the Gulf and Central areas). 1322

Bibliographical Survey

360 Emergent Melanesian Christianity

Austin, Tony. Technical Training and Development in Papua, 1894-1941. Pacific Research Monographs, 1. Canberra: Australian National University, 1977. xiv + 204 pp. + maps and tables. On mission endeavors to convey technical skills to Papuans in the process of introducing them to the Christian life. The London Missionary Society, Catholic Sacred Heart Mission, Methodist and Anglican Missions, and the Kwato Extension experiment are studied. The author is strongest on the last case; see also his article in Journal of the Papua and New Guinea Society (pub. 1972). 1323

[Chalmers, James]. James Chalmers: His Autobiography and Letters. Ed . by Richard Lovett. [Laymen's Missionary Library, 1.] New York: Laymen's Missionary Movement, n.d. [191Os]. 511 pp. + [fold-out] map and illustrations. [London: Religious Tract Society, 1902.] The basic primary source on the life and impact of Chalmers, the London Missionary Society pioneer in Papua, Lovett putting together his autobiography and selected letters under the one cover. Lovett also wrote a biography of the same man under the title Tamate (n.d.), an epithet (meaning "king") granted to Chalmers by coastal Papuans. Lovett's history of the London Missionary Society (1331) naturally contains material on Chalmers and his colleagues (in chapter thirteen) . Cf. also Chalmers, Adventures in New Guinea (pub. 1886). 1324

Chalmers, James, and Gill, W. Wyatt. Work and Adventure in New Guinea, 1875 to 1885. London: Religious Tract Society, 1885. [iv] + 342 pp. + maps and illustrations. [German trans.: Neuguinea: Reisen und Missionsthiitigkeit wiihrend der Jahre 1877 bis 1885. Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus, 1886. Note that Gill drops out from the listing of authors in later editions.] An early and important set of reflections about the impact of the London Missionary Society (LMS) on coastal Papua during the first twenty years of work. It is slightly more useful on Papuan history than Chalmers' monograph Pioneer Life and Work in New Guinea (1895), which includes more materials about his Scottish background before coming to Melanesia, as do R. Lovett (see above) and 1. Hitchen's 1984 University of Aberdeen doctoral thesis. The 1902 edition of Work and Adventure became the last of a trilogy on LMS work in coastal Papua (cf. 1324, 1331). See also W. Seton, Chalmers of New Guinea (pub. [1910]); and W. Nairne, Greatheart of Papua (pub. [1920]). 1325

1326

Cocks, Norman F. Report: Following a Secretarial Visit to Papua by the Rev. Norman F. Cocks (Secretary in Australia and New Zealand). London: London Missionary Society, 1949. 134 pp. + map, tables and illustrations. [Second Report: Sydney: Chalmers House, (1955).]

Papuan Coast and Islands

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For in-house consumption. The most comprehensive secretarial report ever written on the work of the London Missionary Society in Papua. The pamphlet covers topics to do with the training of Papuans for ministry, technical skills and general education. 1327

Crocombe, Ron[ald Gordon], and Crocombe, Marjorie [Tuainekore], eds. Polynesian Missions in Melanesia: From Samoa, Cook Islands and Tonga to Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1982. v + 144 pp. + maps and illustrations. On Pacific Islanders as international missionaries. Informs on the training given to Polynesian workers of the London Missionary Society, especially for work along the Papuan coast. R. Sinclair's researches into the instructing of these missionaries are very revealing; and among other pieces translated from the 1840s is remarkable diary material by Ta'unga 0 te Tini on his early work in southern New Caledonia (thus see 2030). For Polynesian influences on music in Papuan Christian worship, 1. Kreeck in South Pacific Journal of Mission Studies (pub. 1995). Langmore, Diane. Tamate, a King: James Chalmers in New Guinea, 1877-1901. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1974. xv + 169 pp. + maps and illustrations. The authoritative biography of Chalmers, the great missionary to coastal Papua, it does not have details of Chalmers' Scottish background (though for Langmore's interests in this see 1330), but provides insightful accounts of Chalmers' sometimes tempestuous relations with other missionaries; his dealings with colonial personnel; his explorations into new regions (including stories of villagers' dreamt anticipations of his arrival); and his death when entering a great temple on Goaribari Island in 1901 without invitation. The unfortunate colonial punitive response to Chalmers' death is discussed at the last. For a condensed version see also her "James Chalmers: Missionary," in Papua New Guinea Portraits, ed. by 1. Griffin (cf. 1460). Langmore's work far surpasses that of C. Lennox, James Chalmers of New Guinea (pub. 1902), but notice new work by P. Maiden, Missionaries, Headhunters and Colonial Officers (pub. 2003). 1328

1329

Langmore, Diane. "A Neglected Force: White Women Missionaries in Papua, 1874-1914." Journal of Pacific History 17, 3-4 (1982): 138-157 + tables. Seminal as the first historical study of independent female missionaries (for the London Missionary Society) and missionary wives in the Melanesian setting. Solid research on contributions, struggles, and interests. (The lively issue of being a missionary wife had already long been aired, as with the Australian Presbyterian journal Ministering Women [1895-1964], sometimes useful on the New Hebrides, and also more recently in an article by H. Ahrens in 0406, concerning New Guinea.)

362

Bibliographical Survey

Langmore, Diane. Missionary Lives: Papua, 1874-1914. Pacific Islands Monograph Series, 6. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989. xxiv + 409 pp. + maps, tables and illustrations. An excellent comparative account of the background, personalities, and careers of Protestant and Catholic missionaries to Papua before and up to the turn into the twentieth century. Emanating from her doctorate at the Australian National University, and showing the same kind of biographical know-how we find in 1328, Langmore produces a consummate piece of mission history and missiology combined. She has researched many an archive and comes up with fascinating details from unpublished diaries. She notes rules, for example, by which early missionaries kept their distance from the "natives" so that they were not overwhelmed. 1330

Lovett, Richard. The History of the London Missionary Society, 1795-1895. 2 Vols. London: Henry Frowde, and Oxford University Press Warehouse, 1899. Vol. 1: xvi + 832 pp.; Vol. 2: viii + 778 pp. + maps [included fold-out], tables and illustrations. A general history of the London Missionary Society, as with the later, updating case by N. Goodall, History of the London Missionary Society, 1895-1945 (pub. 1954), but in this work a large chapter in the second volume is devoted to the work along the Papuan coast, and other parts of the book explain the background experience of those engaged in it. The work has been improved upon in a 1968 University of Hawaii doctoral thesis by P. Prendergast; and on taking the story to the formation of the Papua Ekalesia, see G. Lockley, From Darkness to Light (pub. 1972). 1331

Lutton, Nancy. "Murray and the Spheres of Influence." In Select Topics in the History of Papua and New Guinea, ed. by H[ank] N. Nelson; N[ancy] Lutton; and S[usan] Robertson, 1-13. Port Moresby: University of Papua and New Guinea, [1969]. A rare and important study of how under Governor William MacGregor the policy of spheres of influence was laid down for the major missions of Papua, and how under his successor, Hubert Murray, the previously laid-down policy was undermined. In Lutton's view it was the expansion of the Catholic Mission that significantly weakened the agreement, and the presence of the Seventh-day Adventists that made the policy's initial simplicity unworkable . 1332

1333

Nelson, Hank [N.]. "Papua Is The Country! With a Woman to See you Through .. ." New Guinea and Australia, the Pacific and SouthEast Asia 3, 4 (1969): 39-56. Hank Nelson is basically a political and military historian but occasionally looks at mission affairs. Some particularly interesting observations about famous early twentieth-century missionaries to Papua, including John Holmes, Harry Dauncey, Ben Butcher, and Bishop Montagu Stone-Wigg, mainly interWar figures.

Papuan Coast and Islands

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1334

Gram, N[igel] D. "The London Missionary Society Pastorate and the Emergence of an Educated Elite in Papua." Journal of Pacific History 6 (1971) : 115-132 + tables. Authoritative on how the educational and training work of the London Missionary Society along the Papuan coast laid the foundation for the Papua (New Guinea) elite. Rowland, E. C[arr]. Faithful Unto Death: The Story of the New Guinea Martyrs. Sydney: Australian Board of Missions, 1967. [16 pp.] + map and illustrations. A pamphlet giving an Anglican priest's independent account of what happened to certain clerics and their mission staff upon the Japanese invasion . The Northern and Milne Bay Districts are in view. A Papuan betrayal of missionaries to the invaders is documented. 1335

Smith, Peter. "Education Policy in Australian New Guinea: A Classic Case." In Papua New Guinea: A Century of Colonial Impact, 1884-1984, ed. by Sione Latukefu, 291-315. Port Moresby: National Research Institute, and University of Papua New Guinea, in Association with the PNG Centennial Committee, 1989. In a collection largely about the colonial order, Smith mainly deals with the assumptions and policies of Protestant and Catholic school systems in Papua. Discussion is on Charles Abel's technical training; tensions between administration and mission; and problems of paternalism (including the political view that the "natives" should not be educated into the secondary stage). For a study of the policies of one denomination, D. Abbot, Anglican Mission Educat-ion in Papua New Guinea (pub. 1984). 1336

Titterington, John M ., ed. Strongly Grows the Modawa Tree: Factual Essays Outlining the Growth of the Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea. [Dogura, PNG]: Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea, 1991. 42 pp. + map and illustrations. Short essays, chiefly on Papua (and mainly by the editor himself), on the history and consolidation of Anglicanism in Papua New Guinea. Proceeds chronologically further than Wetherell (see next entry). See also T. Kinahan, A Church is Born (pub. 1991) for a comparable booklet. 1337

Wetherell, David. Reluctant Mission : The Anglican Church in Brisbane: University of Papua New Guinea, 1891-1942. Queensland Press, 1977. xiv + 430 pp . + maps, tables and illustrations. The definitive history of the Anglican Mission to Papua and New Guinea, easily bettering A. Chignell, Twenty-one Years in Papua (pub. 1913), and 1. Tomlin, Awakening (see 0454). The title indicates that the Australian Anglicans had little interest in the large island to the north until British and then Australian annexation occurred. This book derives from a thesis ~hich also treated the 1338

364

Bibliographical Survey

Kwato mission, a part apparently too sensitive for publication (yet cf. Journal of Pacific History, pub. 1982). Wetherell has also edited Bishop Philip Strong's diaries (1511), and see his article in Journal of Pacific History (pub. 2001). 1339

Wetherell, David. "The Anglicans in New Guinea and the Torres Strait Islands." Pacific Studies 21, 4 (1998): 1-31 + maps. A useful comparative study of the styles and receptions of two prongs of Anglican missionary work at opposite ends of Papua. See also 1360.

Torres Strait Traditional 1340

Haddon, Alfred C. "The Religion of the Torres Straits [sic] Islanders." In Anthropological Essays Presented to Edward Burnett Tylor in Honour of His 75th Birthday, October 2, 1907, ed. by W[illiam] H[alse] R[ivers] Rivers; R[obert] R[anulph] Marett; and Northcote W. Thomas, 175-188. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907. A succinct summary of Haddon's findings from the 1898-99 Cambridge expedition. Effigies, songs, omens, divination, ethics, etc. are discussed very briefly; more space is given to afterlife beliefs, totemism (the absence of which is noted for the Murray Islands in the northeast, as against the southwestern groups); and hero mythology. Haddon himself disputes views by Leo Frobenius and William Foy that show these myths in terms of solar and lunar characteristics. He also maintains that totemism forms an intermediate stage between magic and religion, adding to James Frazer's theories. 1341

Haddon, A[lfred] C. "Birth and Childhood Customs, and Limitations of Children;" "Magic;" and "Religion." In Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits [sic]. Vol. 6: Sociology, Magic and Religion of the Eastern Islanders, ed. by A[lfred] C. Haddon, 105-111; 192-240 + illustrations; 241-280 + illustrations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908. Three "classic" articles, the first on pregnancy, food tabus, childbirth, population control, twins, and post-natal care. On magic, James Frazer's definition is followed, and four groupings putatively controllable by magic are classified: the elements, vegetable life, animals, and humans. Religion is taken as a propitiation of powers (following Frazer), and there is serviceable information here on concepts of power, ghosts and spirits, totemism, ancestor cults, omens, divination, initiation, and several cults. C. Myers co-authors with Haddon a chapter on funeral ceremonies in the same volume, a matter taken up by Haddon for the western islanders in volume five (cf. 1347). For the collection of ritual artefacts resulting from the above-mentioned expedition, see D. Moore, The Torres Strait Collections of A.C. Haddon in the British Museum (pub. 1984);

Papuan Coast and Islands

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and see also this author's Arts and Crafts of Torres Strait (pub. 1989) for later holdings. Haddon, A[lfred] C. "The Religion of a Primitive People." In The Frazer Lectures 1922-1932 by Divers Hands, ed. by Warren R. Dawson, 212-230. London: Macmillan, 1932. Repeats what the author has said elsewhere and lacks vitality. Covers the various regions of the Torres Strait, classifying data in a Frazerian fashion, with magic and totemism on an evolutionary path toward religion. In the west of the Strait, tribes are said to be more totemic, and to the east more developed, centralized, and thus more religious. A now outmoded approach. 1342

1343

Hamlyn-Harris, R[onald]. "Papuan Mummification: As Practised in the Torres Strait Islands and Exemplified by Specimens in the Queensland Museum Collections." Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 1 (1912): 1-6 + illustrations. Tiny, but the seminal study of mummification practices in Melanesia. Papuan cases, and especially those of the Torres Strait, are well known in this regard, and the author collates records with known collected specimens. See also the related articles by G. Pretty in Man (pub. 1969), and V. Joel in New Diffusionist (pub. 1971). Its Kitaoji, Hironobu. [English Title]: "The Myth of Bomai: Structure and Contemporary Significance for the Murray Islanders, Torres Strait." Japanese Journal of Ethnology 42, 3 (1977): 209224 . The myth of Bomai concerns two gods, Bomai and Malu. The former's navigations are considered, his violation of women and revenge taken against him, and his eventual status as the supreme being. The shorter text is in English, the full one in Japanese. See also Kitaoji's more general article in Arena (pub. 1978). 1344

Oral Traditions and Written Laade, Wolfgang, colI. and ed. Documents on the History and Ethnography of the Northern Torres Strait Islands, Saibai-Dauan-Boigu. Vol. 1: Adi-Myths, Legends, Fairytales. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1971. xxvii + 127 pp. + maps [some fold-out], musical scores and illustrations. The most fundamental text on Torres Strait Island mythology since Alfred Haddon. It gathers up previously published findings in Ethnos (pub. 1967-68), with the work being later distilled in Das Geisterkanu (pub. 1974). The author provides a good sense as to how one distinguishes legendary material from memory of ancestors and their doings. 1345

1346

Lawrie, Margaret, colI. and trans. Myths and Legends of Torres Strait. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1970. xxiv + 372 pp . + maps and illustrations.

366

Bibliographical

Survey

A very impressive translated collection of over 150 stories. The texts are laid out according to the geographical division between the western, central and eastern islands. Seligmann, C[harles] G[abriel]. "Birth and Childhood Customs;" and "Women's Puberty Customs." In Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits [sic] . Vol. 5: Sociology, Magic and Religion of the Western Islanders, ed. by A[lfred] C. Haddon, 194-200 + illustrations; 201-207 + illustration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1904. The first piece considers some of the traditions related to pregnancy, birth, contraception, child-raising, and contraception. The Saibai Island bid - a shredded sago-leaf skirt symbolizing the foetus - is illustrated and discussed. The naming processes, food tabus, treatment of the afterbirth, and the birth of twins are all considered. The second article covers seclusion traditions on various islands, as part of pubescent girls' rites of passage: house comers (as on Mabuiag), the bush (Saibai, Tutu), or the seashore (Muralug), may be used as appropriate places. Cf. also 1341. 1347

1348

Sharp, Nonie. Stars of Tagai: The Torres Strait Islanders. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, 1993. xxii + 321 pp. + map, figures and illustrations. An introduction to Torres Strait islander self-understanding through explaining their identification with the vast star constellation (including the Pleiades, Orion and the Southern Cross) they call Tagai, which was first grasped by their mythic voyager hero. A sensitive and unique approach that works . For complementary work on custom trade across the Torres Strait, see D. Lawrence in Memoirs of the Queensland Museum (pub. 1994), along with islander reflection by W. None, on "The Sea," in M. Harrison et al., Elders (pub. 2003).

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena 1349

Beckett, Jeremy. "Whatever Happened to German Wislin?" In Metaphors of Interpretation: Essays in Honour of W.EB. Stanner, ed. by Diane E. Barwick; Jeremy Beckett; and Marie [0 .] Reay, 5373. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1985. The only recent substantial account of the Torres Strait "German Wislin" adjustment movement known from the early twentieth century, and on signs of its lasting influence in a cemetery cult. Obtaining information was difficult, but good explorations. 1350

Beckett, Jeremy. Torres Strait Islanders: Custom and Colonialism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. xiii + 251 pp. + maps and illustrations. The authoritative account of Melanesian Australians since contact, and under colonial rule until the 1980s. On the fusing of the traditional and Christian in

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contemporary church and celebratory ritual, the first chapter is crucial. Starting therefrom with a general history of contact experience, the book traces islander adjustments through World War II and on to the era of Australian "welfare colonialism. " 1351

Cowan, James. Messengers of the Gods: Tribal Elders Reveal the Ancient Wisdom of the Earth. Sydney: Random House, 1993. [vi] + 209 pp. + maps. The first quarter of this book, on "Malu's Island," consists of conversations between the author and Torres Strait islanders about the significance of myth for the way indigenes feel about the earth. The islanders show engagement in the contemporary environmentalist debate by adapting their understanding of tradition to it. 1352

Mullins, Steve. Torres Strait: A History of Colonial Occupation and Culture Contact, 1864-1897. Rockhampton: Central Queensland University Press, 1994. viii + 240 pp. + maps and illustrations. Mainly "secular social history," but there is an important chapter on the traditional ways of life, and a crucial one on "the Coming of the Light" (Marist Mission, London Missionary Society, etc.), that stresses the ascendancy and remarkable influence of South Sea Islander Christian leadership. A well researched volume. Especially interesting critique of the missionary S. McFarlane (cf. 0282). 1353

Passi, Dave. "Native Title (Mabo) from a Grassroots Perspective." In Martung Upah: Black and White Australians Seeking Partnership, ed. by Anne Pattel-Gray, 86-91. Melbourne: Harper Collins, 1996. Personal reflections on the Malo cult and numinous experiences that form the background for the author's persistence in the famous claim for recognition of land ownership on Murray Island (with its Australia-wide ramifications). Sharp, Nonie. Malo's Law in Court: The Religious Background to the Mabo Case. The Charles Strong Memorial Lecture 1994. Adelaide: Charles Strong Memorial Trust, 1994. 33 pp. + illustration. Brings together complex filaments of traditional ideas about land; the wedding of traditional ideas about the Meriam deity Malo and the introduced Christian God; the Christian Meriam pursuit of justice in the face of the Australian legal system; all leading up to the High Court Mabo decision discounting the old colonial presumption about Australia as terra nullius.

1354

1355

Singe, John . The Torres Strait: People and History. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1979. xvi + 267 pp. + maps and illustrations.

368

Bibliographical Survey

A good introduction to encounter situations in the Strait, and the impact of the missions. This, however, is only in the first part; the rest of the book is concerned with political issues.

Emergent Melanesian Christianity 1356

Beckett, Jeremy. "Rivalry, Competition and Conflict among Christian Melanesians." In Anthropology in Oceania: Essays Presented to Ian Hogbin, ed. by L[ester] R[ichard] Hiatt, and C[handra] Jayawardena, 27-46. Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1971. A useful analysis of the perpetuation of many of the traditional lines of conflict in the Torres Strait, with their sublimation upon the impact of the new Christian, especially Anglican, order. Beckett does a subtle analysis of religious continuity and change that is of great value methodologically for students of Melanesian religion. See Beckett also in J. Boutilier et.al. (0254). 1357

Loos, Noel, and Mabo, Koiki. Edward Koiki Mabo: His Life and Struggle for Land Rights. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1996. xxvi + 206 pp. + maps and illustrations. As "editor" of the conversations and snippets in this book, Loos shows a singular lack of interest in the religious dimensions in the work of land rights activist Edward Mabo . But it is a book still worth pursuing to uncover these elements (though best read in conjunction with D. Passi, 1353). 1358

Passi, Dave. "From Pagan to Christian Priesthood." In The Gospel is Not Western: Black Theologies from the Southwest Pacific, ed. by G[arry] W[inston] Trompf, 45-48. Maryknoll, N.Y. : Orbis, 1987. The Anglican priesthood rather than the London Missionary Society church order (see 1360) best suited the Torres Strait islanders, because the traditional zogoga priesthood, centered on the cult of Malo, was hereditary and hierarchized. Short, but an insightful indigenous voice. 1359

Rechnitz, Wilhelm. "Language and the Languages in the Torres Strait Islands." Milia wa-Milla: The Australian Bulletin of Comparative Religion 1 (1961): 45-54. On how traditional Torres Strait concepts flow into "native hymns" in church services and are likely to affect indigenous theology to come. 1360

Wetherell, David. "From Samuel McFarlane to Stephen Davies: Continuity and Change in the Torres Strait Island Churches, 18711949." Pacific Studies 16, 1 (1993) : 1-32 + map. On over 75 years of Christian impact in the Torres Strait. More on the styles of church leadership, but some interest in the islanders' preference for Anglicanism over the London Missionary Society (cf. 1358).

