Sources of stress, coping strategies and counselling needs, among university students In Kingdom ...

Sourcesof stress,coping strategiesand counselling needs,among university studentsIn Kingdom of Bahrain An Identification Study

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

By Amani A. Al Sheerawi PsychologyDepartment,Brunel University

July 2005

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Abstract The aim of this study was: (1) to identify the main sourcesof stressthat affect students' level of stress, students'coping strategiesand their counsellingneeds. (2) To identify the relationship between sourcesof stress and coping strategies.(3) The effect of gender and Locality on sourcesof stress,level of stress,coping strategiesand counsellingneeds.

This studyutilisedbothquantitativeandqualitativeresearch methods. Two hundred university students, representedby 80 female and 120 males, completed a constructed and standardised sources of stress questionnaire. A constructed and standardisedquestionnairewas usedto measurestudents'needsfor counselling.In addition, a translated and standardisedCoping Strategies questionnaireby Lazarus and Folkman (1988) was usedto measurethe types of coping strategiesusedby the students.A translated standardisedPerceivedStressquestionnaireby Cohen et at (1983) was usedto measurethe level of stress.Reliability analysis revealed that the overall instrument demonstratedhigh reliability and validity. Findings revealed the different levels of importance that each sourceof stress and coping strategy was perceived to have had on students, this result indicated that students identified time managementas the most frequent sourcesof stress,followed by religious and ethical, then the academic domains. The family domain was consideredto be the source of least stressexperiencedby university students.In addition, the coping strategies reported to be used most by these students is accepting responsibility followed by positive reappraisal, then problem solving. Escape avoidance and distancing strategies were reported as less used strategies. It was found that financial issues had a significant effect on social support and problem solving coping strategies. Religion had a significant effect on the strategy of accepting responsibilities. Personal issues had a significant effect on the escapeavoidance strategy. While, academic stress,in particular, hasa significant effect on several coping strategies. Gender had a significant effect on level of stress from two sources of stress:Religious /Ethical and Personalstress, and one coping strategy: Escapeavoidance.Femalesreported higher levels of stress, higher levels of sources of stress, and higher reported coping strategy usethan males.Locality had a significant effect on counsellingneeds;Non- Homestudents experience more need for counselling than Home- students. Locality had a

significant effect on.

The mean use of coping strategies was greater for non- home

students than Home- students. The results from this study suggestthat university students do experience a significant level of stressful life events. Therefore, it is important that counsellors and teachers address the impact of stressful life events on a university student's well being. Conducting ongoing assessments of the level of stress experienced by university students might help counsellors or teachers intervene earlier and hence target better services to the population of students. Also, considering the unique sources for minority students, counsellors or teachers more appropriately should target unique interventions to meet their needs. The study also provides information that could help to reduce stress among university setting as it might be used as a reference point for counsellors, teachers, researcher when investigating university students stress and coping experience in Kingdom of Bahrain or any other Arabic country. The current constructed stress sources and counselling needs questionnaire could be also used by the researcher interested in this area.

Acknowledgement My thanks and praise to God for providing me with strength and patience to complete this thesis. I would like to express my great gratitude and appreciationto my supervisorDr-Stanley Gaienes for his patience, understanding,professional guidance and his usual smile that easedany difficulty. I would also like to thank my secondsupervisorDr. Chris Longman for his great supportand encouragement.Also, many thanksto our psychologydepartment and to the sweethelpful coordinatorLiz Ackroyd. I am deeply indebted to university of Bahrain for granting me this scholarshipopportunity to finish my Phd. Also, many thanks to the head of Al -Ahlia Unversity and the head of Arab Open University and all staff membersat both universities who helped me through the data collection process.I would like to thank my participants,both males and females,for their generosity and great patient, on completing the questionnaire.Without your contribution this study would not exist. Also, warm gratitudeto my sincere studentTahani who shared every moment on my journey with her lovely messagesandthoughts. My very special appreciation goes to my bests friend support and prays Dr.Basma AlBahranaand Elham Al- Ainsari ; my dearbest friend Sarafor your excellent guidanceand supportthrough the good and difficult times. My appreciation for Professor.Kairallah, your encouragementshall not be forgotten. In addition, many thanks to Dr. Tawfeeg A. al-Manam and for all my colleagues in psychology departmentin Universty of Bahrain for all their encouragementand support. Furthermore, my thanks to my flatmate; Karima, Fahima,Ebtisam and all Arab studentin Brunel University who sharedwith me this journey. Certainly, this project would be inconceivablewithout the supportof the "homesfront" my fathers', mothers' and brothers' (Tariq and Ahmed) patience,encouragement,and sacrifices this work would not havebeenstarted,let alone completed.