Papuan Coast and Islands

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West Traditional 1361

Austen, L[eo]. "Notes on the Turamarubi of Western Papua." Mankind 3, 12 (1947): 366-374; 4, 1 (1948): 14-23 + illustrations; 4,5 (1950): 200-207. A three-part article by a Diploma of Anthropology graduate from the University of Sydney after his time as a government official at Morigi Island in the 1920s. The study focuses on the Turamarubi, on delta land of the Turama River. The second and third parts containing some material on longhouses and rituals associated with them. Baal, J[an] van . "The Cult of the Bull-Roarer in Australia and Southern New Guinea." In Structural Anthropology in the Netherlands: A Reader, ed. by P.E. de Josselin de Jong, 320-335 + figure and illustrations. Koninklijk Instituut vor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Translation Series, 17. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1977. Using mainly western Papuan Kiwai, Trans-Fly and Gulf materials to argue that the bullroarer should be interpreted as a phallic symbol, as also the comparable Australian instrument. In myths its noise and usage are associated with male genitalia. Not completely convincing, but presented as the outline of a theory. 1362

Landtman, Gunnar. The Folk-Tales of the Kiwai Papuans. Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae, 47 . Helsinki: Printing-Office of the Finnish Society of Literature, 1917. xi + 571 pp. + map and illust-rations. A massive presentation and commentary of various Kiwai folk tales, in a more expansive form than found in the next entry. Story topics include, along many others, the relationship between the hero Sido and the heroine Sagaru, and the threat of great Torres Strait warriors. For connections between tales and songs, see also Landtman in Folk-lore (pub. 1913). 1363

Landtman, Gunnar. The Kiwai Papuans of British New Guinea: A Nature-Born Instance of Rousseau's Ideal Community. London: Macmillan, 1927. xxxix + 485 pp. + map, table, and illustrations. A massive ethnography of the Kiwai, with attention to religious matters mainly towards the end. Included are totemism; ideas about illness, death, and the soul; beliefs about ancestors, mythic beings and sorcery; and ceremonial life (with an account of the great distributive ceremony by totem groups called h6ri6mu). There is a chapter near the end on folklore (shortening 1363), and there is more on rituals by Landtman to be found in one of the Essays Presented e.G. Seligman (0056) and Acta Academicae Aboensis: Humaniora (pub. 1920). 1364

370

Bibliographical Survey

Landtman, Gunnar. Ethnographical Collection from the Kiwai District of British New Guinea in the National Museum of Finland, Helsingfors (Helsinki): A Descriptive Survey of the Material Culture of the Kiwai People. Helsinki: Commission of the Antell Collections, 1933. 121 pp. + map and illustrations. Mainly a photographic collection of cultural objects, but there is some account of the Kiwai worldview (see also the above entry). The weaponry shown relates to and is often better explained in Landtman's piece on Kiwai war magic in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (pub. 1916). 1365

Lyons, A.P. "Harina, or Punishment by Substitute: A Custom amongst the Kiwai and Kindred Peoples of Western Papua." Man 21, 2 (1921) : 24-27. Harina is the Kiwai principle of payback, and because an aggrieved party cannot always get back at an offender, the former may choose a substitute avenger, and the revenge may not be on the offender himself, but indiscriminate against the offender's group or specific to a person close to him . An early clarification of a common enough Melanesian set of principles. 1366

Lyons, A.P. "Animistic and Other Spiritualistic Beliefs of the Bina Tribe, Western Papua." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 51 (1921): 428-437. An older piece on the Bina tribe of the Kiwai people. The author reinforces the notion of "primitivity" connected with animism by his discussion of niro-iopu, an "animating principle" behind all useful things. It is also the soul-substance that leaves the human body at death and proceeds to the much fairer afterworld, Adiri, in the west. Various spirit beings are discussed. Dated, but not to be neglected. 1367

Martin, Grahame C. "Sigisi Peace Treaty, Western Province." Oral History 8, 6 (1980): 88-90 + map. This peace treaty is significant because it combined the two most powerful tribes on the Fly River of Papua New Guinea into a combined fighting force, leading to the total devastation of many people along the river from 1910 until contact. For Martin on the Trans-Fly Keraakie people, see his 2001 University of Sydney doctoral thesis on their time concepts. 1368

Martin, Grahame C. "The Origins of the Gogodala People." In How Long Have People Been in the Ok Tedi Impact Region? ed. by Pamela Swadling, 140-141. PNG National Museum Record, 8. Port Moresby: P[apua] N[ew] G[uinea] National Museum, 1983. Addressing the issue of the origin of the Gogodala by drawing on the myths of the Suki, and pointing out that originally they were one single people. Unfortunately none of the other essays in this collection impinges on the study of religion. 1369

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Riley, E[dward] Baxter. Among Papuan Headhunters: An Account of the Manners & Customs of the Old Fly River Headhunters, with a Description of the Secrets of the Initiation Ceremony Divulged by those who had Passed through all the Different Orders of the Craft, by One who has Spent many Years in their Midst. London: Seeley Service & Co., 1925. 316 pp. + figures and illustrations. A rare older work about Fly River headhunters, with important details on ceremonies (especially the initiatic ones) and sorcery. Before the labors of Margaret Mead this was the only useful work on Melanesian child-rearing. Other subjects addressed include the spirit world, levels of sorcery, and the psychology of dancing. Riley also discusses myth material in Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien (pub. 1931). 1370

Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar]. Papuans of the Trans-Fly. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936. xxxvi + 452 pp. + [fold-out] map, figures, tables [some fold-out], musical scores and illustrations. [repr.: Oxford Reprints, 1969.] [First published as Territory of Papua Anthropology Report, 15.] A solid ethnography of Western Province groups across and just above the delta area of the Fly River, and thus in a very difficult area to do anthropological research. Williams' most interesting work, from the viewpoint of religious study, concerns the incipient monotheism of the Roku and their cult of a cosmic serpent (not unimportant for the study of Australian Aboriginal religion). Difficulties with languages show, and Williams is unaware of distinctions between religious traditions of groupings and those of specific clans (there being more clans than he realized). The 1983 University of Chicago doctoral thesis by M. Ayres and especially that by G. Martin (cf. 1368) make many corrections. 1371

Wirz, Paul. "Die Gemeinde der Gogodara." Nova Guinea 16, 4 (1934): 371-500 + map, tables, figures, musical scores and illustrations. The earliest detailed ethnography of the Gogodala. Mostly on social organization and totemism, yet moves on to initiations, the aide cult (cf. 1374), myths, and art. Wirz makes an attempt at a more general view of cultures around the Gogodala in Beitriige zur Ethnographie des Papua-Golfes, BritischNeu-Guinea (pub. 1934). 1372

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena Crawford, A[nthony] L[eonard]. Sakema: Gogodala Wood Carvers. Port Moresby: National Cultural Council [of Papua New Guinea], 1975. [ii + 37 pp.] + map and illustrations. With over 70 illustrations, this is the first of Crawford's accounts of the resurrection of Gogodala carving he devoted much of his career to encouraging. Without formal training in anthropology, in popular magazines Crawford has been accused of naivety in imagining culture has actually been revived when 1373

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much of carving of drums, masks, etc., was done to please him. See also his paper Artistic Revival among the Gogodala (pub . 1976). Crawford, A[nthony] L[eonard]. Aida: Life and Ceremony of the Bathurst and Port Moresby: Robert Brown and Gogodala. Associates, in Association with the National Cultural Council of Papua New Guinea, 1981. 408 pp. + maps and illustrations. On cultural revival among the Gogodala, sponsored by Crawford himself. A longhouse in which artistic representation of the spirits were enshrined including the carved figures of ancestors, and clan insignia for headhunting - was built according to the traditional pattern, and was crucial for the ceremonial refloating of the highly decorated raiding canoes. Real war, however, was left out of it. Impressive photographs. 1374

Horne, Shirley. Out of the Dark. London: Oliphants, 1962. 97 pp. + illustrations. Introducing Unevangelized Fields Mission work among the Gogodala. The stress is on the difficulties the Gogodala have in converting, but there is also information on the indigenous pastorate. 1375

1376

Weymouth, Ross M. "The Gogodala Society: A Study of Adjustment Movements since 1966." Oceania 54, 4 (1984): 269288 + map. A badly needed study and well researched. It covers issues to do with Gogodala confusion over the mission message, adjustment myths, the tensions caused by Anthony Crawford's sponsorship of resurgent traditional ways (see the previous entries) and local Christian "revivalism."

Emergent Melanesian Christianity Bladon, Mabel Anne. Tidal Waves on the Bamu. Sydney: Mabel Anne Bladon Books and Tapes, 1984. [vi] + 126 pp. + map and illustrations. Curious, very pietistic autobiography about Bladen's involvement with the Bamu River Hospital in the Bamu/Fly delta, set up by Eva and Harrie Standon (initially with the Unevangelized Fields Mission but splitting from it) . However, many examples are given concerning the growth of the Christian following around hospital work. 1377

1378

Dundon, Alison. "Dancing around Development: Crisis in Christian Country in Western Province, Papua New Guinea." Oceania 72, 3 (2002): 215-229. On the new indigenous church among the Gogodala called the Congregation of Evangelical Fellowship, which has revived public dancing as a comment on the failure of the parent mission church to prepare its people for development.

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Prince, John, and Prince, Moyra. No Fading Vision: The First 50 Years of the A. P. C.M. [Melbourne]: Asia Pacific Christian Mission, 1981. 256 pp. + [fold-out] maps and illustrations. An in-house but respectably researched account of Unevangelized Fields Mission history and the development of indigenous Christianity as a results of its initiatives. The formation of the Evangelical Church of Papua, via the transition phase under the name of Asia Pacific Christian Mission, is described. The mission's work was strongest in the Western Province of Papua. For the Princes taking the story into the Southern Highlands, cf. 1641, and note 0578 for more on affects in Irian Jaya than given in the Vision book. 1379

1380

Weymouth, Ross. "The Unevangelised Fields Mission of Papua, 1931-1981." Journal of Pacific History 23, 2 (1988): 175-190 + map. Emergent Christianity in the Western Province of Papua following the work of Albert Drysdale and others. Weymouth carefully documents the initiatives taken by the early Gogodala converts. Updating this work in a more critical vein, see C. Wilde, in Oceania (pub. 2004).

Gulf Traditional 1381

Brown, H[erbert] A. "The Folklore of the Eastern Elema People." Annual Report and Proceedings of the Papua and New Guinea Scientific Society (1954): 64-82 + illustrations. Mainly eastern Gulf narratives, those of Iokea, Miaru (Moripi), Toaripi, Moveave and Karama groups. Some of these are warrior raid accounts, others are love stories, various myths involving pairs (siblings, spouses, etc.), and tales providing a guide to conduct. The vast diversity of narratives is explained by the separateness of groups and creative artistry. Brown, H[erbert] A., trans. "Tito: The Origin of Death." Gigibori 3,2 (1977): 8-12. A traditional Toaripi story about the handsome Tito who was eventually killed out of jealousy, and, because his twin brother drank out of his skull, death came into the world. This is a central-to-western Toaripi story, and a variation of it was known in the far western Elema region on Goaribari Island. Good rendering and appended exposition. 1382

Haddon, A[lfred] C. "The Agiba Cult of the Kerewa Culture." Man 18,12 (1918): 177-183 + illustrations. Useful observations on a neglected culture. Mainly on headhunting in connection with the dedications of men's houses (dubu daima) and war canoes, and on the attaching of enemy skulls to painted clan identity boards (kaiaimuru, gope) as well as to shrines of great ancestors (agiba) set up in the dubu. 1383

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1384

Holmes, Hohn] H[enry]. In Primitive New Guinea. London and New York: Seeley, Service & Co., and G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1924. 307 pp. + [fold-out] map and illustrations. [Repr.: New York: AMS Press, 1978.] [Sub-title too long to be included here.] An important ethnographic work by an early missionary to Melanesia, evangelizing among the Elema and the Purari. Holmes published various articles on relevant religious, initiatory, and totemic beliefs in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (pub. 1902 [two], 1903, and Man, pub. 1905), and in this book he combines ethnographic description made very close to contact with some assessment of mission effects. See also Holmes' Way Back in Papua (pub. 1926). A good account of Holmes' work and career is found in a thesis by R. Reid (distilled in 1405). 1385

McIntosh, Alistair 1. "Sorcery and its Social Effects amongst the Elema of Papua New Guinea." Oceania 53,3 (1983): 224-232. A curious but valuable piece on the psychology and divisive effects of sorcery among this Papuan coastal people. McIntosh is one of the few researchers to discuss para-psychological theory and experimentation in connection with sorcery effects. Note also his study of trance in relation to sorcery in the obscure journal Christian Parapsychologist (pub. 1983). Mamiya, Christin J., and Sumnik-Dekovich, Eugenia C. Hevehe: Art, Economics and Status in the Papuan Gulf University of California, Los Angeles, Monograph Series, 18. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History, 1983. 35 pp. + map and illustrations. Short commentary on an University of California exhibition, designed to relate Elema masks and decorative materials from hevehe ceremonial (see 1390) to local patterns of reciprocity and the quest for status within them. 1386

1387

Newton, Douglas. Art Styles of the Papuan Gulf New York: Museum of Primitive Art, 1961. 100 pp. + maps [one fold-out] and illustrations. Largely on masks, ancestral disks (gopi boards) and other ritual paraphernalia this is one of the more useful studies of coastal Papuan art in relating material culture and traditional belief systems. It is best for the Kikori culture, western Gulf region. 1388

Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar]. The Natives of the Purari Delta. Territory of Papua Anthropology Report, 5. Port Moresby: Government Printer, 1924. xvi + 283 pp. + [fold-out] map, figures and illustrations. A general ethnography richly detailing the cathedral-like ravi (comparable to the Elema eravo) . In the holy of holies of these temples there are wicker-work objects which are occasionally destroyed and re-created for group protection and success. Called Kaiemunu, it is believed that thunder expresses these objects'

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feelings and black clouds signal their help in cannibal raids. Painted gopi boards in the ravi are connected with successful skull-taking. Note: the western Elema interface with the eastern Purari groups is culturally blurred. As for the western Purari groups, see P. Wirz, in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (pub. 1937), followed by Williams' correspondence in Man (pub. 1939). Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar]. Bull-Roarers in the Papuan Gulf Territory of Papua Anthropology Report, 17. Port Moresby: Walter Alfred Bock, Government Printer, 1936. v + 55 pp. + map and illustrations. While bull-roarers received some attention on the New Guinea side (e.g., by C . Schmitz 0848), Williams is well known for his documentations of them for Papua. This study ranges across more Elema groupings than his monograph on the hevehe ceremony in The Drama of Orokolo (next entry). The report is made readily accessible by Schwimmer (1317). 1389

Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar]. Drama of Orokolo: The Social and Ceremonial Life of the Elema. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940. xxvi + 464 pp. + maps, figures and illustrations. [repr.: Oxford Reprints, 1969.] [First appeared as Territory of Papua Anthropology Report, 18.] Williams' most important work, a careful analysis of the ethnographic background to and the details of the periodic ritual called hevehe among the Elema, in this case the western Elema of Orokolo. The high point of the ceremony is the arrival of the hevehe spirit from the sea with incredibly eerie sounds. In the ritual process the hevehe masks are then burnt and cast into the sea so that the sea spirit ceases from its destructive potential. Anticipating this work, see Williams in Mankind (pub. 1939). 1390

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena 1391

Brown, H[erbert] A. "The Ballad of Kalo Araua." Gigibori 3, 1 (1976): 45-50 + musical scores. Introducing and translating a fourteen-stanza ballad on a well known Gulf murderer. Composed in a mixture of Toaripi, the lingua franca Police Motu, and English; and on Kalo, a man of Toaripi and Hula ancestry, who was sentenced for the murder of a policeman in 1929. (See also Sergeant Bakita in the journal Kovave, pub. 1971, on Kalo's killing of a prison warder and his family in 1938). Eri , Vincent [Serei]. The Crocodile. 2nd ed. Harmondsworth and Port Moresby: Penguin Books, in Association with Robert Brown & Associates, 1973. [iv] + 178 pp. Papua's first full-length novel, written during Eri's university studies. The hero grows up in a Moveave village affected by London Missionary Society 1392

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Polynesian teachers. He marries, but leaves the traditional village setting for the excitements of the new settlement of Port Moresby. Within the ever alienating colonial scene, traditional values count for most at the end, because his wife is taken by a crocodile, and his people put this down to sorcery. Eri later became Governor-General of Papua New Guinea. Fossen, Anthony Belgrano van. "The Problem of Evil in a Millennial Cult: The Case of the Vailala Madness." Social Analysis [1],2 (1979): 72-88 + illustrations. Interpreting this movement as a millenarian one, arguing that it might rather be about deciphering why the millennium had failed, and thus tapping into the secrets of the moral or "inner state" of humans. Intriguing, well researched, but making too many assumptions. 1393

1394

Hassall, Graham. "The Failure of the Tommy Kabu Movement: A Reassessment of the Evidence." Pacific Studies 14, 2 (1991): 29-51 + map. Tommy Kabu, head of a Purari area new religious movement (cf. 1398), is here discussed as Melanesia's first indigenous Baha'i leader (converting from his London Missionary Society heritage in 1965). Kabu's movement fell partly through failure to conform to missionary expectations. 1395

Kekeao, T[homas] H. "Vailala Madness." Oral History 7 (1973): 1-

8. Written by an Elema but unfortunately published in an obscure place. Until Kekeao's article, the study of the Vailala movement was dominated by the researches of Francis Williams, who saw in it some kind of collective hysteria or psychological disorder. Instead of focusing on the later leadership of this movement (under the man Evara), Kekeao discusses Harea, an earlier prophet figure, who sensed in altered states that a time "without sorry," with strangely mobile pigs (cars) "running along the road," and "things like birds in the air," were just around the corner. This man's expectations were more capable of rapprochement with Christianity than was the case with Evara's proclamations. Kiki, Albert Maori. Kiki: Ten Thousand Years in a Lifetime - A New Guinea Autobiography. London and Melbourne: Pall Mall, and F.W. Cheshire, 1970. [v] + 190 pp. + map. An extraordinary and famous autobiography (transcribed from tapes and introduced by Ulli Beier) of a man initiated among the Elema in a traditional koveve ceremony who subsequently becomes Minister for Foreign Affairs of the newly independent nation state of Papua New Guinea. Educated by the London Missionary Society and training unsuccessfully as a medical worker (in Fiji), Kiki eventually works for the pre-independence Australian administration. Temporarily he monitored the anti-tax activity of the Hahalis Welfare Society (an alleged "cargo cult" on Buka Island) as an independent observer. Eventually 1396

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he joins the Bully Beef Club (the seed bed of the Pangu Party) and enters politics. Maher, Robert F. New Men of Papua: A Study in Culture Change. Madison, Wise .: University of Wisconsin Press, 1961. xii + 148 pp. + maps, tables, figures and illustrations. An ethnohistory of culture contacts between lower Purari peoples themselves and with whites . The book is especially interesting regarding the Tommy Kabu movement which mixes cargoist-looking expectations with some entrepreneurial insights (leading to effective boat connections between Port Moresby and the western Gulf region). Maher discusses the cargo cult atmosphere around Kabu earlier in Oceania (pub. 1958). 1397

Maher, Robert F. "The Purari River Delta Societies, Papua New Guinea, after the Tom Kabu Movement." Ethnology 23, 3 (1984): 217-227 + tables. Examining the Tommy Kabu movement in the context of traditional institutions and forced change in the societies which Kabu affected, and explaining how they organized themselves and how they adapted to change after his death. Kikori groups discussed include the Koriki and the I'ai. 1398

Oram, Nigel D. "Rabia Camp and the Tommy Kabu Movement." In Rabia Camp: A Port Moresby Migrant Settlement, ed. by Nancy E. Hitchcock, and Nigel D. Oram, 3-43 + maps and illustrations. New Guinea Research Unit Bulletin, 14. Port Moresby: New Guinea Research Unit, Australian National University, 1967. Important on the Kikori people undergoing change, especially with traveling between their rural area and urban base. The impact of the Tommy Kabu movement is assessed. 1399

1400

Ryan, Dawn. "Christianity, Cargo Cults, and Politics among the Toaripi of Papua." Oceania 40, 2 (1969): 99-118. After surveying Toaripi post-contact history and scrutinizing the local religion in change, the author looks at the Moru district of this people, showing how an "empowered individual," Poro, arose against the established political organization of the villages, and proclaimed he had received special instructions from the Holy Spirit. A hole was dug in the cemetery presumably to receive goods from the dead. It was village councilors rather than church people who blocked this movement. 1401

Trompf, G[arry] W[inston] . "Kae Fo'o and his Account of his Life before Inaugurating a Cargo-Cult." Trans. by Christopher Siaoa. In Melanesian and Judaeo-Christian Religious Traditions, ed. by G[arry] W[inston] Trompf, Pt. C, Pkg. 3, Opt. 1: 89-93. UPNG Extension Studies [Course Materials]. Port Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea, [1976] .

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An introspective autobiographical account of a Toaripi cargo cult leader, whose story reads as if he is constantly moving between the world of dreams and ordinary commonplaces. Useful for psychoanalytic research. Kae Fo'o's talk reflects his personal need to resolve the confusion caused by tensions between the traditional Toaripi worldview and the messages from the London Missionary Society he was trying to interpret. 1402

Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar]. The Vailala Madness and the Destruction of Native Ceremonies in the Gulf Division. Territory of Papua Anthropology Report, 4. Port Moresby: Government Printer, 1923. 78 pp. + [fold-out] map and illustrations. The seminal report on the most widely known cargo movement of Melanesia. Williams arrived too late to see what happened at the heights of the movement. He relies on Lieutenant-Governor Hubert Murray's initial statements (see appendices), and then takes a "social psychological" line. He interprets accounts of the "head-he-go-round" men not as religious but as psychopathological experience. The spontaneous destruction of religious paraphernalia among the central-to-western Elema villagers involved in the movement is interpreted as a reason for grave concern that the people have succumbed to insanity rather than religious change. This picture has to be revised and will be in a forthcoming article by Trompf (but see also the Elema T. Kekeao 1395, W. Jojoga Opeba 1485, and A. Lattas 0379). Williams' report is made more accessible by E. Schwimmer (1317), yet without Murray's statements. 1403

Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar]. "The Vailala Madness in Retrospect." In Essays Presented to e.G. Seligman, ed. by E[dward] E[van] EvansPritchard, et al., 369-379. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1934. On reflecting further on the Vailala movement, Williams notes the rumors and extravagant claims that were made by locals about it some ten years after its occurrence. This is interesting material although it places Williams among those stressing the "gullibility of primitives." This essay, as with others by Williams, has been made more accessible in E. Schwimmer's edition (see above).

Emergent Melanesian Christianity 1404

Dewdney, Madie [Madeleine]. Never the Last Straw: Memories of Orokolo. [Swaffham, U.K.: Self-published, n.d.] 99 pp. + maps and illustrations. A missionary wife's reminiscences of work in the Gulf of Papua, especially Orokolo Bay, between 1934 and 1974. The book is mainly about mission work especially of a medical nature, yet the author's interest in health matters occasionally spills over into observations about local Elema worldviews.

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1405

Reid, R[ichard] E. "John Henry Holmes in Papua: Changing Missionary Perspectives on Indigenous Cultures, 1890-1914." Journal of Pacific History 13, 3 (1978): 173-187. On a strong-willed representative of the London Missionary Society (with Quaker predispositions) working among the Elema (1893-1905) and the Purari (1905-1917) in the Gulf. A good critical assessment of his anthropological work and his relation with the indigenes and missionary colleagues.

Central Traditional: Rural 1406

Burton-Bradley, B[urton] G., and Julius, Charles. "Folk Psychiatry of Certain Villages in the Central District of Papua." In South Pacific Commission Technical Paper, 145: 9-26. Noumea: South Pacific Commission, 1965. This is probably the most detailed ethnography engaged in by Burton-Bradley (ct. 0364), and in this case with a companion. It describes the effects of beliefs in types of sorcery of the Roro, Motu and Koitabu and such disorders as epilepsy connected with them, as well as traditional healing practices to handle mental disorders. Somewhat shallow but still useful. 1407

Chatterton, Percy. "The Story of a Migration." Journal of the Papua and New Guinea Society 2, 2 (1969): 92-95. Largely on contact between Motu and Roro groups in the formation of Delena village, with its Motu inhabitants changing their language to Roro more quickly than would ever be supposed and thus altering select religious elements also. Showing an interest as well in Delena's fearsome eastern neighbors, the Nara, with their "queen" Koloka near to the time of outside contact. Taking the story into post-contact times, see Chatterton in K. Inglis (ed.), The History of Melanesia (pub. 1969). Egidi, V.M. "La religione e Ie conoscenze naturali dei Kuni (Nova Guinea Inglese)." Anthropos 8 (1913): 202-218. Early account of religion among the far hinterland Kuni . Contains an interest in the Kuni range of ideas, not just religious lore. Main topics include the spirit Idume, divination, and word picturing in the Kuni cosmogony. For earlier introductory material, see Egidi in Anthropos (pub. 1907). 1408

Egidi, V.M. "Mythes et 16gendes des Kuni, British New Guinea." Anthropos 8 (1913) : 978-1009; 9 (1914): 81-97 + map, 392-404. Intelligently collected Kuni myths and legends on such topics as the sun, moon, hero figures, natural knowledge (of cosmos, geography, vegetation, and the beginning of the world and humans), revenge, murderers, and cannibalism, marriage and divorce. Interlinear French/Kuni texts are provided. 1409

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1410

Groves, Murray. "Motuan Morality." Annual Report and Proceedings of the Papua New Guinea Scientific Society (1955): 1012. On the importance of reciprocity and kin relations governing traditional Motu ethical behavior, assessing the extent to which modifications have occurred with socio-religious change. See also Groves' 1956 Oxford doctoral thesis on 'The Motu Tradition and the Modern World,' and of relevance an article in Quadrant (Australia) (pub. 1957).