I DEDICATE THIS WORK TO My Mother and Father Who give me love and support...

Table of Continents Chapter One The ResearchLabyrinth

-A Contextual Russian Doll ......................1

1.1 Background of study 1 .......................................................................................... 1.2 Statement of the Problem 1.3 Study Aims

3 ..................................................................................

6 ..........................................................................................................

1.4 Researchvariables

6 .............................................................................................

1.5 Rationale for study 7 ............................................................................................. 1.6 Background about the kingdom of Bahrain 9 .................................................... 2.8 Research Questions 10 .......................................................................................... 2.10 ResearchHypotheses 11 ..................................................................................... 1.7 Organization of Study 13 ...................................................................................... Chapter

Two:

The Emergence

and Essence of the Stress and coping

14 strategies ....................»...................................................................................... 2.1Introduction...................................................................................................... 14 2.2 Definition and disputation 14 ............................................................................... 2.3 Theories of stress 16 .............................................................................................. 2.4 Responsesto Stress 21 .......................................................................................... 2.4.1 Physiological responses 22 ...................................................................................... 2.4.2 Psychological Response 23 ..................................................................................... 2.5 Demographic variables and stress 25 .................................................................. 2.5.1 Gender and Stress 25 .............................................................................................. 2.5.2. Culture and Stress 26 ............................................................................................. I

2.5.3 Stress and Academic level

27 .................................................................................

2.6 Sources of stress (stressors)and levels of stress among University students28 2.7 Theories of Coping Strategies 30 ......................................................................... 2.7.1. University students and coping strategies 31 ....................................................... 2.8 Summary

32 ...........................................................................................................

33 Chapter three: The Emergence and Essence of counselling needs .......... 33 3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 33 3.2 Students' Counselling Needs ........................................................................... 34 3.3 Definition of Counselling ................................................................................ 3.4 The Role of Counselling Services in Higher Education

35 ................................

3.5University Students and counselling needs 36 ..................................................... 37 3.6 Counselling in Islamic context ........................................................................ 37 3.6.1 Man in the Islamic viewpoint ............................................................................ 3.6.2 Bahraini community attitudes towards psychology and counselling............39 3.6.3 Person-Centred approach

40 .................................................................................

41 3.6.4 Rogerian Ideas and basic beliefs in Islam ........................................................ 3.7 Summary

44 ...........................................................................................................

Chapter Four Methodology

45 ............................................................................

45 4.1Introduction...................................................................................................... 4.2 ResearchMethodology

45 ....................................................................................

4.3 Quantitative inquiry (Study 1)

50 ........................................................................

4.3.1 Rationale for using a Questionnaire 51 ................................................................. 4.3.2 Constructing the questionnaire

52 ........................................................................

II

4.3.3 Questionnaire procedures 53 ................................................................................. 4.4 Exploratory Study 54 ............................................................................................ 4.5Constructing questionnaire

58 ..............................................................................

4.5.1 Questionnaire Scale 59 ........................................................................................... 4.5.2Translation of instruments into Arabic 4.5.3 Reliability

60 ............................................................

61 .......................................................................................................

4.5.4 Validity of questionnaire 61 .............................................................................. 4.6 Questionnaire Testing 62 ...................................................................................... 62 4.6.1 Pilot Study ........................................................................................................... 63 4.6.2 Pilot result ........................................................................................................... 69 4.7Main Study Sample ........................................................................................... 4.7.1 Sampling method

69 ...............................................................................................

69 4.7.2 Sampling size...................................................................................................... 70 4.7.3 Questionnaire Distributions and Procedure .................................................... 4.7.4 Main sample Reliability (Coefficients of Internal Consistency) 71 .................... 4.7.5 Validity (Construct Validity)

4.8Qualitative inquiry (study 2)

72 ............................................................................

73 ............................................................................

4.8.1 The semi-structured interview 4.8.2 Interview Sample

75 ..........................................................................

77 ...............................................................................................

4.8.3 Validity and reliability 77 ....................................................................................... 4.9 Documents

81 ........................................................................................................

4.10 Statistical analysis

82 ..........................................................................................

4.11 Ethical issues 82 ................................................................................................... 4.12 Summary

83 ......................................................................................................... III

Chapter Five Result

5.1 Introduction

84 .........................................................................................

84 ......................................................................................................

5.2 Descriptive Analysis

84 .........................................................................................

5.3 Data Analysis and Results

86 ...............................................................................

5.3.1 Research Question 1: What do university students in Kingdom of Bahrain 86 perceive to be the main sources of stress?........................................................................ 5.3.2 Question 2: What strategies do university students in Bahrain use to cope with 89 or reduce their stress? ........................................................................................................ 5.3.3 Research Question 3: What is the stress level of university students in Bahrain? 92 ............................................................................................................................................... 5.3.4 Research Question 4: Do university students in Bahrain perceive a need for 93 counselling? ......................................................................................................................... 5.3.5 Research Question 5: Is there a relationship between sources of stress, levels of 94 stress, managing stress and counselling needs?............................................................... 5.3.6 Research Question 6: What sources of stress affect levels of stress, counselling 96 needsand coping strategies?.............................................................................................. 5.3.7 Question 7: How do demographic characteristics (gender and locality) relate to: Sources of stress, Stress levels, Counselling needsand Coping strategies? 99 ...................

5.6 Section2: Secondary results

105 ..........................................................................

5.6.1 Sourcesof stress regarding Gender 105 ................................................................ 5.6.2 Sourcesof stress regard Locality 109 .................................................................... 5.7 Students Interview

120 .........................................................................................

IV

5.7.1 Introduction

120 .....................................................................................................

5.7.2 Conduct of interviews 121 ...................................................................................... 5.7.3 Interview Analysis 5.7.4 Procedure

121 ............................................................................................

122 ..........................................................................................................

5.8 Interview finding

123 ............................................................................................

5.8.1 Aspects of stress

123 .........................................................................................

123 5.8.2 Sourcesof stress ............................................................................................... 124 5.8.3 Experience of stress .......................................................................................... 5.8.4 Managing stress 125 ................................................................................................ 5.8.4 Counselling Needs 125 ............................................................................................ 5.8.5 Role of the Counselling service 5.9 Summary

126 .......................................................................

127 .........................................................................................................

129 Chapter Six Discussionand Recommendations .........................................

6.1 Introduction

129 ....................................................................................................

6.2 Discussions 129 ...................................................................................................... 6.3 Level of Stress and Counselling Needs 130 ......................................................... 132 6.4 Sources of Stress ............................................................................................. 6.5 Coping Strategies

134 ...........................................................................................

6.6 Level of stress, sources of stress and coping strategies relationship 135 ......... 6.7 Demographic differences 136 ............................................................................... 6.8 Limitations of the Study 140 ................................................................................ 6.9 Contribution

141 ................................................................................................... V

6.10 Recommendations 142 ........................................................................................ 6.11 Suggestionsfor Further Studies and Research 144 ......................................... 6.12 Conclusion

146 ....................................................................................................

References 148 .......................................................................................................

APPENDICES ................................................................................................ 159 160 APPENDIX A ................................................................................................. APPENDIX B

161 ..................................................................................................

APPENDIX

C

162 .................................................................................................

APPENDIX D

163 .................................................................................................

APPENDIX E

164 ..................................................................................................

165 APPENDIX F ..................................................................................................

List of Table Table 4.1 Exploratory study: Sourcesof stress (N-45) 56 .................................................... Table 4.2: Exploratory study: Sources of Stress among students- Female (N=25 )......57 Table 4.3: Exploratory study: Sources of Stress among student-Male (n = 20)............58 Table 4.4 Pilot study : Reliability of questionnaire parts 64 ................................................ Table 4.5 Pilot study: Sourcesof students' stress (N=20) 64 ................................................ Table 4.6 Pilot study: Sources of student stress 65 -Male (N=10)....................................... vi

Table 4.7 Pilot study: Sourcesof student stress Female (N=10) 65 ..................................... Table 4.8 Pilot study: Levels of students' stress and counselling needs(N=20)............66 Table 4.9 Pilot study: Levels of students' stress and counselling needs- Male (N=10). 66 Table 4.10 Pilot study: Levels of students' stress and counselling needsFemale (N=10) 67

.......................................................................................................................................