Gwilliam, John W. "Some Religious Aspects of the Hiri." In The Hiri in History: Further Aspects of Long Distance Motu Trade in Central Papua, ed. by T[h]om[as] [Edward] Dutton, 35-63 + map and figure. Pacific Research Monograph, 8. Canberra: Development Studies Centre, Australian National University, 1982. The best article on the traditional religious underpinnings of the famous Motu deep-sea voyages from the Port Moresby area, their homeland, to the Gulf. Gwilliam interviewed the last surviving "holy man" (helaga or badi tauna), who explains how a hiri voyage was sponsored by a man and his wife who then take on a sacred role and live a stringently tabued life until the expedition is over. En route, this holy man must sit in a totally enclosed spirit-house on the lagatoi (deep-sea canoe), where he mediates to placate potentially inimical spirits. Cf. also 0331. 1411

1412

Hau'ofa, Epeli. "Mekeo Chieftainship." Journal of the Polynesian Society 80,2 (1971): 152-169. An excellent introduction to the chiefly system among this hinterland Papuan people. Hau'ofa discussed the differences between peace and war chiefs and their insignia of power; peace chiefs being interestingly more powerful (cf. also the debate between Hau'ofa and Trompf in the same journal (pub. 1974). An important point is the socio-spiritual commitment by a chief when installed; men in line to be chiefs who are perceived as unworthy of making this commitment will not be accepted. 1413

Hau'ofa, Epeli. Mekeo: Inequality and Ambivalence in a Village Society. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1981. x + 339 pp. + maps, figures, tables and illustrations. Impressive ethnography of a hinterland Papuan people by a young Tongan anthropologist. The discussion of magical and mystical power among chiefs, war magicians, and sorcerers excels and helps explain the ranking in the society (which is a chieftain one with a strong "pecking order" among commoners as well). The transference of a sense of power (isapu) to the Catholic Church is well discussed. 1414

Kopi, N. Sibona. "Babalau and Vada: Religion, Disease and Social Control among the Motu." Oral History 7, 3 (1979): 8-64 + map, table and illustration.

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A distillation of Kopi's Honors thesis in history and religious studies at the University of Papua New Guinea. A Motu, he addresses the holistic nature of his people's traditional medical system and documents the role of the healer in embracing the total welfare of the patient. Kinsfolk encircle ill persons and questions are asked about their recent relationships and movements, to ascertain whether, for example, sorcerers have had access to them. Motu diagnostic and therapeutic techniques are skillfully classified. Kopi's 1997 University of Sydney doctoral thesis expands extensively on the above.

Picturesque New Guinea, with an Lindt, J[ohn] W[illiam). Historical Introduction and Supplementary Chapters on the Manners and Customs of the Papuans. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1887. xviii + 194 pp. + illustrations. Primarily a photographic book with a popular introductory text, it carries nonetheless two important chapters by J. Chalmers on Motu and Koitabu traditions about trade, sorcery, and witchcraft. Illustrations of traditional subjects throughout the book are outstanding. 1415

Central Coast Stories. Port Moresby: Lohia, Simon, trans. Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1977. 30 pp. Eighteen legends and anecdotes put together by a Motu collector, yet they are not exclusively Motu narratives, and no one guides you concerning contexts. Chapter fourteen presents the Edai Siabo myth-history (see 0199). 1416

Mosko, Mark S. Quadripartite Structures: Categories, Relations, and Homologies in Bush Mekeo Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. xiv + 298 pp. + maps, figures and tables. Concerned with the logic of northwestern ("Bush") Mekeo symbols relating to body, sexual relations, and social organization - all of which help to explain symbols of the dramatic mortuary festival. 1417

Natachee, Allan. The History of the Mekeo, Based on Information Gathered from Eft Ongopai between 1947-1949. Port Moresby: Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1974. [ii] + 26 pp. Migration stories that look as if they are subtly adapted to Genesis ideas. Aia, here the somewhat universalized God of the Mekeo, is the subject of many war songs in the second part. Originally Mekeo men seek to kill him, but because of rapprochement and his forgiveness they become his faithful warriors. Be mindful of special touches of syncretism. 1418

Pita, Revo, et al. Traditional Motu Customs. Trans. by A.V.G. Price. Port Moresby: Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1975. [vii] + 110 pp. An important effort by a number of Motu and Motu-Koitabu writers, their works originally being mimeographed in Motu and here translated into English for a wider readership. The essays by the Motu cover response to illness, the 1419

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mortuary rite, rituals surrounding the hiri expedition, and the building of a new house; while the remainder, by Motu-Koitabu, concern the hiri only (cf. 1411). Pulsford, R[obert] L. "Ceremonial Fishing for Tuna by the Motu of Pari." Oceania 46, 2 (1975): 107-113 + illustrations. Covering ritual preparation for the sacred tuna fishing season, the ceremony following upon the first catch, and the procedures during the height of the season. Contact effects are accounted for. Pulsford's 1989 University of Sydney Masters thesis on Motu religion should be noted. 1420

Saka, Varimo G. "Legends from Naara." Oral History 8 (1973): 1635. Legends from the inadequately documented Nara culture. Topics include preparation for warriorhood, giant killing, two brothers, and escaping the clutches of a place spirit. 1421

1422

Stephen, Michele [Joy]. "Sorcery, Magic and the Mekeo World View ." In Powers, Plumes and Piglets: Phenomena of Melanesian Religion, ed. by Norman C. Habel, 149-160. Adelaide: Australian Association for the Study of Religions, 1979. A useful introduction to the role of the sorcerer (u[n}gau[n}ga) in Mekeo society. Stephen compares the sorcerer's role with that of the war magicians and the different types of chiefs, discussing his appropriation of isapu (heat/spirit power) and the wider range of magical powers conceived by the Mekeo. Stephen, Michele [Joy]. "Master of Souls: The Mekeo Sorcerer." In Sorcerer and Witch in Melanesia, ed. by Michele [Joy] Stephen, 4180. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, in Association with La Trobe University Research Centre for South-West Pacific Studies, 1987. Breaking new ground by connecting the impact of traditional sorcery to the "universal structures of the imagination." Appropriating neo-Jungian insights, Stephen is able to address the problem of the sorcery's apparent effectiveness by suggesting the practitioners' command of the unconscious, which is so shared by their society that harm-dealing power becomes manifest and socially recognizable. Note also her related articles on dreams in Oceania (0152; and pub. 1982). 1423

Stephen, Michele [Joy]. A'aisa's Gifts: A Study of Magic and the Self. Studies in Melanesian Anthropology, 13. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. xvii + 381 pp. + map and illustrations. A study of Mekeo cosmology and esoteric knowledge as revealed through the lives of actual men and women, especially the lineage leader Aisaga. Dreams, waking visions, and other subtle intuitive states are the key foci of attention, and also how mundane life intervenes with a "hidden world." A study informed by psychoanalytical conceits, with a good cross-cultural knowledge of literature 1424

Papuan Coast and Islands

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on "magic" and secrecy. Little grasp of phenomenology as applied to studies in religion, however; and the historical perspective is weak. Trompf, G[arry] W[inston]. "'Ikaroa Raepa' of Keharo, Western Mekeo - Conqueror and Peacemaker." Oral History 5, 7 (1977): 3240 + map. An account of a successful western ("Bush") Mekeo chief who forged a miniempire among the eastern Elema or Moripi-Toaripi. The chief, Ikaroa, can be likened to Australia's Ned Kelly because his whole body was shielded behind bark armor. The religious dimensions concern peacemaking through marriage, and also the recited memory of great warrior exploits. 1425

Turner, W[illiam]. "The Ethnology of the Motu." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 7 (1878): 470-498. Oldest attempt at a general ethnology of the people now nearest the capital of Papua New Guinea. Mainly on material culture. Very superficial on beliefs and ceremonies, but interesting on marriage and funerals. Lecture papers directly on belief will be published in White on Black, ed. by F. Tomasetti and Trompf. 1426

Walker, J[oan], and Littlewood, H. "Aroma Traditions (A-B)." Oral History [1], 9-10 (1973): 37-52; 3-14. Two authors, the first a missionary sister, attentive to religious elements in migration stories and the oral history of the relationships between AromaVelerupu groups. Some attention to contact history in Part B. 1427

Traditional: Urban 1428

[Ova, Ahuia]. "The Reminiscences of Ahuia Ova." Ed. by F[rancis] E[dgar] Williams, and trans . by Igo Erua. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 69 (1939): 1144 + illustrations. Largely reproduced in 0400. Ahuia Ova of Hohodae was an important Koitabu from the first half of the twentieth century. He describes his life growing up in the Koita section of the predominantly Motu "great village" of Hanuabada (next to Port Moresby) during colonial times. The sections on marriage, chieftainship, feasts, spiritual adventures, dreams, and sorcery are important reminiscences of traditional life. His justification for becoming both a London Missionary Society convert and a Catholic is complex. See also C. Belshaw in Man (pub. 1951).

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena: Rural 1429

Belshaw, Cyril S. "Recent History of Mekeo Society." Oceania 22, 1 (1951): 1-23 + figures and tables.

384

Bibliographical Survey

Throws light on the Mekeo cargo movement surrounding the young woman Filo ofInawai'a in the early 1940s. Belshaw managed to secure interviews with her in which the retributive and millenarian elements of this movement become plain. The traditional Mekeo god A'ai[s]a is appealed to as the one who will remove the lying Catholic clergy and bring darkness and death to earth on their account. 1430

Fergie, Deane. "Prophecy and Leadership: Philo and the Inawai'a Movement." In Prophets of Melanesia: Six Essays, ed. by Garry [Winston] Trompf, 89-104 + map and illustrations. 3rd ed. Port Moresby and Suva: Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, and Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1986. The most important article on the Inawai'a movement of the early 1940s surrounding Filo, the Mekeo prophetess. From an interview with Filo herself, one can detect that she was a naive young Catholic pietist who became manipulated by sorcerers bent on recovering their traditional power (and the power of traditional authority in local affairs). Fergie sets her study against a background of solid ethnographic research in Mekeo concepts of power (isapu). For background, see also Fergie in 0062, Pt. C, Pkg. 3, Opt. 3. 1431

Gostin, Olga. Cash Cropping, Catholicism and Change: Resettlement anwng the Kuni of Papua . Pacific Research Monograph, 14. Canberra: National Centre for Development Studies, Australian National University, 1986. xxi + 170 pp. + maps, tables and illustrations. A solid study of the twin effects of missionization and cash-cropping projects among the far hinterland Kuni. Important chapters on syncretism and modifications of life-cycle ceremonial. Her earlier work in her 1967 Australian National University doctoral thesis was under the name O. Rijswijck. lani, K. [pseud.]. "Violence in the Village." Oral History 6, 1 (1978): 67-77. A rare article covering village mentalities in the Rigo area during a situation of rapid social change. In the village, tradition and Christianity bond as stabilizing factors, only to meet with shallow, brawling attitudes of workers returning from Port Moresby on the weekends. The latter get new inspiration from urban heroes like Mohammed Ali, and they are bent on tough sex with their village wives and belting up the village boys who stayed at home. 1432

"The Geno Gerega Movement: Two Kila, Timo Ani, et al. Reports." In New Religious Movements in Melanesia, ed. by Carl [E.] Loeliger, and Garry [Winston] Trompf, 106-118 + illustration. Suva [and Port Moresby]: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, and University of Papua New Guinea, 1985. [The coordinator of this work was Chris Kopyoto, an Enga who was the first highlander to publish research on a coastal people.] On a small new religious 1433

Papuan Coast and Islands

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movement among the Babaka villagers of the Hula culture area, generated by Geno Gerega. A contact and mission background history is given, before discussing the belief of Geno and his followers that cargo was to be found by digging up a hillside. Noga, Bedero Geno. "The Mareva Namo Cult." In New Religious Movements in Melanesia, ed. by Carl [E.] Loeliger, and Garry [Winston] Trompf, 92-97. Suva [and Port Moresby]: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, and University of Papua New Guinea, 1985. Not a cargo cult but a movement designed to protect the Rigo from the influences of the whites, while projecting that in the future the blacks will dominate over the whites. 1434

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena: Urban 1435

Barr, Kevin J. "Revivalism in the Urban Situation: Port Moresby." In Religious Movements in Melanesia: A Selection of Case Studies and Reports, ed. by Wendy Flannery, 201-210. Goroka: Melanesian Institute for Pastoral and Socio-Economic Service, 1983. A survey of Christian revivalist tendencies in the Port Moresby area. It needs updating for the 1990s but provides the groundwork for further analyses. Belshaw, Cyril S. The Great Village: The Economic and Social Welfare of Hanuabada, an Urban Community in Papua. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1957 . xviii + 302 pp. + figures, tables and illustrations. Basically a work in urban sociology, but one in which religion inevitably makes an appearance. The focus is on the great Motu village of Hanuabada on the outskirts of Port Moresby. Relevant chapters cover informal ceremonial exchange at occasions of birth, marriage and death; public ceremonies and feasting (including "cricket ceremonial!"); religion in general (which is mainly about the church), and sorcery. 1436

Chao, M. John Paul. Life in a Squatter Settlement: An Epistle to the Christians in PNG. Goroka: Melanesian Institute for Pastoral and Socio-Economic Service, 1986. 40 pp. + map, tables and illustrations. Originally in Catalyst (pub. 1985), a sensitive account by a Chinese Catholic mission sister of the struggle for survival in an urban squatter settlement on the fringes of Port Moresby. While the author tells us a lot about shared values, both traditional and Christian, the treatise is mainly a challenge of inspiration for those who are concerned about simplifying life and helping in the liberation of the oppressed. 1437

386

Bibliographical Survey

1438

Choudry, Mohammed Afza!. Islam and Papua New Guinea. Port Moresby: Islamic Society of Papua New Guinea, [1989?]. 16 pp. A pamphlet outlining what is in Melanesian cultures that makes Islam the most suitable religion for the new nation of Papua New Guinea. Parallels between Melanesian traditions and Islam over compensation, circumcision, caring and sharing, and, above all, polygyny are stressed. The history of the mosque in Port Moresby from which this booklet was issued has to be found from mimeographed materials elsewhere. 1439

Harris, Bruce M. The Rise of Rascalism: Action and Reaction in the Evolution of Rascal Gangs. lASER Discussion Paper, 54. Port Moresby: Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research, 1988. vi + 52 pp. + figure. The only published general history of the rise of squatter settlement youth gangs in Papua New Guinea, particularly in and around Port Moresby. The booklet is useful for describing the stages in the history of gang formation although it is somewhat disappointing in its rather thin account of the ideological motifs in gang solidarity. Cf. Trompf 0065, 0902; N. Nibbrig in Pacific Studies (pub. 1992); M. Goddard in Contemporary Pacific (pub. 1995); and S. Dinnan in Oceania (pub. 1995). Parratt, J[ohn] K[ing] . "Papuan Marriage." Journal of the Papua and New Guinea Society 5, 1 (1971): 3-14 + illustrations. A survey of traditional and changing marriage procedures among Papuan coastal peoples, placed here because he addresses the melting-pot of these peoples in Port Moresby. There is an interest in bride price (which in fact has risen exponentially after this article was written!) and in various regulations and ceremonies traditionally connected to marriage. 1440

1441

Parratt, J[ohn] K[ing]. "Religion and the Migrant in Port Moresby." Missiology 3, 2 (1975): 177-189. A useful, somewhat solitary assessment of the sorts of problems confronting rural migrants to the capital of Papua New Guinea, and the important means the churches provide, as part of the wantok system (see 0390), for the settling down and better security of previously non-urbanized people. 1442

Po'o, Tau. "Gangs in Port Moresby." Administration for Development 3 (1975): 30-37. One of the few articles on urban .gangs that deal with group identity in religious terms commenting on initiations, inviolable rules, tattoos, and the sense of justified retaliation between enemy gangs.

Emergent Melanesian Christianity: Rural 1443

Dauncey, H[arry] M[oore]. Papuan Pictures. London: Missionary Society, 1913. viii + 184 pp. + illustrations.

London

Papuan Coast and Islands

387

Pietistic and for a fireside reading in Britain, but an account of London Missionary Society effects among the Roro, characterizing the atmosphere of Papuan village Christianity along the way. Valuable photographic representation of his time in Papua. Delbos, Georges. The Mustard Seed: From a French Mission to a Papuan Church, 1885-1985. Trans. from the French [by Theo Aerts] . Port Moresby: Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1985. xvii + 448 pp. + maps, tables, figure and illustrations. The definitive work on the history of the Sacred Heart Mission achievement in coastal and hinterland Papua, starting from Yule Island and spreading into the Papuan mountains. Interesting on how strange importations - not just fathers and nuns but also clothes, horses, machines, church buildings - had their effects on the colorful cultures of the Roro, Mekeo, and Kuni (and also the mountain Fuyughe, Kunimaipa and Tauade). Formulations of mission policy - by martyrconscious Henri Verjus and master strategist Alain de Boismenu - are very useful for mission historians . The work surpasses an older untranslated history by A. Dupeyrat (see 1446). 1444

Didier, Pierre. Yule Island: A Guide for Pilgrims and Tourists. Yule Island: [Self-published] , 1981. 24 pp. + illustrations. A useful historical text on the major buildings and pilgrimage sites of one of the most famous old mission stations in Papua New Guinea. Regarding Melanesian Christianity, note the comments on the schools and workshops . 1445

Dupeyrat, Andre. Papouasie: histoire de la mission (1881-1935). Issoudon, Archiconfrerie de N[otre]-D[ame] du Sacre-Coeur: Editions Dillen, 1935. 542 pp. + maps [one fold-out], tables and illustrations. The first attempt to write a history of the foundation and expansion of the Sacred Heart Catholic Mission to Papua. The book was distilled into an English version titled Papuan Conquest (pub. 1948). Dupeyrat is the first writer to make a good deal of the creative missionary policies of Alain de Boismenu. Important photographic documentation. 1446

Fairhall, Constance. Where Two Tides Meet: Letters from Gemo, New Guinea . London: Edinburgh House Press, 1945. 80 pp. and illustrations. Island of Happiness: More Letters from New Guinea. London: Edinburgh House Press, 1951. 64 pp. + illustrations. Two volumes of letters about life in the leprosarium on Gemo Island opposite to Halls Sound west of Port Moresby. The stories are paternalistic but poignant in conveying the isolation of suffering Papuans and those helping them . See also Fairhall's Some Shape of Beauty (pub. 1960), cf. 0270. 1447

388

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Survey

1448

Gregory, C[hristopher] A. "Gifts to Man and Gifts to God: Gift Exchange and Capital Accumulation in Contemporary Papua." Man New Series 15,4 (1980): 626-652 + figures and tables. An argument that gift exchange between humans is of goods which will be humanly useful and do not have to be destroyed, whereas religious sacrifices involve destruction, or "alienating the inalienable" (even though human participants receive something of leftovers), and/or the total giving away of goods to outsiders (typically other tribes who are allies). Gregory uses the bobo (boubou or hekara) ceremony among the Motu as an example. In the present Christianized guise of bobo, Motu villages collect an extraordinary amount of money for the church, competing in generosity, and giving it all away ostensibly for the church to use in other areas. Is this destruction, though, as Gregory argues for it? Trompf does not think so in 0065; Gregory's article generated controversy involving D. Feil, A. Strathern and Gregory himself in Man (pub. 1982). Johns, Eric. "Bishop Sir Louis Vangeke." Paradise 125 (Jan.-Feb. 1998): 58-60. A 1972 interview with Vangeke, the first Melanesian Catholic bishop, who trained in Madagascar and returned to his people, the Mekeo, in an aura of mystery . The photographs used are rare and excellent. 1449

King, Joseph. w.G. Lawes of Savage Island and New Guinea. London: The Religious Tract Society, 1909. xxvi + 388 pp. + [foldout] map and illustrations. Thoughtful and well informed study of London Missionary Society work in central coastal Papua. Particularly useful on early Papuan converts and teachers, and on the training of indigenous leaders at Vatorata, a center set up by William Lawes. This was east of Port Moresby, and thus relating extensively to the Hula-Velerupu and Rigo peoples. Solid photographic documentation. 1450

Kolia, John. The History of the Balawaia . Port Moresby : Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1977. 240 pp. + maps and illustrations. After considering oral and contact history, most of this book is on recent, and therefore, religious changes, to the small Balawaia coastal culture area. Skillfully exemplifying how village history can be recovered by well honed oral historical research methods. 1451

1452

Mosko, Mark. "Syncretic Persons: Sociality, Agency and Personhood in Recent Charismatic Ritual Practices among North Mekeo (PNG)." Australian Journal of Anthropology 12,3 (2001): 259-274 + figures. Instead of lending support to the common denigration of syncretism, Mosko stresses the "conceptual convergences" and "remarkably compatible similarities" of northwestern ("Bush") Mekeo tradition and Catholicism (including the latter's

Papuan Coast and Islands

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charismatic variety). The personal spiritual efficacy of the charismatic, for instance, is taken as a structural replication of Mekeo ritual efficacy. Oram, Nigel [D.]. "Towards a Study of the London Missionary Society in Hula, 1875-1968." In Melanesian and Judaeo-Christian Religious Traditions, ed. by G[arry] W[inston] Trompf, [Pt. A], Pkg. 1: 121-141. UPNG Extension Studies [Course Materials]. Port Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea, [1975]. The most detailed account of the work of the London Missionary Society (L.M.S.) in a particular village area from contact until after World War II. The village of Hula stands today as one of the most important centers of the United Church which inherited the London Missionary Society tradition, but for many of the early years of the church there it struggled with the problem of a near, neighboring village called Kalo, which stood fast in its indigenous ways until after the War. The famed Kalo massacre of 1881 and the punitive expedition following it are covered. 1453

1454

Sevenau [sic], Philip. A Life for a Mission. Taipei: Mangrove, [1985]. [v]+ 126 pp. + maps and illustrations. [The author's name has been misprinted and should be Seveau.] On the martyr consciousness of a pioneer Catholic missionary and bishop to Papua, Henri Verjus. The effects of his life and service to stir Papuans into a response during the 1890s is presented in an introductory way only.

Emergent Melanesian Christianity: Urban 1455

Anshaw, John. We Started on Thursday: A Regional History of the Catholic Church in Port Moresby. [Port Moresby: Catholic Church], 1974. [ii] + 112 pp. A popular account of Catholic church life in the capital of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby. 1456

Chatterton, Percy. Day That I Have Loved: Percy Chatterton's Papua. Sydney: Pacific Publications, 1974. [viii] + 131 pp. + illustrations. The autobiography of a famous L.M.S. missionary to Papua New Guinea. Chatterton worked from the 1920s on as a teacher to the Motu near Port Moresby and subsequently as a missionary among the Roro. He was not ordained until 1943, and later he became a formidable statesman in the country's parliament. The autobiography is a shade sentimental but replete with details of socio-religious life under Australian colonialism. Unexpectedly absent details will be filled out in Trompfs The Spirit of Independence (forthcoming). See also Chatterton's New Advance in Papua (pub. 1947), cf. 1460. 1457

A Remarkable Journey. Melbourne: Kidu, Carol. Education Australia, 2002. x + 161 pp. + illustrations.

Pearson

Bibliographical Survey

390

First on village life at Pari, near Port Moresby, by the Australian wife of Papua New Guinea's first indigenous Chief Justice, Sir Buri Kidu. After her husband's death the author decided to run for election and enter politics. Interesting snippets on the affects of traditional beliefs on politics at the local level. L.M.S./United Church influences pervade this autobiography . Kidu, Edea, et al. Porebada Hanua - East Redscar Circuit; A Publication celebrating the Official Opening of Porebada's Newest Church Building. Port Moresby: United Church in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, 1998. 70 pp. + illustrations. Some unusual local history, important as a "grassroots" study. With the use of portraits it reveals the history of indigenous Christianity of the Motu-Koitabu people since 1875. 1458

Stuart, Ian. Port Moresby: Yesterday and Today. Sydney: Pacific Publications, 1970. 368 pp. + maps and illustrations. Useful handbook for visitors to Port Moresby but needs updating. Students of religion should note its attention to the development of the different churches in this crucial urban setting of Melanesia, and in this respect the book has an edge over N. Oram's From Colonial Town to Melanesian City (pub. 1976). Cf. the recent work by M. Goddard, The Unseen City (pub. 2005). 1459

Stuart, Ian. "Percy Chatterton: Pastor and Statesman." In Papua New Guinea Portraits: The Expatriate Experience, ed. by James Griffin, 195-223. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1978. A short biography of Papua New Guinea's renowned missionary politician and his impact on Papua in particular. More detailed research into archival materials concerning his work will be found in Trompf (cf. 1456). 1460

Trompf, Garry [Winston]. "Can Anything Good Come Out of Baruni? Some Comments on Christian and Traditional Healing in Melanesia." Catalyst 15,4 (1985): 286-295. Focusing on the so-called "miracle girl," loa Boiori, a Koitabu maiden from Baruni village near Port Moresby, who claimed to have died, gone to Heaven, and been given the gift of healing by Jesus . The article looks at some crosscultural and regional parallels and describes the girl's remarkable activity, also attempting to explain why it stopped so suddenly. 1461

South Traditional 1462

Abel, Charles W[illiam]. Savage Life in New Guinea: The Papuan in Many Moods. London: London Missionary Society, [1901] 221 pp. + illustrations.

Papuan Coast and Islands

391

Dedicated to British youth, and therefore deceptively facile or paternalistic. However, upon persistence, one finds rare gems of Suau legends and beliefs otherwise unavailable. The collection of historical photographs betters any such documentation known from books on Papua for the light it throws on traditional religion, and portraits of the foundations of indigenous Christian life are special. For comparison, see the government anthropologist W. Armstrong, somewhat facile on religion in his Report on the Suau-Tawala (pub. 1922); and for the later study of a Suau artist, see H. Beran, Mutuaga (pub. 1996). 1463

In Unknown New Guinea: A Record of Twenty-Five Years of Personal Observation & Experience amongst the Interesting People of an almost Unknown Part of the Vast Island & a Description of their Manners & Customs, Occupations in Peace & Methods of Warfare, their Secret Rites & Public Ceremonies. London: Seeley Service & Co., 1926. 316 pp. + [one fold-out sheet of] maps and illustrations . Saville, William J[ames] V[iritahitemauvia] .

Introduced by Bronislaw Malinowski, this is one of the best anthropological books of the decades before World War II by a missionary. It is mostly a study of Mailu material culture, but Saville eventually arrives at such topics as sickness and death; burial and mourning; mortuary feasts and rites; magic and spells; tabus and dreams. The chapters on the gove festival and the summary under the heading "religion" are especially important. Discussion of the gove ceremony allows him to relate religion to exchange activity, including deep-sea voyaging to the east. Valuable photographs. Silovo, Ron. "The Study of Sources on the History of Trade in Mailu." Yagl-Ambu 4, 4 (1977): 284-293. A study described by the title, including information on trade networks and items exchanged in the deep-sea expeditions of the Mailu that were similar to the Motu hiri (cf. 1411) . Comparisons to Bronislaw Malinowski's researches into Mailu economics can be made with Malinowski among the Magi, ed. by M. Young (pub. 1988). 1464

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena 1465

Buluna, Martin.

"The Milne Bay Development Company."

In

Select Topics in the History of Papua and New Guinea, ed. by H[ank] N. Nelson; N[ancy] Lutton; and S[usan] Robertson, 49-53. Port Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea, [1972]. On a cooperative society at Wagawaga, an important village under the influence of the Kwato Mission. Buluna notes a cult-like devotion to the director, unrealistically high levels of expectation, and the influences of the Moral ReArmament Movement. See also C. Belshaw, In Search of Wealth (pub. 1955). 1466

Kaniku, Anne. 264-283.

"Religious Confusion."

Yagl-Ambu 4, 4 (1977):

392

Bibliographical Survey

About the Kwato mission among the Suau. Kaniku, a Massim and academic, writes critically about Charles Abel's vision of a theocratic mini-state in eastern Papua and the creation of a trained elite, with the children from villages being especially selected and taken to schooling and a "civilizing" process on Kwato Island. Elsewhere (in a work ed. by S. Latukefu, cf. 0833), and in Oceania (pub. 2003 [under the name Dickson-Waiko]), Kaniku has written about prominent Massim women who have emerged out of that situation, some of them being significant in religious and/or church matters. Vaughan, Berkeley. Doctor in Papua. Adelaide: Rigby, 1974. [viii] + 180 pp. + maps and illustrations. On the labors of a doctor at Kwato Mission prior to and during World War II. Documents the effects of his work (and that of Moral Re-Armament values) on village life, in particular on local attitudes to sickness. 1467

Emergent Melanesian Christianity Abel, Mary K. Charles W. Abel: Papuan Pioneer. Heroes of the Cross [Series]. London: Oliphants, 1957. 96 pp. + illustration. A niece's biography of her pioneer missionary uncle, and rather adulatory. Abel started the famous Kwato Mission in Suau country, and molded it into an independent Protestant trades-oriented organization. There is some interest in the people affected. Cf. also Charles W. Abel of Kwato: Forty Years in Dark Papua, by Charles' son Russell (pub. 1934); and note that later critical scholarship was undertaken by N. Lutton (unpublished 1979 Masters thesis 'Larger than Life'), and D. Wetherell in Charles Abel and the Kwato Mission of Papua New Guinea, 1891-1975 (pub. 1996), their assessments profoundly disagreeing. 1468

Beavis, A. Halliday. My Life in Papua, 1929-1967. Melbourne: Privately published by D.S. and R.J. Beavis, 1994. x + 126 pp. + map and illustrations. [The sub-title Adventures of a Pioneer Teacher appears only on the coveL] Halliday Beavis and his wife helped with the Kwato Mission, working among the Kunika. This work contains some material on Kunika customs, and plenty on indigenous involvement in the church. 1469

Gray, Laurel. Sinabada - Woman among Warriors: A Biography of the Rev. Sue Rankin. Melbourne: Joint Board of Christian Education, 1988. [viii] + 147 pp. + map and illustrations. A popular but quite well researched biography of one of the first ordained female ministers (in the London Missionary Society). Her work was mainly in the Saroa-Boku (or Rigo) area in the hinterland of the coastal Hula-Aroma-Velerupu cultural complex. There is much material in this book on Papuans who aided Rankin, and on Papuan pastors in the frontier area beneath Mt. Brown. 1470

Papuan Coast and Islands

393

Wedega, Alice. Listen My Country. Sydney: Pacific Publications, 1981. 112 pp. + map and illustrations. Here reflecting in her seventies on her life and achievements and what had guided her path, a Milne Bay woman recounts her association with the Kwato Mission and the essential effect of Moral Re-Armament. 1471

1472

Wetherell, David, and Carr-Gregg, Charlotte. "Moral Re-Armament in Papua, 1931-42." Oceania 54, 3 (1984): 177-203 + map. On how Moral Re-Armament (deriving from the Oxford Movement) was brought to the Kwato Mission by the sons of pioneer missionary Charles Abel, Robert and Cecil Abel, following their studies at Oxford; with an introductory assessment of the consequences of this for the local peoples (cf. also 0302). Solid scholarship. See also J. Parratt's note on this matter in Journal of the Papua and New Guinea Society (pub. 1972).

North Traditional 1473

Chinnery, E.W . P[earson], and Beaver, W[ilfred] N. "Notes on the Initiation Ceremonies of the Koko, Papua." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 45 (1915): 69-

78. An early account of an Orokaiva grouping in the far north Papuan hinterland. Interesting above all in showing how, at the initation of youths, the elders enunciate tabus against theft, adultery, and property damage, that are not so dissimilar to the Ten Commandments. Iteanu, Andre. La ronde des echanges: de la circulation aux valeurs chez les Orokaiva. Atelier d'anthropologie sociale. Cambridge and Paris: Cambridge University Press, and Editions de la Maison des Sciences de I'Homme, 1983. [xix] + 335 pp. + map, figures and illustrations. A broader coverage of Orokaiva exchange activity and developed from French theorectical perspectives about cosmic hierarchy (as in the work of Louis Dumont) rather than from those of F. Williams (1480-1) and E. Schwimmer (1477). Iteanu is less interested in economic anthropology and concentrates on the rituals of the life-cycle (birth rites, initiation, marriage, and funerals). A distillation of his thesis is found in Man (pub. 1990). 1474

Iteanu, Andre. "Rituals and Ancestors ." In Cosmos and Society in Oceania, ed. by Daniel de Coppet, and Andre Iteanu, 135-163 + figures. Explorations in Anthropology. Oxford: Berg, 1995. Ascertaining that the Orokaivajape ceremony creates social relations - including those between men and women entering into exogamous marriages - "in an 1475

394

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ontological esoteric form ." Taken from the Asigi grouping, without enough reference to variances across the large Orokaiva board. Jojoga Opeba, Willington. "The Migration Traditions of the Sebaga Andere, Binandere and Jaua Tribes of the Orokaiva: The Need for Attention to Religion and Ideology." In Oral Tradition in Melanesia, ed. by Donald Denoon, and Roderic [J.] Lacey, 57-68. Port Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea, and Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1981. Although this is largely an article on migration tendencies among the coastal Orokaiva groupings, it contains crucial insights by an Orokaiva author into the relationship between group movement and religious motivation. In the cases of the Sebaga and Binandere, for example, when military successes were too great there was actually a tendency to move off from further confrontation, reflecting how principles of immoderacy or shame (meh) affected inter-group conflict and activity. 1476

Schwimmer, Erik [G.] . Exchange in the Social Structure of the Orokaiva: Traditional and Emergent Ideologies in the Northern District of Papua. Sydney and London: Angus and Robertson, and Hurst, 1973. ix + 244 pp. + maps, tables and figures. A valuable study of how inter-tribal exchange patterns reflect notions of mediation in the worldview of the Orokaiva (especially the Sangara grouping). Schwimmer's analysis of the myth of Totoima, the dema deity or culture hero, throws light on the spirit power, or ivo, which is transferred in warfare and trade. A dying victim, for example, gives his brief story and transfers his ivo to the killer like the slain Totoima gave his ivo to the whole land. 1477

1478

Schwimmer, Erik [G). "Reciprocity and Structure: A Semiotic Analysis of some Orokaiva Exchange Data." Man New Series 14 (1979): 271-285 + illustration. In Schwimmer's 1973 monograph (previous entry) principles of reciprocity and then revenge patterns are in high profile. Here the author discusses some of the symbols and sign actions that are crucial in Orokaiva reciprocity, these being to designate taro, pigs, bodily insignia, bodily behavior, etc. 1479

Waiko, John D[ademo]. "Binandere Oral Tradition: Sources and Problems." In Oral Tradition in Melanesia, ed. by Donald Denoon, and Roderic [J.] Lacey, 11-30. Port Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea, and Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1981. Usefully analyzing the kind of discourses oral-history scholars of culture and religion will find in the field, the study focuses on the author's own Binandere grouping of the Orokaiva. He studies words referring to magic, sickness, and ceremony, and then the general symbolic language and problems of extracting a chronological ordering from village talk. From stories about warfare he reveals the long preparations for a payback raid. On Binandere reprisals against white

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intruders he writes in Journal of the Papua and New Guinea Society (pub. 1970). Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar] . Orokaiva Magic. London: Oxford University Press, and Humphrey Milford, 1928. xii + 231 pp. + [fold-out] map and illustrations. [Repr.: Oxford Reprints, 1969.] [First appeared as Territory of Papua Anthropology Reports , 6-8.] A crucial early ethnography of coastal and some hinterland Orokaiva groupings. Williams does not stop short at investigating traditional ceremonial and power relations with magical practices often in view - but goes on to decipher the jipari activity of the taro cults. He arrived too late, however, to observe these cults the Baigona and snake cults - at their height, and, as is typical, approaches them with a psychopathological slant (a line attacked by the Orokaiva W. Jojoga Opeba, 1485). 1480

Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar]. Orokaiva Society. London: Oxford University Press, 1930. xxiii + 355 pp. + [fold-out] map, figures, tables and illustrations. [First appeared as Territory of Papua Anthropology Report, 10.] A fine early monograph on the material culture, ceremonial exchange, ritual and art styles of coastal and some hinterland Orokaiva groupings. Williams expands on what he has begun in Orokaiva Magic (see above). 1481

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena 1482

Barker, John. "Villager Inventions: Historical Variations upon a Regional Theme in Uiaku, Papua New Guinea." In Regional Histories in the Western Pacific, ed. by John Barker, and Dan Jorgensen. [Special Issue of] Oceania, 66,3 (1996): 211-229. After examining the relevant impact of administration and mission on the Maisin between 1900 and 1942, Barker looks at the development of the postWar Christian cooperatives in Uiaku, with their "New Day" ideology. Despite the church's cautious disengagement, the success of the cooperatives was always attributed to the mission, but was run by locals, and was a kind of substitute "cargo cult" (see also 1501). 1483

Dembari, Remi , and Trompf, G[arry] W[inston] . "Dream, Vision and Trance in Traditional and Changing Melanesia." In Melanesian Religion, by G[arry] W[inston] Trompf, 105-136 + tables. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Although this is a general introduction by Trompf to the importance of dreams, visions, trance, possession and xenophonic activity in Melanesia, it is written around Orokaiva writer Dembari's important "dream survey" among the Tainyandawari grouping of the Orokaiva. Traditional dream interpretations are listed and various dreams are described and analyzed from the indigenous point of

396

Bibliographical Survey

view. The effects of urban living on dream interpretation are discussed. useful background, F. Williams in Mankind (pub. 1935).

For

Jojoga Opeba, Willington. "The Peroveta of Buna." In Prophets of Melanesia: Six Essays, ed. by Garry [Winston] Trompf, 127-142 + map and illustrations. 3rd ed. Port Moresby and Suva: Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, and Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1986. An unusual and important essay about a prophetess named Genakuiya, from among the Jaua grouping in the Orokaiva culture area. Jojoga shows that, upon the impact of Christianity, journeys to the world of the dead involved in this remarkable woman's case were visions with both traditional and Christian contents. He ably describes the phenomena of Genakuiya's altered states, and gives a semi-biographical account of her life. Important for first suggesting that dream-visions generated religious change in pre- and post-contact times. 1484

Jojoga Opeba, Willington. "Melanesian Cult Movements as Traditional Religious and Ritual Responses to Change." In The Gospel is Not Western: Black Theologies from the Southwest Pacific, ed. by G[arry] W[inston] Trompf, 49-66 + map. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1987. A breakthrough article. On the Baigona and snake cults among the Orokaiva, Jojoga convincingly argues for the intelligibility of these activities both in traditional terms and as reactions to change. F. Williams' interpretations that these movements, as with the "Vailala Madness," were pathological, are shown to be colonialist and pejorative (1402, 1480). 1485

1486

Jojoga Opeba, Willington. "The Papuan Fighters Republican Army: What Was It?" In Islands and Enclaves: Nationalisms and Separatist Pressures in Island and Littoral Contexts, ed. by Garry [Winston] Trompf, 262-288 + map. New Delhi: Sterling, 1993. On a movement led by Simon Kaumi mainly among the Orokaiva grouping called Jaua. Jojoga argues that tribal identity lies at the base of this separatist organization, the activists of which marched overland to Papua New Guinea's capital Port Moresby early in 1975. Traditional communalist concepts translated into "modern political" ones. Cargoistic expectations touched upon. Cargo cultism was reported among the Managalese (southeast of the Orokaiva) at the time, e.g., in the national Anglican news-pamphlet Family (pub. 1976). Schwimmer, Erik G. Cultural Consequences of a Volcanic Eruption Experienced by the Mount Lamington Orokaiva. Comparative Study of Cultural Change and Stability in Displaced Communities in the Pacific Report, 9. Eugene, Oreg. : University of Oregon, 1969. vii + 249 pp. + maps [one fold-out], tables and [fold-out] figure. This is a large report concentrating on the external and internal impacts of the 1951 eruption of a volcano in Orokaiva country. The author has collected 1487

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397

narratives that have emerged about the significance of the eruption up until the mid-1960s, and has tried to assess the effects of changing social organization and culturo-religious interpretation of the events. The report can be read in conjunction with C. Belshaw's less thorough account in Oceania (pub. 1951) and Schwimmer himself in M. Lieber (ed.), Exiles and Migrants in Oceania (pub. 1977).

Emergent Melanesian Christianity 1488

Barker, John. "Encounters with Evil: Christianity and the Response to Sorcery among the Maisin of Papua New Guinea." Oceania 61, 2 (1990) : 139-155. An excellent and badly needed ethnography of the response of Melanesian village Christianity to the persistence of sorcery. Barker shows how sorcery power is taken as a reality and has to be overcome by the stronger reality of the Christian God's power. Various stories are recounted, and a chronology of attempts to control, even destroy, sorcery is developed. 1489

Barker, John . "We are 'Ekelesia': Conversion in Uiaku, Papua New Guinea." In Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives on a Great Transformation, ed. and introd. by Robert W. Hefner, 199-230. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Useful account of the history and impetuses behind Maisin religious change. See also 0248 for the groundbreaking article preceding this, and, as further background, his study on missionaries to the same people for Journal of Pacific History (pub. 1987). Barker, John. "Christian Bodies: Dialectics of Sickness and Salvation among the Maisin of Papua New Guinea." Journal of Religious History 27,3 (2003): 272-292. On the continuing hold of traditional beliefs among the Christianizing Maisin, especially with regard to the fear of sorcery and its power to cause sickness. For background, see also his article on "Western Medicine and the Continuity of Belief" in 0370. 1490

1491

Barnes, Robert Varley. Village Ministry Breakthrough. The Life and Work of Robert Varley Barnes in Papua New Guinea from 1963 to 1980: A Missionary Priest in Service. Melbourne: Mollie Jackson, 1983. [x] + 128 pp. + maps and illustrations. Defense of indigenization of the priesthood among the Northern Province Anglicans. Appendices on sorcery, witchcraft, and cargo cults to be noted. 1492

Chignell, Arthur Kent. An Outpost in Papua. London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1911. viii + 375 pp. + illustration.

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Bibliographical Survey

On the effects of mission work among the Maisin and in and around Dogura, with important information about converts. 1493

Garland, Christopher. Romney Gill, Missionary "Genius" and Craftsman. Leicester: Christians Aware, 2000. xii + 414 pp. + maps and illustrations. On the impact of an Anglican missionary's work, especially among the Binandere grouping of the Orokaiva between the two World Wars. Chapter seven contains an account of the "cult" of Manau, a Binandere version of the jipari agitations (cf. 1480). Gill, S. R[omney] M. Letters from the Papuan Bush, 1942-1946. Liverpool: Eaton Press, 1954. [viii] + 106 pp. + map and illustration. A short, important book about a missionary lasting out in the Mambare Delta and Gira River areas. Of most relevance, however, is the material on Gill's Papuan co-worker, Robert Somanu, as an agent for holding Anglican communities together during wartime. 1494

1495

Henrich, Ruth, camp. South Sea Epic: War and the Church in New Guinea. A Record of Events in the Anglican Diocese of New Guinea between the Years 1939 and 1943. London: Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 1944. 92 pp. + maps and illustrations. On how the church carried on in northern Papua during World War II, with an interest in the effects of martyrdom and in Papuan responses to changes during the war years. 1496

Synge, Frances M. Albert Maclaren, a Pioneer Missionary in New Guinea: A Memoir . London: Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1908. xxi + 172 pp. + maps and illustrations. Preface by Sir William McGregor, former Governor of British New Guinea. Follows the diary material of pioneer Anglican missioner to 1891 when churches begin to go up at Wedau and Dogura. Notes on indigenous assistants, especially Abrahama, a Suau man; and on important, often tense contact situations. Remarkable photographs. 1497

White, Nancy H. Sharing the Climb. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1991. ix + 118 pp. + maps and illustrations. A slim autobiographical volume by a missionary aid worker, mainly stationed among the Sangara Orokaiva, teaching and setting up schools in the wake of the Mount Lamington eruption, 1951. Martyr's School and some of the important indigenous leaders educated in it form a major matter of attention, as she covers eight intense years of Anglican development.

Papuan Coast and Islands

399

Eastern Coastal Traditional Kahn, Miriam. Always Hungry, Never Greedy: Food and the Cambridge: Expression of Gender in a Melanesian Society. Cambridge University Press, 1986. xx + 187 pp. + maps, figures and illustrations. A study on Wamira village of the seaside Wedau culture, this book is on the sharing of food in an area often affected by drought, and discusses myths regarding food and the symbolic significances of pigs, yams, and feasts. Famine has little to do with the belly, Kahn argues; concepts of food and hunger are cultural constructs in Wamira. By means of food emotions are objectified, gender relations balanced, and ambivalent desires controlled. An interesting study of the ethical dimensions of Melanesian religion. 1498

Ker, Annie. Papuan Fairy-Tales. London: Macmillan and Co., 1910. xi + 149 pp. + illustrations. Not very trustworthy and put together more like a book of Western fairy-tales, this quaint little collection is largely derived from the east Papuan cultures, especially the Wedau where the Anglican Church has its aegis. 1499

Newton, Henry. In Far New Guinea: A Stirring Record of Work and Observation amongst the People of New Guinea, with a Description of their Manners, Customs & Religions, &c. &c. &c. London: Seeley, Service & Co., 1914. [ix] + 304 pp. + [fold-out] map and illustrations. On the Wedau, Suau and Walaga (Taupota) and therefore partly Massim peoples, with chapters on spirit beliefs, sorcery and healing, gender relations, totemism and tabu, life-cycle issues, and death. Very paternalistic. Since the author was Anglican bishop in (Papua) New Guinea, the book shows an interest in mission work. 1500

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena Cranswick, G[eorge] H[arvard], and Shevill, I[an] W.A. A New Deal for Papua. Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire, 1949. xii + 167 pp. + map and illustrations. A somewhat rare book that concentrates on the work of the Anglican Mission in eastern Papua, with important chapters on new religious movements, the effects of World War II and, most interestingly, the religious aspects of cooperative movements (cf. 1482). There are touches of concern for traditional insights. The authors are Australian clergy, Cranswick being a bishop. 1501

1502

Kahn, Miriam. "Sunday Christians, Monday Sorcerers: Selective Adaptation to Missionization in Wamira." In The History and

Bibliographical Survey

400

Anthropology of the Massim, Papua New Guinea, conven. by Michael W. Young. [Special Issue of] Journal of Pacific History 18,2 (1983): 96-112. On which of the Christian elements that have been incorporated by the Wamira people (seaside Wedau) and on those which have been "sabotaged." Despite the fact that most traditional practices (even reciprocity) were based on fear of being in debt, the Christian message is not visible and tangible enough in Wamira, while alleged sorcery effects are. Thus sorcery strongly persists, despite the demise of cannibalism.

1503

[Romilly, Hugh Hastings] . "Report from Mr. Deputy Commissioner Romilly." Annual Report: British New Guinea (1887): 33-35 (Append. G) . As the opening of the text has it, this is "Some Account of the Present Condition of the Natives of South-eastern New Guinea" by the Deputy Commissioner of British New Guinea. He makes early general observations about "superstitions" governing attitudes of the Milne Bay (Samarai Island or Sariba) people toward "the white man." Because "many powerful spirits are supposed to constantly surround the white man," if sickness or accidents occur, traders in the district would be wise to pay compensation to avoid a breakdown of relationships . Cf. Romilly at 0295.

Emergent Melanesian Christianity 1504

Abaijah, Josephine [M.], and Wright, Eric. A Thousand Coloured Dreams. Melbourne: Dellasta Pacific, 1991. viii + 401 pp. [The sub-title The Story of a Young Girl Growing Up in Papua appears only on the front cover.] Published from the dtate of Dr Eric White, on Abaijah's earlier life. She is from Warnira (see 1502). The book is more about Christian than traditional influences, but her "indigenous theology" eventually comes out, with its implications for regional political unity (and for the Papua Besena movement she founded, cf. 1321). 1505

Bays, Glen, and Bays, Betty, eds. The Problem of Sorcery, and Other Essays, Stories and Poems by Melanesian Christian Writers. Rabaul: Christian Writers Association of Melanesia, 1973. 46 pp. + illustrations. A small collection of Anglican Melanesian writings especially from eastern Papuan cultures. Whether in the form of poetry, story, or short sermon, each author works on the relationship between indigenous traditions and the introduced faith. Topics include sorcery, marriage, becoming rich, and the significance of culture heroes, such as the Orokaiva Totoima, as precursors to Christ. 1506

Biggs, Blanche. From Papua with Love . Sydney: Australia Board of Missions, (1987?]. [216] pp. + maps and illustrations.

Papuan Coast and Islands

401

110 letters sent from Papua between 1948 and 1974 by a missionary field nurse, most being sent from the Dogura area and containing various snippets of useful information about local peoples' responses to the introduced health care of the mission. Hand, David. Modawa: Papua New Guinea and Me, 1946-2002. Port Moresby: SalPress, 2002. 258 pp. + [fold-out] map and illustrations. Written in popularistic style, a renowned Anglican bishop's reminiscences of 56 years of life in Papua. Useful as documentation of indigenous Anglican leadership, institutions, and communities. 1507

Johnston, Elin . Bishop George, Man of Two Worlds. Point Lonsdale, Vic.: [Self-published], 2003. xvi + 279 pp. + maps and illustrations. An excellent biography of the first indigenous Anglican bishop in Papua, a remarkably influential man. Rich in important detail and copiously illustrated. Stories of widespread fears in local areas about Ambo's disciplinary powers, however, are barely considered. Compare with Anonymous, Papuan Pastor: The Story of George Ambo, Auxiliary Bishop of New Guinea (pub. [1969]), much shorter and overly "devoted" account. 1508

'P., M. G. c.' Rambles in Papua. Sydney: D. S . Ford, 1920. 52 pp. + map and illustrations. A rare booklet, with important ethnographic and mission photographs in the Anglican areas of Papua, mainly the eastern mainland. 1509

Rogers, Edgar. A Pioneer of New Guinea: The Story of Albert Alexander Maclaren. London: Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1920. viii + 172 pp. + illustrations. An important little biography including information about Peter Rautamara, the first Papuan Anglican deacon, and a cluster of photographs of ethnographic significance. 1510

Wetherell, David, ed. The New Guinea Diaries of Philip Strong, 1936-1945. Melbourne: Macmillan & Co. of Australia, 1981. xvi + 254 pp. + maps, figures and illustrations. Philip Strong was appointed Bishop of New Guinea in 1936, and these parts from his diary take us through critical events in the history of the Pacific - to the end of the Japanese threat. References to indigenous clergy and leaders are vital, and the photographs included by Wetherell are excellent. 1511

1512

White, Gilbert. Francis de Sales Buchanan, Missionary in New Guinea: A Memoir. Venturers for God [Series]. Sydney: Australian Board of Missions, 1923 . [i] + 59 pp. + map and illustrations.

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Bibliographical Survey

A small, interesting study of an Anglican missionary in eastern Papua from 1899 to 1921, first to Boianai west of Wedau, and then on the frontier at Ugao He worked with a London Missionary Society South Sea Island teacher. There are some rare photos and ethnographic tidbits . More of a biography and less on Papuans, see White's A Pioneer of Papua (pub. 1929) on missionary Copland King.

East: Inner Islands Traditional 1513

Bromilow, W[illiam] E. "Some Manners and Customs of the Dobuans of South-Eastern Papua." Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science Report 12 (1909): 470-485 "Dobuan (Papua) Beliefs and Folklore." Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science Report 13 (1912) : 413-426. The earliest records of Dobu traditional religion, concentrating on the "Edugaula tribe." Topics are women's position, land laws, totems, the causes of war (very detailed), gender relations, infanticide, and miscellaneous points. Perceptive. Fortune, R[eo] F[ranklin]. Sorcerers of Dobu: The Social Anthropology of the Dobu Islanders of the Western Pacific. 2nd ed. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1963 . xxxii + 326 pp. + maps, figures, tables and illustrations. [First edn.: as above, but also London: Routledge & Sons, 1932. French trans.: Sorciers de Dobu. Paris: Maspero, 1972.] A famous book on Melanesian sorcery, focused on the Dobu Islanders within the Massim culture complex. Despite its title the book is a general ethnography covering the social organization and economics of the Dobu but with a good third of the work treating religion, especially interpretations of disease infliction, witchcraft, and sorcery. In this endogamous society sorcerers were particularly feared, although at the time of Fortune's arrival the fear was probably greater because sorcery was capable of being inflicted closer at hand than in pre-contact times. Fortune only hints at the need for an historical perspective to sort out older from newer traditions. Certain modern Massim scholars, such as A. Kaniku (1466), also question the validity of many of Fortune's ethnographic details because of persisting allegations that his informants deliberately gave false testimony. The chapter on Dobu Island in Ruth Benedict's well known Patterns of Culture (pub. 1935) is largely based on Fortune's researches. 1514

Jenness, D[iamond], and Ballantyne, A. The Northern D'Entrecasteaux. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1920. 219 pp. + map and illustrations. A pioneering combination between a New Zealand anthropologist and a Methodist missionary to produce a fine early survey of d'Entrecasteaux cultures, with a foreword by the great theoretician Robert Marett. It is almost exclusively 1515

Papuan Coast and Islands

403

on Goodenough Island, with such topics as law and justice, religion, myth, morals, magic, gender ritual, and death forming the chapter headings. Concern to discover causes for death is crucial for the islands' patrilineal tribes, and reasons relate to sorcery or the breakage of tabu (such as those to do with totems). 1516

Jenness, D[iamondJ, and Ballantyne, A. "Language, Mythology and Songs of Bwaidoga, Goodenough Island, S.E. Papua." Journal of the Polynesian Society 35 (1926): 290-314 + [one page fold-out of] maps; 36 (1927): 48-71; 145-179, 207-238, 303-329; 37 (1928): 30-56,139-164,271-299,377-402; 38 (1929): 29-47. [Later in a monograph entitled Language, Mythology and Songs of Bwaidoga, Goodenough Island, S.E. Papua. New Plymouth (NZ): Thomas Avery and Sons, 1928. ix + 270 pp. + (fold-out) map.] A mammoth collection of Bwaidoga materials. More accessible in journal form while copies of the monograph are scarce. The anthropologist Jenness published the missionary Ballantyne's collection after the latter's death. Mainly fairy-talelooking narratives, such as anecdotes about birds and animals, but a voluminous collection reflecting the place of wildlife in the Bwaidoga worldview. Lasaro, Iaro. "History of Bonarua Island." Oral History 3, 7 (1975): 162-198. In the 1850s, Thomas Henry Huxley recorded "a first encounter" with a Papuan, and this was on Bonarua Island, then visited by the Rattlesnake. Misconceptions about all Papuans arose from this encounter, and young Lasaro is concerned to give this part of the Massim culture complex its true identity, especially through reconstructing by oral history the traditional image of the high-god Yabwahina - a monotheistic-looking protector of his people. An interesting tour de force and the picture of Yabwahina cannot be passed off as affected by mission teaching. 1517

"Yaboaine, a War God of Normanby Island." R6heim, Geza. Oceania 16,3 (1946): 210-233 + map; 16,4 (1946): 319-336. An excellent study of conceptions of the high- and warrior god Yaboaine among a northern Massim people (differently conceived than on Bonarua, see previous entry). Local beliefs are vividly conveyed through poetic and invocatory texts, transliterations being rendered beside translations, with these conveying information about revenge and cannibalism. R6heim interprets the material along Freudian lines. 1518

1519

R6heim, Geza. "Totemism in Normanby Island, Territory of New Guinea." Mankind 4,5 (1950): 189-195. A description of and discussion on totemism among the Duau. Several related myths, reflecting the importance of one's matrilineal clan, are analyzed.

404

Bibliographical Survey

1520

R6heim, Geza. "Cannibalism in Duau, Normanby Island, D'Entrecasteaux Group, Territory of Papua." Mankind 4, 12 (1954): 487495. A detailed account of the whys and wherefores of Normanby cannibalism, together with the actual procedures involved. R6heim's Freudianism is here more muted. 1521

Schlesier, Erhard. Me'udana (Siidost-Neuguinea). Vol. 2: Das soziale Leben. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1983. 290 pp. + musical scores, figures [one fold-out] and illustrations. On various southeast Normanby Island villages. Volume one (pub. much earlier in Braunschweig, 1970) strictly concerns naming and social structure, while the contents of volume two, very much a re-study, often impinge on religion. Topics include knowledge of the world, creation mythology, cannibalism, and attitudes to the dead. The work is carefully done and to be preferred to G. R6heim (see above), who is critiqued in this volume. The muscial transcripts are by E. Royl. 1522

Young, Michael W. Fighting with Food: Leadership, Values and Social Control in a Massim Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. xxii + 282 pp. + maps, figures, tables and illustrations. A study of elements of Kalauna village, Goodenough Island, especially of a custom called abutu, which now has replaced traditional warfare and raiding. Abutu involves the giving of food in order to shame rivals, and Young uses this "substitutional warfare" to analyze the socio-political structure of the unusually large Massim village of Kalauna. Young, Michael W. Magicians of Manumanua: Living Myth in Kalauna. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. x + 317 pp. + maps, figures, table and illustrations. Among the people of Kalauna on Goodenough Island manumanua is a ritual of communal prosperity. The "guardians" of Kalauna are leaders of the dominant clan of Lulauvile. They are ritual experts, in a hereditary position, who know the myths and magic of manumanua. Since colonial contact the authority of the guardians has declined in face of a more egalitarian ideology. Young gives the biographies of four modem guardians showing how they use the myth of a Lulauvile culture hero, a resentful snake-man, as a character for their attempts to maintain their authority and, in fact, to construct their own identities. Young situates his approach to myth between that of Bronislaw Malinowski and Maurice Leenhardt, but admits Freud as an influence; ct. his article in G. Appell and T. Madan (eds.), Choice and Morality in Anthropological Perspective (pub. 1988). 1523

1524

Young, Michael W. "The Tusk, the Flute and the Serpent: Disguise In Dealing with and Revelation in Goodenough Mythology."

Papuan Coast and Islands

405

Inequality: Analysing Gender Relations in Melanesia and Beyond, ed. by Marilyn Strathern, 229-254 + illustration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Mainly on generative associations of serpent and pig tusk in Kalauna myth and story. At the end Young discusses apparently counterbalancing mythic accounts of a trickster who strips his wife of her identity by taking her valuables one by one yet then reclaims her by incremental payments. Massim women, however, unlike men, are not made and remade by gaining or losing valuables.

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena 1525

Syme, Tony. "Exchange and Reciprocity: Methodist Missionaries on Dobu Island, Papua New Guinea, in 1891." Victorian Historical Journal 58, 1 (1987): 24-28. A short statement on how the settling of the Methodist Mission on Dobu was situated by the Dobuans in terms of traditional reciprocal principles, and what responses manifested among both parties according to these terms. 1526

Young, Michael W. "Goodenough Island Cargo Cults." Oceania 42,1 (1971): 42-57 + map. To our knowledge, the only scholarly account of cargo cultism among a Massim people in print and thus very useful. Mainly on phases of a cult led by the prophet Isekele, who asserted that new goods were under the ground. We still await other approaches to such hopes in the region. A. Kaniku has written papers of relevance, but they have not been published. Young, Michael W. '''The Best Workmen in Papua': Goodenough Islanders and the Labour Trade, 1900-1960." In The History and Anthropology of the Massim, Papua New Guinea, conv. by Michael W. Young. [Special Issue of] Journal of Pacific History 18, 2 (1983): 74-95. With no traditional puberty rites, Goodenough Islanders had to prove their maleness, before marriage, by a show of hard work. They took to plantation work as a rite of passage; but this then made them easily exploitable in early colonial times, and the Methodist Mission had to defend them against this trend, by proving to the government the danger of a decline of a functional population on the island. Interesting. 1527

Emergent Melanesian Christianity 1528

Bromilow, William E. Twenty Years among Primitive Papuans. London: Epworth, 1929. 316 pp. + illustrations. Largely an autobiographical account of mission planting, but copious observations along the way about early Papuan converts and their attitudes. The photographs are invaluable and on both traditional and early mission subjects.

406

Bibliographical Survey

1529

Burton, John Wear. Our Task in Papua. London: Epworth Press, 1926. 124 pp. + illustrations. [Also issued in the same year under the title Papua For Christ.] A small survey of eastern Papuan cultures: the impact of missions (especially the Methodist) and of the Australian government, and the results in terms of Papuan Christian leadership and continuing evangelization. Some biographical data on indigenous individuals. 1530

Dixon, Jonathan T. Papuan Islands Pilgrimage. Sydney: [Selfpublished], 1988. [vi] + 99 pp. + map and illustrations. Prima facie a personal memoir, yet rich in documentation of church affairs. There is some information on the Methodist Mission in east Papua, but the book eventually focuses on Salamo, Fergusson Island, and both the mission and development projects there. A useful assessment of Papuan Christianity ensues. See also G. Secomb, One Common Need (n .d.) on the effects of the Methodist leprosarium at Ubuya Island (southeastern tip of Papua). Mackay, Ross. "The War Years: Methodists in Papua, 1942-1945." Journal of Pacific History 27, 1 (1992): 29-43. On the destabilizing effects of the war years on the Methodist Mission situation. If it had not already been "owned" by the people, so this argument goes, the church would have quickly collapsed under the Japanese impact. 1531

1532

Young, Michael W. "Doctor Bromilow and the Bwaidoka Wars." Journal of Pacific History 12,3 (1977): 130-153 + map. Looking at the re-enactment of the Methodist missionary Bromilow's arrival on Dobu; and demonstrating from later oral accounts of his arrival the new ceremonial importance of this re-enactment for culturo-religious identity among the Massim and related peoples. 1533

Young, Michael W. "A Tropology of the Dobu Mission. (In Memory of Reo Fortune)." Canberra Anthropology 3, 1 (1980): 86104. A discussion of the mission run by William Bromilow on Dobu, through an examination of the missionaries' interpretation of their own role and of the society they were determined to convert. Dobu society is described, particularly the aspects that clashed with mission aims, as in the case of infanticide.

East: Outer Islands Traditional 1534

Affleck, Donald. "Information on Customs and Practices of the People of Woodlark Island: A Translation of 'Ragguagli sugli usi e costumi del popolo Woodlarkese' by the Reverend Father Carlo Salerio, P.I.M.E., with Notes by David Lithgow ." In The History

Papuan Coast and Islands

407

and Anthropology of the Massim, Papua New Guinea, conv. by Michael W. Young. [Special Issue ot] Journal of Pacific History 18, 1 (1983): 57-72. One of the very early ethnographies of a culture in what is now Papua New Guinea, done in 1856. The description starts with theogony and cosmogony, and, passing through such topics as government, public customs and law, reaches beliefs about the afterlife. Lithgow provides helpful notes. It is not mentioned, but the Vatican document had been adapted for publication by Pier Ambrogio Curti in the journal Politecnico (pub. 1862), adding material from a Dr Scotti. This will be published in the series White on Black, ed.by F. Tomasetti and Trompf. Armstrong, W.E. Rosse! Island: An Ethnological Study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1928. xxviii + 274 pp. + map, figures, tables and illustrations. [Repr.: New York: AMS Press, 1978.] Foreword by Alfred Haddon. Not very attentive to religion, but interesting on the shell money system and on classificatory kinship. An ethnographic, functionalist "classic" in the wake of Bronislaw Malinowski about an isolated Papuan island. For a preparatory piece, see Armstrong in Anthropos (pub . 1923-24). 1535

Battaglia, Debbora. On the Bones of the Serpent: Person, Memory, and Mortality in Sabarl Island Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. x + 253 pp. + maps, figures, tables and illustrations. Very good chapters on the relation between the living and the dead, especially in preserving health, and the securing of fame as against shame. The book reaches its peak with an analysis of the segaiya mortuary feasts, in which substitute and miniature items of the dead are "given" to the deceased's relatives so as to interlock with the exchange pathways of the living. 1536

1537

Damon, Frederick H. "Calendars and Calendrical Rites on the Northern Side of the Kula Ring." Oceania 52, 3 (1982): 221-239 + map, tables and figure. On both the Trobriand and Woodlark Islands. An exploration of two societies' concepts of time and space and how they relate to certain rituals and social behavior. For widening of his researches on the kula, see next entry, and his From Muyuw to the Trobriands (pub. 1990). 1538

Damon, Frederick H., and Wagner, Roy, eds. Death Rituals and Life in the Societies of the Kula Ring. Dekalb, III.: Northern Illinois University Press, 1989. vii + 280 pp. + maps, figures and tables. A wide-sweeping collection on mortuary rituals in the Trobriands (as the "northern Massim"), with articles by Damon, S. Montagne and S. Campbell; and in the southern Massim islands, with articles on Tubetube (M. Macintyre),

408

Bibliographical

Survey

Normanby (c. Thune), Goodenough (M. Young), Vanatinai (M. Lepowsky), and Rossel (1. Liep). The circulation of valuables in the great kula ring exchange cycle is explained through the dispersions of items set in train by funerals. 1539

Eyde, David B. "Sexuality and Garden Ritual in the Trobriands and Tikopia: Tudava Meets the Atua I Kafika." [Special Issue of] Mankind 14, 1 (1983): 66-74. On aspects of Trobriand cosmology. Two similar looking series of rituals involved with yam cultivation are compared in the context of human reproduction. Differences are related back to contrasting descent systems and conception beliefs. Glass, Patrick. "The Trobriand Code: An Interpretation of Trobriand War Shield Designs." Anthropos 81 (1986): 47-63 + illustrations. Among other findings, Glass shows how shield designs relate to Trobriand myths of the afterlife, the shell and vulva designs being associated with the Isle of Tuma, whence all children are reincarnated and towards which all the dea:I depart. 1540

Glass, Patrick. "Trobriand Symbolic Geography." Man New Series 23, 1 (1988): 56-76 + map, figure and illustrations. Exploring the hypothesis that the main Trobriander cultural complex (TumaBoyowa-Vakuta) has a symbolic geography. Generative symbology seems tied to north (male) versus south (female) and east (male) versus west (female) polarities, that derives from an exclusive fertility cult and is encoded on war shields. Hostilities towards both the raiding Dobu Islanders and female sexual pollution are reflected in this symbology. 1541

Hutchins, Edwin. Culture and Inference: A Trobriand Case Study . Cognitive Science Series, 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980. x + 143 pp. + maps, figures, tables and illustrations. Picking up from B. Malinowski's Coral Gardens and their Magic (1556) about the avoidance and resolution of disputes over land. Essentially, the book is about meaning and explanations in "litigious circumstances," but inevitably moral insights and values come under view. 1542

1543

Hutchins, Edwin. "Myth and experience in the Trobriand Islands." In Cultural Models in Language and Thought, ed. by Dorothy Holland, and Naomi Quinn, 269-289 + figure . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Based on interviews. Opining that myths are not about the present-day world, though they must be true because otherwise encounters with the spirits (such as the kosi ghosts and the punishments to the living they portend) would be very threatening. Myths are also true because they match life experience.

Papuan Coast and Islands

409

1544

Kasaipwalova, John, and Beier, Ulli, ed. and trans. Three Trobriand Texts. Port Moresby: Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1978. Pt. 1: Yaulabuta - The Passion of Chief Kailaga: An Historical Poem from the Trobriand Islands. 48 pp.; Pt. 2: Lekolekwa: An Historical Song from the Trobriand Islands. 34 pp.; Pt. 3: Yaulabuta, Kolupa, deli Lekolekwa (Pilatolu Kilivila Wosimwaya) . 35 pp. Three sets of song texts, the first containing evocations about the tragedy of Kailaga, whose canoe capsizes in enemy territory during a trading expedition, and also of two chiefs; the second being an historical song relating inter alia to contact; and the third set containing the Trobriand vernacular texts. 1545

Ketobwau, Ignatius [T.]. "Tuma: The Trobriand Heaven." Melanesian Journal of Theology 13, 1 (1997): 21-37. Insider exposition as to the traditional and changing views about the Trobriand Isle of the Dead. It distills Ketobwau's 1994 Rarongo Theological College final thesis and pays some attention to the differences between traditional and introduced views of the afterlife. See also 1540, 1550. 1546

Leach, Jerry W., and Leach, Edmund [R.], eds. The Kula: New Perspectives on Massim Exchange. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. xii + 577 pp. + maps, tables, figures and illustrations. Thankfully, a collection of impressive articles about southeastern Papua bringing B. Malinowski's fine work (esp. 1551) up to date and revealing new findings on island and mainland contexts he never researched. On distinctly religious as against socio-economic matters note M. Young's writings on Goodenough Island mythology and ceremonial visiting (see esp. 1523). On A. Strathern's contribution to this collection, 1565. 1547

Lepowsky, Maria [Alexandra]. Fruit of the Motherland: Gender in an Egalitarian Society. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. xxiv + 383 pp. + maps, table and illustrations. Focusing on gender identity in Tagula on Vanatinai (Sudest) Island, Lepowsky openly proffers a "feminist anthropology." Matrilinearity and sex roles, however, in a relatively egalitarian situation, are analyzed in relation to traditional rites and ceremonies, and to beliefs about ancestors and other spirits, sorcerers, and witches. 1548

Long, Jerome H. "Symbol and Reality among the Trobriand Islanders." In The History of Religions: Essays on the Problem of Understanding, ed. by Joseph M . Kitagawa, with Mircea Eliade and Charles H. Long, 227-240. Essays in Divinity, 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967.

410

Bibliographical Survey

An obscure article concentrating on Trobriand mythical themes of earth, sun and moon, and the ancestors, and relating them to Gerardus van der Leeuw's approach to mythical structures as "reality significantly organized." 1549

Macintyre, Martha. "Flying Witches and Leaping Warriors: Supernatural Origins of Power and Matrilineal Authority in Tubetube Society." In Dealing with Inequality: Analysing Gender Relations in Melanesia and Beyond, ed. by Marilyn Strathern, 207-228. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. South Massim (Tubetube) Island women were the producers of warriors (the conflictual side), but matrilineality gave them power as orators, feast-givers and lineage leaders (the reciprocal component). Sorcery as a male preserve and witchcraft as female presence also allowed for power balance. Malinowski, Bronislaw. "Baloma: The Spirits of the Dead in the Trobriand Islands." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 46 (1916): 353-430 + table. Seminal article. Distinguishing between spirit (baloma) and ghost, the Trobrianders have beliefs about the former alone journeying to the place of the dead - the Isle of Tuma. Malinowski documents Trobriander beliefs about the return of the baloma to receive family offerings, and other interactions with the living. 1550

1551

Malinowski, Bronislaw. Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. Studies in Economics and Political Science, 65. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1922. xxxii + 527 pp. + maps, figures, tables and illustrations. [Repr: New York: E.P Dutton & Co., 1961; and in Malinowski: Collected Works, Vol. 2. London: Routledge, 2002.] The most famous early anthropological work about a Melanesian society. Apart from discussing material culture and subsistence economy on the Trobriand Islands, the work focuses on the famous kula ring of overseas trade between the Trobriands, Dobu, and the Amphlett group. A chapter is devoted to the myths concerning the origins and maintenance of reciprocal trade arrangements which involve complex ceremonies of gift exchange. And Malinowski does fine justice to the preparation for long-distance sea traveling through the performance of canoe spells and "the magic of safety and persuasion." In this book there are some statements about the momentous importance of funerals in Melanesian society and the distributions of valuables consequent upon them. Note a preliminary part-summary of this work in Economic Journal (pub. 1921), and a German translation of the book by F. Kramer (pub. 1979). 1552

Malinowski, Bronislaw. Crime and Custom in Savage Society. International Library of Psychology, Philosophy and Scientific

Papuan Coast and Islands

411

Method. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1926. xii + 132 pp . + illustrations. [Repr. : Totowa, N.J.: Littlefield, Adams & Co., 1972; and in Malinowski: Collected Works, Vol. 3. London: Routledge, 2002.] The first substantial work discussing the binding force of obligations in a Melanesian society and showing how concensus pressure and chiefly sanction impose law and punish tabu breakage (in the case of Trobriand Island society). Malinowski, Bronislaw. The Father in Primitive Psychology. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1927. 95 pp. [British 1927 edition in Series: Psyche Miniatures Series, 8. Repr. in: Malinowski : Collected Works, Vol. 5. London: Routledge, 2002.] A work, rare in earlier anthropological research, on Melanesian views of the body and procreation. Important chapters are on Trobriander views of the traditional physiology of sexual desire; on the spirit babies which return from the Isle of the Dead, Tuma, and then reinsert themselves into wombs. 1553

Malinowski, Bronislaw. Sex and Repression in Savage Society. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1927. xv + 285 pp. [Repr.: New York: Meridian Books, 1955; and in Malinowski: Collected Works, Vol. 4. London: Routledge, 2002.] This is Malinowski's well known attack on Sigmund Freud's argument in Totem und Tabu (pub. 1913) that the primitive person is uninhibited and the civilized repressed. Using Trobriand material, Malinowski shows that, although there is relative flexibility about premarital sexual activity, marriage bonds are meant to be inviolable, and much inhibition surrounds the relationship between adult males and females. He attacks Freud's Oedipal theory that the male child hates the father because he is jealous of his sexual relation with mother. In Trobriand society, Malinowski finds that fathers are not important; because matrilineality applies, the maternal uncle figures so much more dominant as the child's instructor. For him the Freudian theory "is impossible to adopt" (yet see M. Spiro, 1564). 1554

Malinowski, Bronislaw. The Sexual Life of Savages in NorthWestern Melanesia: An Ethnographic Account of Courtship, Marriage and Family Life among the Natives of the Trobriand Islands, British New Guinea. 3rd ed. London: George Routledge & Sons, 1932. xlix + 505 pp. + maps, figures and illustrations. London: [Repr. : in Malinowski: Collected Works, Vol. 6. Routledge, 2002.] A pioneering work (of 1929) on sexual mores in "primal" society. Topics cover the prenuptial sexual life of the Trobrianders; then marriage rites; divorce and formal dissolution of marriage after a partner's death; rituals and views to do with pregnancy; customary forms of religious license (including children's games); lovemaking, love magic, and the sense of bodily beauty and ugliness. 1555

412 Extraordinary photographs of ritual life. and Myth (pub. 1962).

Bibliographical Survey See also Malinowski, Sex, Culture,

Malinowski, Bronislaw. Coral Gardens and their Magic: The Study of Soil-Tilling and Agricultural Rites in the Trobriand Islands. 2 Vols. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935. Vol. 1: The Description of Gardening . xxxv + 500 pp. + maps, figures and illustrations; Vol. 2: The Language of Magic and Gardening. xxxii + 350 pp. + figure. [Repr.: Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1965; and in Malinowski: Collected Works, Vols. 7-8. London: Routledge, 2002.] Probably Malinowski's most detailed ethnography - on Trobriand ritual preparation of gardens and other rites associated with the whole realm of horticultural activity. In this work he provides valuable translations of spells, materials extremely difficult to obtain in Melanesia. See also Malinowski in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (pub. 1927). Theoretical weaknesses have been noted under the next entry. 1556

Malinowski, Bronislaw. Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays. 2nd ed. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor, 1954. 274 pp. [Repr.: Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1984.] A collection of essays, including the important theoretical one on the putative difference between magic and religion. Malinowski's psycho-mental definition of magic as a "mental attitude and belief that hope cannot fail nor desire deceive" is problematic for being too close to a possible definition of religion. Also, his reasoning for the connection of Trobriander magic with complicated procedures, as in open sea fishing against easy lagoon fishing, seems to be flawed since it would not hold for gardening with its rich rituals (see above). The last part of the work is a detailed study of Trobriander conceptions of the afterlife (but should be checked against 1. Ketobwau, see above 1545). Cf. Malinowski's Myth in Primitive Psychology (pub . [1926]), along with 1. Strenski (ed.), Malinowski and the Work of Myth (pub. 1992) for related selections. 1557

Malnic, Jutta, with Kasaipwalova, John. Kula: Myth and Magic in the Trobriand Islands. Sydney: Cowrie Books, 1998. 222 pp . + maps and illustrations. A copiously and beautifully illustrated account of the kula ring exchange system, making up for the lack of visual material in Bronislaw Malinowski's work. The presentation is highly contemporary, with certain cultural adaptations discussed not known early in the last century (such as Trobriand cricket), and yet certain mystic and symbolic insights underlying the kula are here presented and clarified for the first time. Cf. the recent book by S. Campbell, The Art of Kula (pub. 2002). 1558

Papuan Coast and Islands

413

Munn, Nancy D. The Fame of Gawa: A Symbolic Study of Value Transformation in a Massim (Papua New Guinea) Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. xviii + 331 pp. + maps, figures and illustration. [Originally published as The Lewis Henry Morgan Lecture 1976.] Gawa, between the Trobriand and Woodlark Islands, is examined in terms of the symbolic processes that convey inter-relatedness between the various dimensions of its society. Munn looks at food-sharing and inter-tribal exchange relations , and also discovers assumptions about witchcraft giving a greater sense of social control. 1559

Peter,O[live]. "The Myths of Misima." Oral History 4, 2 (1976): 16-52. Traditions are presented as relating to various clans. Topics include battles, survivals after group conflict, and environmental problems (such as a tsunami). 1560

Philsooph, H. "Primitive Magic and Mana." Man New Series 6, 2 (1971): 182-203. On Trobriand beliefs, with a discussion of magic covering select rituals and spells. To some extent it rehabilitates usages of magic and mana in earlier theory. 1561

1562

Scoditti, Giancarlo M.G. "The Use of 'Metaphors' in Kitawa Culture, Northern Massim." Oceania 55, 1 (1984): 50-70. On Trobriand poetic formulae reflecting notions of the carvers of canoe prows as powerful "creators of images" who enter into "aesthetic rapture." Carvings are metaphors or graphic signs of shared cosmological understanding. Textual interpretations are important. 1563

Senft, Gunter. "Trauer auf Trobriand: Eine ethnologisch/linguistische Fallstudie." Anthropos 80, 4-6 (1985): 471-492 + illustrations . A skillfull analysis of various chants of sorrow uttered in connection with death and at Trobriand funerary rites. Senft explains the innuendos and evocations in relation to the expectations of mortuary exchange. Spiro, Melford E. Oedipus in the Trobriands. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. xii + 200 pp. Questioning whether Bronislaw Malinowski has satisfactorily dispensed with the possibilities of Freudian interpretation of Trobriand culture, because fathers can after all be displaced onto surrogates such as uncles. An intriguing book which combines a look at kinship, collective psychology and religious outlook, but one that is controversial in its conclusions. Most interesting is his discussion of the mythic fight between a younger and an elder brother, the consequences of which lead all men to be "jealous and full of hatred" and thus must die. 1564

414

Bibliographical Survey

1565

Strathern, Andrew [J.]. "The Kula in Comparative Perspective." In The Kula: New Perspectives on Massim Exchange, ed. by Jerry W. Leach, and Edmund [R.] Leach, 73-88 + table. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. An unusual comparison between a Papuan island exchange complex and the moka exchange cycle in the highlands. The author concentrates his attention on the sacral character of shell money . For related work by other authors in this book, start with 1570. Weiner, Annette B. Women of Value, Men of Renown: New Perspectives in Trobriand Exchange. Brisbane: University of Queensland, 1977. xxii + 299 pp. + maps, tables, figures and illustrations. After surveying women's mortuary rites, beauty magic, marriage and the accumulation of women's wealth for exchange in the matrilineal Trobriand society, Weiner reflects on the "private" individual power of the woman. Knowledge of magic, land, and origin stories are said to be "growing inside her body." This essentially religious knowledge enables a woman and her partner to maintain and expand social networks for survival in times of crisis and for prestige in better times. 1566

Weiner, Annette B. The Trobrianders of Papua New Guinea. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1988. xxii + 184 pp. + maps, figures and illustrations. A good general introductory ethnography of the Trobriands, and of a very resilient culture studied in the 1970s and early 1980s. There are important chapters on funerary rites, sexuality, chieftainship, harvest competitions (with men working for women), matriliniarity, and finally the kula exchange ring as a "search for fame ." 1567

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena 1568

Berde, Stuart. "The Impact of Christianity on a Melanesian Economy." Research in Economic Anthropology 2 (1979): 169-187 + map and tables. An article on Panaeati (or Panniet) Island designed to provide a "negative instance" to the model that Melanesians are always ripe for cargo cultism. Here Methodist mission efforts, involving both conversion and encouragement to undertake new kinds of work, resulted in a relatively successful integration into the cash economy. 1569

Hess, Michael. "Misima - 1942: An Anti-Colonial Religious Movement." Bikmaus 3, 1 (1982): 48-56 + maps . An account of events that occurred on Misima Island during World War II and that led to the murder of Australian officers. The time was marked by both the withdrawal of Australian colonial control and the emergence of a cargo cult. The

Papuan Coast and Islands

415

cult's ideology developed through several phases, until all activities were violently suppressed by the returning Australian administration. See also Hess in W. Flannery, 0186. Macintyre, Martha. "Warfare and the Changing Context of 'Kune' on Tubetube." In The History and Anthropology of the Massim, Papua New Guinea, conv. by Michael W. Young. [Special Issue of] Journal of Pacific History 18, 1 (1983): 11-34 + map. Promoting the thesis that, upon pacification, opportunities for the effective working of the kula ring and other exchange systems were enhanced in ways not possible when military conflict was part of the everyday. This analysis can be usefully applied elsewhere. 1570

1571

Macintyre, Martha. "Christianity, Cargo Cultism, and the Concept of the Spirit in Misiman Cosmology." In Christianity in Oceania: Ethnographic Perspective, ed. by John Barker, 81-100. ASAO Monographs, 12. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1990. Discussing cargo myth arising on Misima Island, and relating it to traditional spirit possession or the "working of the spirit." This leads Macintyre to consider how the Misima conceptualize the person and transfer their thoughts about it from tradition to Christianity. A fine study. Biography of Maestrini, Nicholas. Mazzucconi of Woodlark: Blessed John Mazzucconi, Priest and Martyr of the P.I.M.E. Missionaries. Hong Kong and Detroit, Mich.: Catholic Truth Society, and P.I.M.E. Missionaries, [1983]. xviii + 211 pp. + maps and illustrations. Focusing on a pioneer missionary, but with some attention to the contact history of Woodlark society, and to sites of missionary activity cared for by islanders. Cf. P. Suigi, Sangue su La Gazelle (pub. 1964), and Scritti del Servo di Dio P. Giovanni Mazzucconi (pub. 1964); further, Z. Kruczek in Neue Zeitschrift fur Missionswissenschaft (pub. 1996). 1572

1573

Namunu, Simeon [B.]. "The Bible and the Misima Cult." [Special Issue of] Catalyst 18,4 (1988): 30-34. Short but informative account of the uses of the Bible by Vile Yaledona, nephew of the founder of the Misima cult, Buliga, who explains that salvation is synonymous with economic progress - ultimately provided by ancestors that have cycled through time, from Adam on through various stages and "nations," to reach Misima with the future emergence of the time of the "Secret Citizen." The independent "Seven Church" was created to meet this expectation.

416

Bibliographical Survey

Emergent Melanesian Christianity 1574

Ketobwau, I[gnatius T.]. "The Trobriand Understanding of Gods/Spirits Compared with the Christian Concept of God." Melanesian Journal of Theology 9,1 (1993): 22-25. Emphasizes the differences in attributes between the Christian God and the Trobriand deities and spirits, and worries over what is lost to both tradition and Christianity in culturo-religious translation. 1575

Namunu, Simeon [B.]. "Spirits in Melanesian Tradition and Spirit in Christianity." In The Gospel is Not Western: Black Theologies from the Southwest Pacific, ed. by G[arry] W[inston] Trompf, 109118. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1987. A Panaeati Islander, the author first considers beliefs about ancestral and place spirits in far eastern Papua, relating such beliefs to Old Testament notions of spirit. In the second half, however, he interprets a Holy Spirit movement in the Kavieng area of New Ireland (New Guinea), one in which he was a participantobserver and "struck" by the Spirit. See also his articles in the Melanesian Journal of Theology (pub. 1996) and Pacific Journal of Theology (pub. 1996). 1576

Namunu, Simeon B. "Melanesian Religion, Ecology and Modernization in Papua New Guinea." In Indigenous Traditions and Ecology: The Interbeing of Cosmology and Community, ed. by John A. Grim, 249-280. Religions of the World and Ecology [Series] . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, for the Center for the Study of World Religions, Harvard Divinity School, 2001. A Papuan theologian appealing especially to Panaeati Islander traditions as illustrating the principles of environmental security to forestall the irresponsible exploitation of resources (logging and mining occurring in the region). Oates, Lynette. Not in the Common Mould: The Life of Dr David Lithgow. Kangaroo Ground, Vic.: Wycliffe Media, 1997 . ii + 237 pp. + maps and illustrations. Calling it "a very Christian book," the author narrates the spiritual path of David Lithgow, a member of the Summer Institute of Linguistics. She describes his various tasks in Milne Bay Province. Changes in work method (in connection with his translations of the New Testament into Muyuw, Dobu, Bunama, and Auhelawa) involved evangelization. The prayer-healing sessions described in detail reveal an important interface between Christian healing and indigenous assumptions about sickness. For Catholic missions in the eastern Papuan islands, see A. Arthur in South Pacific Journal of Mission Studies (pub. 1992). 1577

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418

Bibliographical

Survey

Southern and Papuan Highlands Southern Highlands (Upper) Southern Highlands (Lower) Western Papuan Inland and Plateau Central Papuan Highlands East Papuan Highlands

Southern Highlands (Upper) Traditional Biersack, Aletta, ed. Papuan Borderlands: Huli, Duna, and [pili Perspectives on the Papua New Guinea Highlands. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1995. xiv + 440 pp. + maps, tables and figures. Various articles from a 1991 conference by well known enthnographers, and mainly on traditional subjects: A. Strathern, for instance, on the ethnohistory of ritual movements in Aluni; N. Modjeska on rethinking women's exploitation in the Duna case by examining the material basis of big-man systems; and G. Sttirzenhofecker on female witchcraft and male dominance in Aluni. R. Glasse, however, treats "Religions, Syncretism and the Pacification of the Huli" (while Biersack's piece is on the Ipili, far west Enga, not a Southern Highlands case). 1578

1579

Franklin, Karl J[ames]. "A Ritual Pandanus Language of New Guinea." Oceania 43, 1 (1972): 66-76 + tables. The description of the social and linguistic context of a ritual language which is based on word tabus, among the Mbongu (in the Mount Giluwe area), Kewa, and Mendi, with most textual examples coming from the western Kewa. Ritual language contains metaphors for marking group differences and warding off threats, and is used in ritual and exchange contexts to avoid verbal confrontation. Examples are limited but useful. 1580

Gayalu, Benjamin S. "The Gebeanda: A Sacred Cave Ritual: Traditional Religion among the Huli in the Southern Highlands." In Powers, Plumes and Piglets: Phenomena of Melanesian Religion, ed. by Norman C. Habel, 19-24. Adelaide: Australian Association for the Study of Religions, 1979. The Gebeanda is a cultic location at a sacred cave which is recognized in common by more than one Huli tribe, although Gayalu does not make clear the trans-tribal significance of such caves. His is the pioneering account of how the priest-like custodians at a well known site meet the concerns for tribal fertility by making offerings to the cave's place spirit inhabitants. (Note that in a cognatic society the Gebeanda cults presented the possibility for greater

Southern and Papuan Highlands

419

unification along religious lines, but with the Huli, as far as we know, social unity was never realized before contact.) 1581

Glasse, Robert M. "Revenge and Redress among the Huli: A Preliminary Account." Mankind 5, 7 (1959): 273-289 + maps and illustrations. Although this article is on warfare, it places particular stress on the obligatory nature of taking revenge in armed combat for the death of one's kin and of seeking personal redress when dishonored by an enemy - matters which we see as encompassed by traditional religion. As Glasse better shows in his monograph on the Huli as a cognatic society (The Huli of Papua, pub. 1968), the demands placed on anybody in a conflict is complicated by the remarkably free choice given to the place of residence. 1582

Glasse, Robert M. "The Huli of the Southern Highlands." In Gods, Ghosts and Men in Melanesia: Some Religions of Australian New Guinea and the New Hebrides, ed. by P[eter] Lawrence, and M[ervyn] J[ohn] Meggitt, 27-49. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1965. An early seminal study of Huli religion. Glasse is informative on the so-called dama deities which control the weather, particularly the sun and the moon (Ni and Hana), whose major myth is also introduced; and on Datagaliwabe who is the requiter of all misdeeds like a kind of Melanesian Varuna. A great deal of space is devoted to sorcery, while his account of the tege initiation ceremony is all too brief and details are still only available in an unpublished paper from the hands ofB. Gayalu (cf. 1580). Goldman, L[aurence] R. Talk Never Dies: The Language of Huli Disputes. London: Tavistock Publications, 1983. x + 341 pp. + maps, tables, figures and illustrations. Goldman argues that illness is the source of metaphor to express fundamental truths about the nature of talk and relationships, and then explores the complex semantic codes involved in working out sources of shame and the needs for compensation in a cognatic society. Disputes over relationships (such as marriage), land, and bad talk are discussed in turn, with a few pages devoted to warfare. In analyzing various dispute cases, Goldman highlights expressed notions of indemnity, liability, and the obligation to address and/or make up for insult, with smaller rather than larger groups being involved in dispute solving. See also his preliminary article in 0346. 1583

1584

Lederman, Rena. "Trends and Cycles in Mendi." Bikmaus 3, 1 (1982): 5-14. Lederman notes the cyclical nature of economic production in highland societies but correctly disputes ecological interpretations (see A. Rappaport, 1221) that take processes to be too dependent on the availability or non-availability of resources. She is impressed, for example, how quickly pig herds can be built

420

Bibliographical Survey

up for the Mendi enactment of ritual exchange (in the mok ink festival), and finds that ceremonial trends can manifest independently of modern economic developments, even coffee market vagaries. A description of the mok ink is given by her in What Gifts Engender (pub. 1986), more a book on politics. 1585

Mawe, Theodore. "Notes on a Stone Bird Purchased during 1980 in the Mendi Area of the Southern Highlands Province." Oral History 8, 8 (1980): 75-80 + illustration. Discussing the Papua New Guinea National Museum acquisition of carved stone birds from among the Mendi, the author describes how, in seclusion, hired sorcerers set such an object to face their enemies and transmit a deathdealing evil spirit. 1586

Mawe, Theodore. "Religious Cults and Ritual Practice among the Mendi People of the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea." In The Meanings of Things: Material Culture and Symbolic Expression, ed. by Ian Hodder, 41-49. London: Unwin Hyman, 1989. An interesting piece which first discusses the Mendi range of spirit beings, one of which is the force saiki! that "saves or blesses or is a blessing itself," operating outside the processes of nature. This concept of saiki! is related to luck and has its place in the complex of relations between the living and the dead in the Mendi's pursuit of wealth through rituals as well as hard "work." See also Mawe's survey in Records of the Papua New Guinea Museum (pub. 1985). Ryan, D'Arcy. "Marriage in Mendi." In Pigs, Pearlshells, and Women: Marriage in the New Guinea Highlands, ed. by R[obert] M. Glasse, and M[ervyn] J[ohn] Meggitt, 159-175. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969. A useful piece on marriage payments, but including other matters such as the sense of obligation, widowhood, divorce, and grounds for refusing to pay bride price. Note also Ryan's two articles on Mendi social organization in Oceania (pub. 1958-59). 1587

1588

Sillitoe, Paul. Give and Take: Exchange in Wola Society. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1979. xx + 316 pp. + maps, tables, figures and illustrations. Focuses on Wola social organization and the nature of their ceremonial exchange. He suggests that they put more emphasis on the achievements of the individual than has been reported for most highland groups: the Wola rely on temporary "action sets" rather than on permanent groupings for social action. He sees exchange as based on self-interest but, at the same time, as the means by which social cohesion is maintained. The book is theoretically flawed in its introduction when Sillitoe uses the old social theories of John Locke and Thomas Hobbes as an entree to atomized societies.

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1589

Sillitoe, Paul. "Some More on War: A Wola Perspective." In Homicide Compensation in Papua New Guinea: Problems and Prospects, ed. by Richard Scaglion, 70-81 + figure. Law Reform Commission of Papua New Guinea Monographs, 1. Port Moresby: Office of Information for the Law Reform Commission of Papua New Guinea, 1981. A useful little article discussing the "mob excitement" of Wola warfare, the rationale for revenge, and the ceremonial compensatory processes that can come into play when people are killed . Compensation is also discussed in connection with government policy. Further, cf. Sillitoe in Oceania (pub. 1981); and his Made in Niugini (pub. 1988). Stewart, Pamela J., and Strathern, Andrew [J.]. Speaking for Life and Death: Warfare and Compensation among the Duna of Papua New Guinea. Semi Ethnological Reports, 13 . Osaka: National [iii] + 88 pp. + map and Museum of Ethnology, 2000. illustrations. Largely on the rhetoric of war and compensation, with recorded texts of speeches included. Insights on heroics and allusion to spmt support are valuable. For other recent work by Stewart and Strathern on the Duna, see articles in Social Anthropology (pub. 1998) on ritual, and in People and Culture in Oceania (pub. 2000) on sense of place. 1590

1591

Stiirzenhofecker, Gabriele. "Sacrificial Bodies and the Cyclicity of Substance." Journal of the Polynesian Society 104, 1 (1995): 89109 + maps. The Duna conceive their cosmos as one of "enduring incompleteness," combining a notion of "entropy" or generational decline (as with the neighboring Huli) with a sense of cyclicity, as instantiated by the recurrence of ritual "re-energizing the ground." Most focus is on the pig sacrifices to placate the female spirit forces that could disturb the earth. A fascinating piece (and see connections to C. Ballard, two entries below). Stiirzenhofecker, Gabriele. Times Enmeshed: Gender, Space, and History among the Duna of Papua New Guinea. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998. xv + 242 pp. + map, tables, and illustrations. On experience of time and space, and their importance for Duna identity. Moves on to marriage relations and the problem of the "enemy within," or of women never being fully integrated into their husbands' lines and thus being susceptible to accusations of witchcraft. 1592

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena 1593

Ballard, Chris[topher]. "The Fire Next Time: The Conversion of the Huli Apocalypse." In Millennial Countdown in New Guinea,

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ed. by Neil L. Whitehead. [Special Issue of] Ethnohistory 47, 1 (2000): 205-225. Should be seen in connection with the author's 1995 doctoral dissertation 'The Death of a Great Land,' which examined the transference of traditional Huli pessimism about the fate of all things to the new Christian apocalypticism, in the face of disruptions and problems in the Southern Highlands. With the rise of women in the church, Ballard argues, the men's role in re-energizing the earth is under threat. See also the boxed comments on Huli notions of "cosmic entropy" by M. Sahlins in Current Anthropology (pub. 1996). Barr, John. "Spirit Movements in the Highlands United Church." In Religious Movements in Melanesia Today 2, ed. by Wendy Flannery, 144-154 + map. Point Series, 3. Goroka: Melanesian Institute for Pastoral and Socio-Economic Service, 1983. A helpful survey of the ecstatic phenomena of Southern Highland spirit movements, particularly among the Huli adherents to the United (formerly Methodist) Church. Matters covered include shaking and crying, visions and dreams, healing and prophecy. Barr also writes the general introduction, this particular volume being among a number on the subject produced by the Melanesian Institute. 1594

Clark, Jeffrey [L.]. "Madness and Colonisation: The Embodiment of Power in Pangia." In Alienating Mirrors: Christianity, Cargo Cults and Colonialism in Melanesia, ed. by Andrew Lattas. [Special Issue of] Oceania 63, 1 (1992): 15-26. In this and other articles in Oceania (pub. 1988, 1991) the author disputes the thesis ofP. Lawrence and M. Meggitt (0117) that highlanders are more secular than coastal dwellers. The Christian "revivals" at Pangia (and also Karavar) are taken to be cargoistic, with Christianity being used to create a new world, and money becoming a "diacritical sign" of this world . Provocative, but somewhat reductionist and relying too much on the work of R. Robin (1602).

1595

Clark, Jeffrey [L.]. "Gold, Sex and Pollution: Male Illness and Myth at Mt. Kare, Papua New Guinea." American Ethnologist 20, 4 (1993): 742-757. On how colonial "encapsulation" below Mount Kare has affected the Huli people's ideas about pollution and sexuality. Taking two themes, first, dirty water from mining brings sickness associated with neglect of the primal male spirit Iba Tiri. Second, the primal woman spirit is connected with diamonds and the hope of finding them, and is the agent by whom to avoid women's bad blood and decontaminating the sources of life. Intriguing, manifold research. 1596

Fountain, Ossie [Oswald]. "The Religious Experience of the Koroba Huli." Melanesian Journal of Theology 2, 2 (1986): 174-207. On the Koroba Holy Spirit Movement (1975-76, 1985-86), this article provides a theoretical framework to understand spirits of revitalization with a "steady 1597

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state" effect afterwards. The analysis is very useful, as are the background materials on traditional religion and mission history. 1598

Frankel, Stephen. The Huli Response to Illness. Cambridge Studies in Anthropology, 62. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. xvi + 201 pp. + maps, figures, tables and illustrations. The best work to date relating dense ethnographic study of a traditional medical system to social change. The case of the Huli is one of recent contact and so all the more interest lies in this book concerning the ways the Huli have quickly developed patterns of choice between medical systems and adaptive interpretations of illness along both "traditional" and innovative lines. 1599

Goldman, Laurence [R.]. The Culture of Coincidence: Accident and Absolute Liability in Huli. Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993. xvi + 443 pp. + map, tables and illustrations. A major study in legal anthropology, carefully analyzing Huli concepts of causation, intent (or "mental causes"), accident, and "fate." The cases look mainly traditional in the way they are argued, but the setting is in the contemporary local court (and thus the possibility of conceptual shifts should have been better addressed). 1600

Lederman, Rena. "Sorcery and Social Change in Mendi." In Sorcery and Social Change in Melanesia, ed. by Marty Zelenietz, and Shirley Lindenbaum, 15-27. [Special Issue of) Social Analysis 8 (1981). A perceptive piece in which the author draws attention to patterns of modernization among the Mendi. The most interesting section concerns the development of "bottle" sorcery (Tok Pisin: botol) which involves the use of glass and has arisen through the intrusion of sorcery and curing techniques from outside the Southern Highland area. Lederman notes that sorcery has tended to produce greater social fragmentation since the suppression of warfare. 1601

Matiabe, Aruru. "Revival Movements 'Beyond the Ranges,' Southern Highlands." In Religious Movements in Melanesia: A Selection of Case Studies and Reports, ed. by Wendy Flannery, 147-151 + map. Goroka: Melanesian Institute for Pastoral and Socio-Economic Service, 1983. Bya central Huli (and also Brethren) scholar, who later served as Minister for Education in Papua New Guinea, an account of the Holy Spirit movement emerging in the western Huli land of the Koroba and Lake Kopiago area, and fostered by the Asia Pacific Christian Mission. There are mimeographed versions of the relevant episodes by theologically better-trained persons (cf. also 1597), but this is useful for being a more distanced approach. See also, for

Bibliographical Survey

424

Catholic contact stories of the Duna around Lake Kopiago, J. Knoebel in the annual by the Divine Word Missionaries, The Word in the World (pub. 1966). 1602

Robin, Robert W. "Revival Movements in the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea." Oceania 52, 4 (1982) : 320-343 + maps and table. Robin characteristically worries over confusion brought by competing Christian missionization to the Southern Highlands (generally, but mainly the north) . This piece partly reflects a special, classified report he wrote for the Provincial Commissioner on 'The Effects of the Mission Presence and Influence upon Communities in the Southern Highlands Province' (dated 1979), which constitutes rather shallow psychological anthropology, and shows no clear understanding of problems in analyzing alleged mental illness or of continuing traditional elements in "early contact Christianity." See also as a foretaste his paper on a 1975-76 Huli movement in Journal for the Scientific Study ofReligion (pub. 1981), and an article on mission effects in Journal de la Societe des Oceanistes (pub. 1980). 1603

Stewart, Pamela [J.], and Strathern, Andrew [J.]. Witchcraft, Murder and Ecological Stress: A Duna (Papua New Guinea) Case Study . (James Cook University of North Queensland, Centre for Pacific Studies) Discussion Paper Series, 4. Townsville, Qld.: Centre for Pacific Studies, James Cook University of North Queensland, 1998. 32 pp. Short but important study connecting witchcraft accusation and attacks, and rising levels of violence with environmental and production problems. 1604

Stewart, Pamela [J.], and Strathern Andrew [1.]. Remaking the World: Myth, Mining, and Ritual Change among the Duna of Papua New Guinea. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institute, 2002. xvi + 219 pp. + map and illustrations. While old ritual practices have been abandoned with social change, new myths and rituals have emerged after mining activity in Duna country.

Emergent Melanesian Christianity 1605

Donais, Rosalie M. As Many as Received Him, To Them Gave He Power: To Become the Sons of God, even to Them that Believe on His Name, John 1: 12. Tremont, Ill.: Apostolic Christian Church Foundation, 1987. xiii + 241 pp. + illustrations. About the independent Tiliba Mission to Nipa and Wola. Conservative Protestant and paternalistic, but little else has been written on indigenous Christians in the Nipa area (cf. 0065). 1606

Hecht, Susan. Muruk and the Cross: Missions and Schools in the Southern Highlands. ERU Research Report, 35. Port Moresby:

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Educational Research Unit, University of Papua New Guinea, 1981. 104 pp. + maps, table and figures. Aiming to analyze interactions between government and missions, as two agents of modem education in the Southern Highlands (especially the upper regions). Assesses the Christian school, the role of the expatriate missionary, mission effects on teaching subjects, together with a history of mission education in Papua New Guinea. Some references to the use of traditional materials in school are presented. 1607

Jebens, Holger. Wege zum Himmel: Katholiken, Siebenten-TagsAdventisten und der Einfluss der traditionellen Religion in Pairudu, Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea. Mundus Reihe Ethnologie, 86. Bonn: Holos Verlag, 1995. ix + 345 pp. + maps, tables, figures and illustration. Solid study of the persistence of tradition religion, and of changes in belief following the arrival of missions, among the Pairudu. Detailed on Catholics and Seventh-day Adventists, and the general impact of Protestant Fundamentalists (as opposed to modernity) is interestingly assessed. 1608

Meshanko, Ronald R. "The Gospel among the Huli: Historical Background." Pts. 1-2. Catalyst 16, 3 (1986): 222-236; 16, 4 (1986): 344-351. On the development and effects of the Catholic Church (particularly the Capuchin friars) among the Huli. Reorganization of the sense of time is a focus. For one published attempt at Huli indigenous theology, see P. Hinawai in Mi-cha-el (pub. 2004). Reeson, Margaret. Torn Between Two Worlds. Madang: Kristen Pres, 1972. 205 pp. + map and illustrations. Endearing as an account of changes brought about among the Mendi by the Methodist (subsequently United) Church Mission, but lacking in historical criticism. After treating the traditional way of life, the author discusses baptisms and the training of local preachers. Good photographic documentation. 1609

1610

Smith, Graham. Mendi Memories. Melbourne: Thomas Nelson (Australia), 1974. viii + 152 pp. + illustrations. The experiences of a Methodist minister from South Australia involved in development work among the Mendi between 1962 and 1971. There are some useful snippets to do with the interface of traditional and Christian outlooks. For later and relevant observations on Methodist medical work, see V. Bock, Leprosy, Leeches and Love (pub. 1981). 1611

Weeks, Sheldon G. Education and Change in Pangia, Southern Highlands Province. ERU Research Report, 56. Port Moresby: Educational Research Unit, University of Papua New Guinea, 1987.

Bibliographical

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Survey

196 pp. + map and tables. A well known expert in cross-cultural studies on the newer agencies for education, here in a more isolated part of the Southern Highlands. Mission influences as well as those of the national Education Department are assessed, and a degree of local confusion from missionary competition is suggested. Weeks edited a less accessible book on Pangia (pub. 1989). Wood, A. Harold. Overseas Missions of the Australian Methodist Church. 5 Vols. Melbourne and Sydney: Aldersgate Press, and Commission for Mission, Uniting Church of Australia, 1975-1987. Vol. 5 : Papua New Guinea Highlands: A Bridge is Built. 1987. By Wood, and Reeson, Margaret. vi + 122 pp. + [detachable] map and illustrations. Handy history of Methodist mission work in and around Mendi and Tari (Huli territory). For indigenous religious life, the chapters on mass conversions and preacher training are vital. 1612

Southern Highlands (Lower) Traditional

Feld, Steven. Sound and Sentiment: Birds, Weeping, Poetics, and Song in Kaluli Expression . 2nd ed. Conduct and Communication Series. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982. xiv + 297 pp. + maps, figures, tables, musical scores and illustrations. On the cycle of Kaluli events and parts of the environment as marked by the presence of birds. The author analyzes human sounds and music in their various moods to see how they pick up and play on these intimations from the environs. A remarkable and unusual work in musicology important for studies in symbology and religion. 1613

Franklin, K[arl] J[ames]. The Dialects of Kewa. Pacific Linguistics Series B Monographs, 10. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1968. iv + 72 pp. + maps and tables. Largely an introduction to (north/central) Kewa phonology, grammar and word geography, but various sections of the book are concerned with religious issues, for example, the andalu rimbu ceremony (concentrated on magical stones), ceremonial houses, and word tabus during marriage. The author is also interested in what dialect patterns might reveal about the earlier movements of tribes in this very interesting area. Further, see Franklin on religious slang in Anthropos (pub. 1975). 1614

1615

Josephides, Lisette. The Production of Inequality: Gender and Exchange among the Kewa . London: Tavistock, 1985 . x + 242 pp . + maps, figures and illustrations.

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A published doctoral thesis inspired by M. Godelier (1268), and with a framework foreshadowed in 1163. She investigates the way female positions and activities of (north/central) Kewa are defined and valued in terms of male prestige needs, and shows clearly how not only the male-dominated warrior ethos and the complex of pig-killing ceremonies but also the traditional mythology legitimates the inferiority of women. Some useful observations about missions and contact cults are included. See also Josephides in Oceania (pub. 1983). LeRoy , John D. "The Ceremonial Pig Kill of the South Kewa." Oceania 49, 3 (1979): 179-209 + figures and tables. Distinctly religious issues are hardly addressed in this paper, which plots who is exchanging with whom in (south) Kewa pig-killing rites. The ceremonials, however, "express continuing obligations between persons related by birth, coresidence, marriage, and common purpose," and they can heal conflicts. 1616

1617

LeRoy, John [D.], ed. Kewa Tales. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1985. xxv + 251 pp. + illustrations. The best collection of (translated) folk tales from the Kewa-Erave region in the north of the Western Province. In his other volume, Fabricated World (pub. 1985), and in an earlier article in the Yearbook of Symbolic Anthropology (pub. 1978), LeRoy interprets the many motifs. His works are good companions to M. MacDonald's Mararoko (see 1619). MacDonald, Mary N. "An Interpretation of Magic." Religious Traditions 7-9 (1984-1986): 83-104 + map. [Different version: Symbols of Life: An Interpretation of Magic. Occasional Papers of the Melanesian Institute, 2. Goroka: The Melanesian Institute for Pastoral and Socio-Economic Service, 1985. 24 pp. + map.] A discussion of healing, magical procedures, and symbolism among the Mararoko (an Erave/southern Kewa tribe), conveying the Erave understanding of life energy and the possibilities it presents for action . The Melanesian Institute version is in mimeograph form. 1618

MacDonald, Mary N. Mararoko: A Study in Melanesian Religion. American University Studies Series, 11: Anthropology and Sociology, 45. New York: Peter Lang, 1991. xvii + 591 pp. + map and illustrations. On the southern Kewa (or Erave), making the reader aware that traditional beliefs and a selection of rites are still alive in a steadily "Christianizing" area. Half the book contains stories from the Erave, yet without guidance as to which the author considers myth as against legend or tale, or culturally important as against more entertaining. The ethnography, however, is useful in revealing how oral narratives reflect religious significances (including insights about reciprocity); but there is not enough interconnecting of 1619

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Bibliographical Survey

narratives and cultural context. Note also the author's article on marsupials in myth in Catalyst (pub. 1988). 1620

Mimica, Jadran. "The Foi and Heidegger: Western Philosophical Poetics and a New Guinea Life-World." Australian Journal of Anthropology 4, 2 (1993): 79-95. A review article on 1. Weiner's work on the Southern Highland Foi (1632), in the process questioning the value of Heideggerian hermeneutics for the anthropology of Melanesia. This review article, in fact, has some of the most insightful generalizations about Melanesian religions - the "horizontal" tendencies, the sense of "the imperishable flow of life," and its articulation "in social practice," etc. Weiner subsequently replied in Australian Journal of Anthropology (pub. 1993), and then published The Lost Drum (pub. 1995), a theoretical work partly answering Mimica, but leading to a new controversy with B. Juillerat (in Social Analysis [pub. 1997]; cf. also 0073). 1621

Nihill, Michael. "The 'Two Men' of Anganen Exchange: Structure and Concepts of the Individual in Highland Papua New Guinea." Mankind 18, 3 (1988): 146-160 + map and table. Examining differences between "mundane" and "ceremonial" exchanges among the Kewa and Wola, then arguing how the southwestern Anganen, a culture betweeen them, takes the difference to greater extent than elsewhere, with shells being excluded from the great transactions. 1622

Nihill, Michael. "Dangerous Visions: The Cassowary as Good to Think and Good to Remember among the Anganen." Oceania 72, 4 (2002): 258-274. Explaining the extraordinary rawa ritual in which rival brothers or individual disputants throw the blood and entrails of wild cassowary at each other, while hurling insults. Nihill discusses how cassowaries represent non-rational aspects of war, and yet their ritual killing in exchange can mark the dissipation of social tensions. See also his article in Oceania (pub. 1988). 1623

Rule, Joan. "The Foe of Papua New Guinea." In The World's Religions: A Lion Handbook, ed. by Christopher Partridge, et al., 108-109. 3rd ed. Oxford: Lion Hudson, 2005. The first (brief and here reprinted) statement of Foe (or Foi) beliefs from along Lake Kutubu's shores and into the neighboring Mubi River Valley. Spirits are classified into "the Evil Things," wandering spirits, and spirits of the dead. Healing and sorcery methods are introduced. The author and her husband have published on Foi semantics, cf. M. Rule, The Culture and Language of the Foe (pub. 1993). 1624

Schiefenhoevel, Wulf. "Aspects of the Medical System of the Kaluli and Waragu Language-Group, Southern Highlands District." Mankind 8, 2 (1971): 141-145.

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On the Kaluli and Waragu, being a short but useful description of an "ethnomedical system" - covering disease, healing and healers . This is material neglected in other ethnographies. 1625

Schieffelin, Edward L. The Sorrow ofthe Lonely and the Burning of the Dancers. Brisbane and New York: University of Queensland, and St. Martin's Press, 1977. xii + 243 pp. + maps, tables, figures and illustrations. One of the better books on reciprocity between tribes in a Melanesian culture, on the Kaluli of the Mount Bosavi area. The discussion centers around dances of compensation put on by colorful male performers who come with a visiting party to another tribe with whom relations have some time been fractious. The dancers create sorrowfulness over past mishaps in tribal warfare and incite the onlookers to set fire to their fragile grass skirt-like cloaks before the performers are whisked away. The dances act as compensation nonetheless and fit into the complex web of reciprocity skillfully analyzed by Schieffelin. See also N. Munn in 0084. 1626

Schieffelin, Edward L. "The Retaliation of the Animals: On the Cultural Construction of the Past in Papua New Guinea." In History and Ethnohistory in Papua New Guinea, ed. by Deborah Oceania [B.] Gewertz, and Edward [L.] Schieffelin, 40-57. Monograph, 28. Sydney: University of Sydney, 1985. [A slightly different version in Bikmaus 5, 4 (1984): 1-14.] A study of sana mono - the perceived attack of wild animals on humans during a storm among the Kaluli. The context of the study lies in the perception of the past and the concept of reciprocity. Schieffelin, Edward L. "Performance and the Cultural Contribution of Reality." American Ethnologist 12,4 (1985) : 707-724. A rather technical piece on "the nondiscursive and performative aspects of ritual," using as the test case enactments within Kaluli seances. Worth persistence. Cf. also Schieffelin's article on mediators as metaphors in A. Becker and A. Yengoyan (eds.), The Imagination ofReality (pub. 1979). 1627

1628

Strathern, Andrew [J.], ed. Wiru Laa: 01 Stori bilong Wiru - Wiru Stories (Southern Highlands Province). Port Moresby: Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1983. iv + 179 pp. A rich collection of Wiru vernacular texts and Tok Pisin translations. The most dramatic item is the Jonah-like story of the man swallowed by a snake, who cuts it from the inside and is vomited out. 1629

Strathern, Andrew [J.]. "Compensation: What Does it Mean?" TaimLain 1, 1 (1993): 57-62. The journal apparently replaces Bikmaus, and here Strathern asks what the Duna, Kutubu and also Melpa mean by compensation. It has a specific

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Bibliographical Survey

function within military and exchange contexts and should not be misused. Cf. also Strathern's Death to Pay For! (pub. 1998). 1630

Weiner, James F. "Men, Ghosts and Dreams among the Foi: Literal and Figurative Modes of Interpretation." Oceania 57, 2 (1986): 114-127 + tables. Introducing Foi traditional religious beliefs, and very good on the alleged possession phenomenon at the male initiations (cf. also 0155, bearing comparison with the Bongnu, see 0902). The Foi (formerly referred to as Foe) live around Lake Kutubu and along the Faya'a and Mubi Rivers (see next entry). For Foi sorcery, see Weiner in Ethnos (pub. 1986). Weiner, James F. The Heart of the Pearl Shell: The Mythological Dimension of Foi Sociality. Studies in Melanesian Anthropology. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. xviii + 322 pp. + maps, figures and illustrations. Insightful on Foi mythology and poesis (especially mourning songs, as related to mythic narratives). This dense study is best read in conjunction with his The Empty Space (see next entry) on poesis and the Foi sense of space, though his notion of poetry as the spontaneous revelation of being has been criticized by A. Gell (0695) as too one-sided in its applications. On the gender dimension of space, cf. Weiner in Journal of Anthropological Research (pub. 1984), and on relating his psycho-environmental findings to other researches near the Kutubu area, see also Mountain Papuans (pub. 1988) edited by him. 1631

Weiner, James F. The Empty Space: Poetry, Space, and Being among the Foi of Papua New Guinea. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991. xiv + 218 pp. + maps, figures, musical scores and illustrations. Interpreting the Foi's self-poeticized life-world within a framework of cultural semiotics. A dense ethnography showing a depth of knowledge of the language to pick Foi verbal and conceptual nuances of space and its vibrant contents, and the imagined role of humans in the cosmos. Perhaps affected too much by Heideggerian hermeneutics (see 1620 above). 1632

Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar]. "Natives of Lake Kutubu, Papua." Oceania 11, 2 (1940): 121-157 + map and illustrations; 11, 3 (1941): 259-294 + figure and table; 11, 4 (1941): 374-401 + illustrations; 12, 1 (1941): 49-74 + illustration; 12, 2 (1941): 134154. [This series of reports also appears as Oceania Monograph, 6 [n.d.], and is conveniently reproduced in E. Schwimmer's edition of Williams' writings (see 1317).] An important general ethnography of the culture of the Kutubu peoples. On religion, Williams looks at magic, including the "punitive aspect of disease," beliefs about the place of the dead, feasts and ceremonies, and myths or stories. 1633

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Contact and Adjustment Phenomena 1634

Busse, Mark; Turner, Susan; and Araho, Nick. The People of Lake Kutubu and Kikori: Changing Meanings of Daily Life. Port Moresby: Papua New Guinea National Museum and Art Gallery, 1993. xii + 83 pp. + maps and illustrations. Largely on traditional lifeways of the Foi and Fasu people, with some consideration of Kikori villages. Chapter four covers longhouses and their symbolism; and chapter seven covers trade and exchange, marriage, and funerals. The authors want to point out that the peoples were already under the pressure of change before contact, yet perhaps doing so because the volume was prepared under the auspices of BP Exploration and Oil Search Ltd. 1635

Clark, Jeffrey [L.]. Steel to Stone: A Chronicle of Colonialism in the Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea. Ed. by Chris[topher] Ballard, and Michael Nihil!. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. xxx + 187 pp. + maps and illustrations. Posthumously published valuable field research, mainly on the Wiru people in social change and on colonial impact in the southern Pangia region. 1636

Kembo, Joseph. "Stories about the Erave Cargo Cult." Grassroots Research Bulletin 2, 2 (1992): 22-27 + illustration. A nice little grassroots survey of change from the time of traditional exchange systems and trade routes, through to the coming of the first missionaries and patrol officers, and on to more recent reactions to the colonial order. Many Erave (or southern Kewa) went off canned meat, a prime object of cargo expectation in some cultures, because the meat was full of tendons and parts of it looked like fingernails (an item used by sorcerers). 1637

Robin, Robert W. "An 'End of the World Revival' at Erave, Papua New Guinea." Yagl-Ambu 8,1 (1981): 52-66. The description of a southern Kewa millenarian cult of 1973-75, and of the hysteria which Robin claims was largely engendered by an expatriate missionary. Note: the author is known for his very anti-missionary stance. 1638

Strathern, Andrew [1.] . "Souvenirs de 'folie' chez les Wiru (Southern Highlands)." [Special Issue of] Journal de la Societe des Oceanistes 33, 56-57 (1977): 131-144. On oral traditions about isolated collective possession, sometimes trance-like behavior among the Wiru, and the hermeneutical difficulty presenting itself as to whether there were cultural precedents for the phenomena or whether they arose with contact. B. Juillerat, on introducing this article (and others) in the journal, decides for the latter (0112); Trompfs fieldwork led him to conclude for the former (0064).

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Survey

1639

Strathern, Andrew [J.]. A Line of Power. Social Science Paperbacks, 268. London: Tavistock Publications, 1984. vi + 170 pp. + tables. This little book is Strathern's attempt to wrestle with the vulgar Marxism he apparently encountered at the University of London. In his assessment of the Melpa and Wiru cultures (the latter, as a Southern Highland grouping, receiving slightly more attention), he argues for the functional integrity of choice to peoples rather than seeing the people as victims of socio-economic forces. The book is particularly interesting on the way inlanders react to missionaries; the Wiru, in hosting so many of them, tended to manipulate them in the context of continuing tribal power play.

Emergent Melanesian Christianity Schieffelin, Edward L. "The End of Traditional Music, Dance and Body Decoration in Bosavi, Papua New Guinea." In The Plight of the Peripheral People of Papua New Guinea. Vol. 1: The Inland Situation, by Robert Gordon, et al., 1-22 + map. Cultural Survival Occasional Paper, 7. Cambridge, Mass.: Cultural Survival Inc., 1981. [For preliminary version: Institute of P.N.G. Studies Discussion Paper, 30-32. Port Moresby: Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1978.] A short, punchy paper on the effects of evangelism - especially at the hands of Huli evangelists of what was then the Asia Pacific Christian Mission - on Kaluli ceremonial hunting lodges, mortuary customs, arts and drama. The author considers some of the evangelistic work that has been culturally destructive and a form of "evangelical intimidation" and dares to analyze Huli pastoral opposition to traditional rites as unbiblical. 1640

Schieffelin, Edward L. "Evangelical Rhetoric and the Transformation of Traditional Culture in Papua New Guinea." Comparative Studies in Society and History 23 (1981): 150-156. Important on the role of preaching in culture change. Indigenous preachers from the Gogodala region took mission talk of heaven and hell with intense seriousness, and, with their hyped-up preaching, played a crucial motivating role for conversion among the Kaluli. For an account more sympathetic to the Gogodala and Asia Pacific Christian Mission work in the Southern Highlands, see J. and M. Prince, A Church is Born (pub. 1991). 1641

Western Papuan Inland and Plateau Traditional 1642

Bonnemere, Pascale. Le pandanus rouge: corps, difj'erence des sexes et parente chez les Ankave-Anga (Papouasie-Nouvelle-

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Guinee). Chemins de I'Ethnologie. Paris, CNRS [=Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique] Editions; Maison des Sciences de I'Homme, 1996. 426 pp. + illustrations. Finely honed research on the sense of body and gender difference among an Anga (or Kukukuku) group, showing sensitive attention to the socio-religious place of women (see 0320). Brilliant on initiations at puberty and both male and female cults. More published research is expected. For some background, see 1. Bjerre, Last Cannibals (pub. 1956) on observations concerning smoking corpses, bodily mutilation in mourning, bone deposition, weaponry, etc. during a 1954 police expedition. 1643

Ernst, Thomas M. "Onabasulu Male Homosexuality : Cosmology, Affect and Prescribed Male Homosexual Activity among the Onabasulu of the Great Papuan Plateau." Oceania 62, 1 (1991): Ill. Shows how Onabasulu worldview requires the insemination of youths for their proper maturing, yet it is believed that each ejaculation is a step towards male physical decline. Special close relationships exist between older men and youths because of these practices, which Ernst does not consider to be "ritualized" (cf. 0106). 1644

Kelly, Raymond C. "Witchcraft and Sexual Relations: An Exploration in the Social and Semantic Implications of the Structure of Belief." In Man and Woman in the New Guinea Highlands, ed. by Paula Brown, and Georgeda Buchbinder, 36-53 + figure. American Washington, D.C: Anthropologist Special Publication, 8. American Anthropological Association, 1976. An excellent detailed study of Etoro beliefs in witchcraft and its potentially dangerous connection to sexual relations (including incest). The author explores a range of societal opposites which are bound to each other by specific reasoning. 1645

Knauft, Bruce M. Good Company and Violence: Sorcery and Social Action in a Lowland New Guinea Society. Studies in Melanesian Anthropology. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. x + 474 pp. + maps, tables, figures and illustrations An important book on sorcery in traditional Papua. Among the Gebusi (of the Strickland River region of the Western Province of Papua), the peculiar patterns of intra-societal Gebusi sorcery have been affected by Bedamini raiding and infiltration into Gebusi territory during pre-contact times. See also Knauft's articles on aesthetics and spirit mediumship (0107), and on Gebusi culture generally in T. Hays (ed.), Encyclopedia of World Cultures, Vol. 2: Oceania (pub. 1991). Knauft's fieldnotes on the Gebusi will soon be published. 1646

Nieuwenhuijsen, l.W. van, and Nieuwenhuijsen-Riedeman, C.H. van. "Eclipses as Omens of Death: The Socio-Religious Inter-

434

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pretation of a Cosmological Phenomenon among the Suki in South New Guinea." In Explorations in the Anthropology of Religion: Essays in Honour of Jan van Baal, ed. by W.E.A. van Beek, and l.H. Scherer, 112-120. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 74. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1975. A rare and important piece on beliefs about the significance of drastic "heavenly" changes for a Melanesian people, in this case a hinterland group. The Suki believed that eclipses are caused by wandering souls of the living that have thrown themselves on to the sun and the moon, and there are certain myths quoted by the authors legitimating this view . It remains a concern for given moieties to work out the identity of any soul involved in an eclipse. These beliefs are not well related to questions of group security among people who were raided by headhunters from the west. Shaw, R. Daniel. "Sarno Initiation: Its Context and Its Meaning." Journal of the Polynesian Society 91,3 (1982): 417-434 + tables. An article concentrating on the kandila initiation ceremony of the Sarno, analyzing its stages, its symbolism, and its connection with social and political relationships. The substance of this article becomes crucial for his monograph (next entry). 1647

Shaw, R. Daniel. Kandila: Sarno Ceremonialism and Interpersonal Relationships. Ann Arbor, Mich .: University of Michigan Press, 1990. 227 pp. + maps, tables, figures and illustrations. Important for its careful description of a Papuan cosmography: humans safely in their hamlets, the bush dominated by spirits, and changes constantly occuring in relation to enemy and allied groups. Shaw perceptively shows intermarriage between groups, cooperation between allies in initiations, and gender relations are intimately bound up with the Sarno view of the cosmos. Humans live out their lives between this finite and the other, infinite world that the ancestors have entered - but in the finite world spirit power can be used for good or ill between humans. The book is also very useful on Sarno longdistance trading, and on cannibalism apparently lacking a religious rationale. Art, including the finely carved and decorated Sarno initiation arrows, is carefully considered. 1648

1649

S0rum, Arve. "In Search of the Lost Soul: Bedamini Spirit Seances and Curing Rites." Oceania 50,4 (1980): 273-296. A study on a Bedamini curing ritual, using a symbolism framework which attempts to extrapolate conclusions about a society's general ideology. The ritual is seen to be used in other contexts than curing, and this leads to a detailed description of witchcraft beliefs.

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Contact and Adjustment Phenomena Anderson, James L. Cannibal: A Photographic Audacity. Sydney: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1970. 112 pp. + maps and illustrations. On patrolling into the Nomad River and Biami culture areas. Although the author-photographer is intensely interested in taking pictures of signs of cannibalism (then still practiced in the area), the text and photographs are strongest on encounters between indigenes and outsiders. On prior missionary contact with the Biami, see the booklet by S. Horne, Them Also (pub. 1968). 1650

D'Albertis, L[iugi] M[arie]. Journal of the Expedition for the Exploration of the Fly River. Trans. by George Bennett. Sydney: Frederick White, 1877.43 pp. + [fold-out] map and table. A famous diary account of contact situations along the Fly River, with the explorer d'Albertis relating something of the behavior of indigenes to his intrusive journey well beyond coastal areas. Somewhat romantically elaborated in his New Guinea: What I Did and What I Saw (2 Vols., pub. 1881; Italian original pub. 1880). Trustworthy materials on religious life are few and far between, but worth a scholarly sifting, with classic materials on contact situations. See also J. Goode on The Rape of the Fly (pub. 1977). 1651

Hides, J[ack] G[ordon] . Papuan Wonderland. London: Blackie & Son, 1936. xx + 204 pp. + map and illustrations. An autobiographical account of explorations up on to the Papuan plateau and on into the Southern Highlands . Most interesting on contact with the Etoro, Injigale, and Tarifuroro. 1652

Knauft, Bruce M. Exchanging the Past: A Rainforest World Before and After. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. x + 303 pp. + map, figures and illustrations. Evaluates the cultural path of the Gebusi, as the author's own field studies of the early 1980s and late 1990s reveal. The dramatic changes that have occurred are supposedly rooted in the growing disjunction of actual living conditions and hopes for the future. Channelled by a Christian vision of modern life, the most notable adaptations are seen in the demise of the indigenous spirit world; the shift of retribution against sorcerers and other covert evil-doers to the Second Coming; and the acceptance of modern education and part-resettlement at the local administrative center. 1653

1654

Scherle, Fred. "Five Lutherans and 60,000 Kukukukus." Pts. 1-3 . Journal of the Morobe District Historical Society 4, 1 (1977): 3640; 4, 2 (1977): 40-46; 4, 3 (1977): 47-53. Especially on the Lutheran Menyamya expedition of Harold Freund and Fred Scherle, and especially interesting on a contact situation. Further west at Kenja in Kukukuku (or Anga[nen]) country, the two sought to build a house for their evangelist helper, but an old leader spoke of an ancestral legend predicting and

436

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cautioning about whitemen who would come to introduce a strange God. For Seventh-day Adventist mission work among the Anga, see W. Scragg, Kukukuku Walkabout and Other Stories (pub. 1963). "Every Person a Shaman: The Use of Shaw, R. Daniel. Supernatural Power among the Sarno of Papua New Guinea." Missiology 9, 3 (1981): 359-365. Every Sarno man is a shaman in the sense of participating in dance, seance and initiation to provide protection against enemies. Shifts to Christianity have been marked by points at which individuals and families seek the new God's protection. 1655

Emergent Melanesian Christianity 1656

Martin, Grahame C. Headhunter: The Story of Gesi, One of the Notorious Suki Headhunters, and the Influence of the Lord Jesus Christ upon Him. 2nd ed. Sydney: ANZEA Publishers, 1982. 214 pp. + maps and illustrations. A popular study on the religion, culture, and history of the Suki people. The author is a missionary anthropologist who has done research on the Suki and Keraki (Keraakie) people of the Western Province, and plots stages in socioreligious change, including local initiatives to use mission talk to turn away from headhunting. Shaw, R . Daniel. From Longhouse to Village: Sarno Social Change. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology Series. Fort Worth , Tex .: Harcourt Brace College Publishers , 1996. xii + 148 pp. + maps, tables and illustrations. A rare and excellent ethnohistorical monument, tracing the changes in a culture from contact to the present. Chapter seven deals with journeying from "shaman to pastor," but almost all others impinge on religious issues as well, including an earlier one on life in the longhouse, and the last on adaptation and survival under the "new order." 1657

Central Papuan Highlands Traditional 1658

Dupeyrat, Andre. Festive Papua. Trans. from the French by Erik de Mauny . London: Staples Press, 1955. 162 pp. + map, musical scores and illustrations. This ethnography derives from the unpublished 1937-39 manuscript of Sacred Heart Father P. Fastre's 'Moeurs et Coutumes Foujougheses' (see 1660), but deals mainly with the western Fuyughe festival known as gab(e). In this part of the area the festivals are extensive and combine celebrations of different events and stages in the life-cycle, such as initiation, marriage, and aging. The

Southern and Papuan Highlands

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study is especially good on the magical preparations made for garden fertility leading up to gab. Dupeyrat, Andre. Papua: Beasts and Men. Trans. from the French by Michael Heron. London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1963. 188 pp. + illustrations. One of the more useful studies about the culturally perceived relationship between a Melanesian people, in this case the Fuyughe, and the animal world. Intriguing on Fuyughe attitudes to snakes: usually not killed, they are taken to embody spirits, and large pythons on the mountain heights are typically associated with the sila, or place spirit, of any tribe's territory. 1659

Fastre, Paul. Manners and Customs of the Fuyuges. Trans. from the French by M[arjorie] Flower, and E. Chariot. Port Moresby: By the Translators, [early 1980s]. 444 pp. [Only sighted on microfiche, but a few hard copies in existence.] Reproduced from the 1973 typescript translation of Fastres 1937-39 manuscript, the most authoritative account of the behavior patterns and beliefs of the Fuyughe. A product of the sheer weight of experience and great linguistic erudition (Fastre was the main contributor to the still unpublished Fuyughe dictionary). Dupeyrat relied heavily on this work (cf. 1658). Fastre is best available through the University of California, San Diego, Melanesian Studies Resource Center. 1660

1661

Gordon, Robert. "Misunderstanding Violence in the Highlands." Melanesian Law Journal 5, 2 (1977): 309-316. Although this is a review article of two books, one by M. Meggitt on the Enga (see 1126) and the other by R. Hallpike on the Tauade (see next entry), it is more important as a review of the latter work. For Gordon, Hallpike is more sophisticated and complex in grasping the nature of violence than Meggitt, and more insightful about the relationships between religion and violence. However, he finds Hallpike's portrait of the Tauade "totally lacking in human compassion," and "intellectually defecating" on their apparent irrationalism. Cf. also Trompf (0065). Hallpike, C[hristopher] R[obert]. Bloodshed and Vengeance in the Papuan Mountains: The Generation of Conflict in Tauade Society. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977. xx + 317 pp. + maps, figures, tables and illustrations. Hallpike did not like the Tauade of the Papuan highlands and they, in turn, did not like him either. He describes them as a Heraclitean society in the grip of passion that leads to both intra-tribal and inter-tribal violence. Thus he leaves no room for an analysis of the breakdown of tradition through so-called pacification and the removal of structured aggression. The relationship between religion (culture heroes, totems, and spirits) and patterns of violence is interesting but flawed because of the previously mentioned bias. 1662

438

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Hirsch, Eric. "The 'Holding Together' of Ritual : Ancestrality and Achievement in the Papuan Highlands." In Cosmos and Society in Oceania, ed. by Daniel de Coppet, and Andre Iteanu, 213-233. Explorations in Anthropology. Oxford: Berg, 1995. On the sense of compulsion among the Fuyughe to perform the gab ceremonies, said to conduct the group into a state of timeless transcendence. The role of dance in gab and the spirit tracks associated with them have been clarified in a 1993 University of Sydney doctoral thesis by D. Seehofer-Guise, in two volumes. 1663

1664

McArthur, [A.] Margaret. "Men and Spirits in the Kunimaipa Valley." In Anthropology in Oceania: Essays Presented to Ian Hogbin, ed. by L[ester] R[ichard] Hiatt, and C[handra] Jayawardena, 155-189. Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1971. Distilling part of her 1961 Australian National University doctorate on the Kunimaipa (see next entry). Inter alia McArthur considers the importance of notions about the ancestors for keeping up revenge syndromes, of place spirits essential for territorial protection and local generativeness, and of a proper disposal of the dead to avoid ghostly vengeance. 1665

McArthur, A. Margaret. The Curbing of Anarchy in Kunimaipa Society. Ed. by Douglas [Llewellyn] Oliver. Oceania Monographs, 49. Sydney: University of Sydney, 2000. xii + 232 pp. + map, tables, figures, and illustrations. The editing of the author's important doctoral work just before she died (Oliver and McArthur being married), with the previously listed item being added as an appendix. Relevant topics covered include a historical background, social relations, life-cycle, leadership, ceremonies and feasting, reciprocity and war, handling conflict, and shame. McArthur argues that payback "permeated Kunimaipa social life and thought." 1666

Mona, Daniel. "My Chiefly Initiation in Goilala." Grassroots Research Bulletin 1,2 (1991): 33-37 . A rare personal reflection of a Papuan highland Tauade chief (from near the township of Tapini). Mona's installation was coupled with an initiation ceremony for other youths. The focus is on what was disclosed by the elders to him in particular as a young chief and the initiates in general - about land, behavior expectation, marriage, and the power of a chiefs name. Interesting Murray, J. H[ubert] P. "The Utame of Mafulu: Annual Investigations by Missionaries of the Sacred Heart." Report: Territory of Papua (1937-38): 33-35. A short official report on the findings of P. Fastre (1660) and A. Dupeyrat (1658) on the Fuyughe (or Mafulu) beliefs about utame, or "the singular member among each 'species of creatures'" and human groups without which they could not survive. See also Murray's Papua of Today (pub. 1925) for 1667

Southern and Papuan Highlands

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related materials, early photographs, maps, etc.; and for a biography, F. West, Hubert Murray: The Australian Pro-Consul (pub. 1968). 1668

Williamson, Robert W[ood]. The Mafulu: Mountain People of British New Guinea. London: Macmillan and Co., 1912. xxiii + 364 pp. + [fold-out] map, tables and illustrations. An old, not very adequate general ethnography on the Fuyughe (or Mafulu), far outclassed by P. Fastre (1660) because of inadequate linguistic backing. Middle chapters are on the gab festival and other ceremonies, and later ones on war, explanations of illness and death, and on religion generally. Chapter nineteen considers the Papuan hinterland Kuni .

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena 1669

Hides, Hack] G[ordon]. Through Wildest Papua. London: Blackie & Son, 1935. x + 165 pp. + map and illustrations. The book deals with two of Hides' patrols, one into the Papuan highlands, and the other beyond into New Guinea. While it provides valuable concerning onthe-spot information about contact altercations, it does not really reveal how much Hides resorted to violent measures (cf. J. Sinclair, The Outside Man, pub. 1969). Also of use, on Hides as companion to explorer Ivan Champion, see Sinclair, Last Frontiers (pub. 1988). 1670

Hirsch, Eric. "Between Mission and Market: Events and Images in a Melanesian Society." Man New Series 29,3 (1994): 689-711. Considers how two events, the arrival (and continuing presence) of the missionaries and the creation of a market economy, have been apprehended by the Fuyughe. Each of these events has been conceptualized out of images of centeredness in Fuyughe ritual. 1671

Humphries, W[ilfred] R[ichard]. Patrolling in Papua. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1923. 287 pp. + [fold-out] map and illustrations. Explorations in the Mambare River region, proceeding thence among the Papuan mountain people of the Kunimaipa and further west in the Papuan mountains . Finishes with a look at effects of contact through mission presence there, and also at the Roro/Mekeo mission on the coast. Rare photographs are to be noted. Trompf, Garry [Winston]. '''Bilalaf.'' In Prophets of Melanesia : Six Essays, ed. by Garry [Winston] Trompf, 12-64 + maps and illustrations. 3rd ed. Port Moresby and Suva: Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, and Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1986. The biography of a Fuyughe, Ona Asi, who called himself Bilalaf when possessed by a place spirit (connected with a snake) . The article discusses his ("pre-contact") premonitions of the whites' intrusion, his defense of his people 1672

440

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against missionary encroachment, and his creation of a "cult following" - first to multiply local wealth and then, after being imprisoned on Yule Island off the Papuan coast, to call upon the assistance of the ancestors, who were traditionally not interested in Fuyughe affairs . Note also references to the little known Seragi and Zia cultures.

Emergent Melanesian Christianity 1673

Dupeyrat, Andre. Mitsinari: Twenty-One Years among the Papuans. Trans. from the French by Erik de Mauny, and Denyse re Mauny. London: Staples Press, 1954. 256 pp. + maps and illustrations. [Alternatively titled Savage Papua. New York: Dutton, 1954.] At times a homely traveler's guide to the Fuyughe and mission work among them , yet carrying interesting anthropological observations. There are stories about the Papuans' reactions to the mission presence, as well as some surprising details about traditional behavior. The Fuyughe hold that the sorcerer, for example, can turn cassowary. Among the western Fuyughe, at least, there was the occasional procedure of sending the very old people to a neighboring village, knowing that they would be clubbed to death on the way and subsequently eaten at a feast (all part of an ongoing payback system!) The story of Ivolo Keleto, the catechist martyr, is briefly told. Dupeyrat wrote a more serious history of the Sacred Heart Mission to Papua, Papouasie (1446), though it has been supplanted by the work of G. Delbos (see 1444). 1674

Dupeyrat, Andre. Briseurs de lance chez les Papous {vies de peres Fastre et Bachelier et dufrere Paul}. Paris: Albin Michel, 1964. 270 pp. + map and illustrations. A useful account of how the Sacred Heart Mission expanded into the hinterland and highlands of Papua and how, after initially being robbed and harrassed, the missionaries under Alain de Boismenu were able to gain the confidence of the inland groups. Missionary behavior when compared to that of miners counted for much of this trust that resulted in crucial peacemaking ceremonies through the burning of spears by enemy tribes especially among the Fuyughe, but the Mekeo and Kuni as well. 1675

Fastre, Paul. Les origines de la Mission de la Papouasie, Mission de Notre Dame du Sacre-Coeur. Chateauroux: Mission de Notre Dame du Sacre-Coeur, Imprimerie Centrale, 1933. 40 pp. A small but invaluable account of the Sacred Heart Mission to the Papuans, paying most attention to opening up Fuyughe country, where Fastre was priest and ethnographer. The booklet provides a framework for A. Dupeyrat's Papouasie (1446) and Mitsinari (1673) .

Southern and Papuan Highlands

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1676

Pineau, Andre. Marie-Therese Noblet, servante de NotreSeigneur en Papouasie (1889-1930). 2nd ed. Issoudun: Archiconfrerie de N.D. du Sacre Coeur, 1938. 447 pp. On the famous Carmelite mystic, under investigation for sainthood, and inspirer of Papua New Guinean Carmelites in seclusion. Most of her crucial mystical experiences were at Fame in western Fuyughe country. For more critical work about her, see P. Giscard, Mystique ou hysterie (pub. 1953). There is a small biography by A. Dupeyrat (pub. 1937 in English, and 1939 in French), and a more recent study by M. Winowski, Le scandale de la croix (pub. 1973). Pineau is included here because he has some interest in her effects on local people. 1677

Saunders, Garry. Bert Brown of Papua. London: Michael Joseph, 1965. 208 pp. + maps and illustrations. A popular though sensible biography of a missionary perhaps better known for his ethnographic and linguistic study of the Toaripi people in the Gulf (cf., e.g., 1381-2) but the center-piece of this book is Brown taking the London Missionary Society work into the Papuan highlands - to Kunimaipa country.

East Papuan Highlands Traditional 1678

Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar]. "The Bornbill Feather in the Abau District." Annual Report: Territory of Papua (1935-1936): 19-20. On the "homicidal emblem" of the Binahari (Nemea). Consisting of the hornbill tail-feather, the emblem was not worn by the slayer himself but by someone chosen by him for the task - thus he shifted the risk of vengeance against him by the victim's kin to the "hornbill-man." For background, C. Wurth in the same report series (pub. 1913).

Contact and Adjustment Phenomena 1679

Cruttwell, Norman [E.G.]. "Gindat's Temple." In New Religious Movements in Melanesia, ed. by Carl [E.] Loeliger, and Garry [Winston] Trompf, 98-100. Suva [and Port Moresby]: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, and University of Papua New Guinea, 1985. On a small 1954 "cult" surrounding the protective "temple" built by Gindat in the Daga Valley. Gindat claimed Jesus' return would be accompanied by a flood destroying the surrounding world - apart from his safe haven. An anecdotal approach from the one clergy who had to stop the cult.

1680

Cruttwell, Norman [E.G.]. "The 'Peroveta' Cult in the Daga." In New Religious Movements in Melanesia, ed. by Carl [E.] Loeliger, and Garry [Winston] Trompf, 101-105. Suva [and Port Moresby]:

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Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, and University of Papua New Guinea, 1985. An all-too brief picture of an isolated but not unexpansive cargo movement, written by an Anglican clerical botanist. Expectations of cargo arriving with a returning Jesus and the ancestors was accompanied by the building of arks on many mountain tops to receive the blessing. Cruttwell tells how the Anglican Mission handled the affair without an attempt to understand local motivations. 1681

Williams, F[rancis] E[dgar]. "Mission Influence amongst the Keveri of South-East Papua." Oceania 15,2 (1944): 89-141 + map. Here Williams notes, with interest and admiration, how the Kwato missionaries were able to bring the two fiery hinterland/highland eastern Papuan tribes of Dorevaidi (or Doriaidi) and Keveri into a pacified situation. Williams, in the aftermath, is able to do some ethnographic work of interest to students of religion, the article turning out to be also important on traditional beliefs.

Emergent Melanesian Christianity 1682

Cruttwell, Norman E.G. "A Bishop in 'Shangri-la'." [Special Report of] New Guinea Mission (1952): 3-6. On the entrance of Bishop David Hand into the far eastern Papuan highland valley of the Daga. The holy stone of Gwatgage, where traditional leaders gave directives, became the site for a new church of St. Peter ("the Rock"). Rare. 1683

Wetherell, David. "Monument to a Missionary: C.W. Abel and the Keveri of Papua." Journal of Pacific History 8 (1973): 30-48. Supplements F. Williams on how the Kwato missionaries entered the volatile Keveri region (see 1681), but is more on missionary perceptions of what they were doing to alleviate tensions between coastal followers of the Kwato Mission in the Abau area and warriors of the Keveri culture in the mountains .

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