Table 4.11 Pilot study: University students' coping rank (N=10) .....................

67 .....

Table 4.12 Pilot study: Coping Rank among university male students (N=10) 68 ............ Table 4.13 Pilot study: Coping Rank among university female students (N=10) 68 ......... Table 4.14 Main study: Questionnaire variables reliability among the entire sample.71 Table 4.15 Main study: Reliability among different Sourcesof stress domains...........72 Table 5.1 Sample broken down by gender and locality 85 ................................................... Table 5.2 Main sources of stress experienced by students in two Bahrain universities (N=200) 86 ......................................................................................................................... Table 5.3 Mean significant differences between sources of stress, using 87 paired sample t- test.................................................................................................... Table 5.4 Main coping strategies used by students (n=200) 89 ............................................ Table 5.5 Coping strategies paired t-test significant differences

90 ....................................

Table 5.6 Level of stress among students (female and male) using one sample t-tests 92 analysis......................................................................................................................... Table 5.7 show the significance of counselling needs of students, using one-sample ttest analysis.................................................................................................................. 93 Table 5.8 Correlation between sources of stress,levels of stress, managing stress and 94 counselling needs......................................................................................................... Table 5.9 Significant effect of sources of stress on level of stress 96 ................................... Table 5.10 Significant effect of sources of stress on counselling needs 96 .......................... VII

Table 5.11 Significant effect of sourcesof stress on coping strategies (divided into 8 97 sub tables representing every each strategy separately) ......................................... Table 5.12a Effect of gender and locality using multivariate tests of between-subjects 99 effects analysis............................................................................................................. Table 5.12b Effect of gender using multivariate tests of between-subjectseffects 100 analysis....................................................................................................................... Table 5.12c Effect of locality using multivariate tests of between-subjectseffects 100 analysis....................................................................................................................... Table 5.12d Effect of gender and locality using multivariate tests of between-subjects 101 effects analysis........................................................................................................... 103 Table 5.13 Sources of stress means cross gender and locality ...................................... 104 Table 5.14 Coping strategies means cross gender and locality ..................................... 105 Table 5.15 Sources of by gender (male and female) ...................................................... Table 5.16 Sourcesof stress paired significant differences among male students, 106 using one sample West.............................................................................................. Table 5.17 Sourcesof stress paired significant differences among female students, 108 using one sample t-test for ........................................................................................ Table 5.18 Mean Sources of stress main by locality

109 .....................................................

110 Table 5.19 Main coping strategies used by Gender ....................................................... Table 5.20 Coping strategies paired significant. t-test differences considering 111 Gender(Male) variable .......................................................................................... Table 5.21 Coping strategies paired significance T. Test differences considering Gender(Female) variable 113 ........................................................................................ Table 5.23 Main coping strategies used by locality 114 ......................................................

VIII

Table 5.25 ShowsCoping strategies paired significance T. Test differences considering Locality variable (Home- Students) 115 ........................................................................ Table 5.26 Shows Coping strategies paired significance T. Test differences considering Locality variable (Non- Home Students) 116 ............................................................... Table 5.27 Significance level of stress among female and male students using one 117 paired one paired sample t-tests .............................................................................. Table 5.28 Significance level of stress among Home- and non Home- students by 118 using one paired sample t- test................................................................................. Table 5.29 Significance level of counselling needsfor students using one sample t-test 119 considering Gender................................................................................................... Table 5.30 Significance level of counselling needsfor students, using one sample t-test 119 considering locality (Home- and non-Home- students)......................................... Table 5.31 sample categories:

120 ..........................................................................................

IX

List of Figure Figure 2.1. Group 1: Stimulus- Based theory of stress. Stressoccurs as a stimulus... 17 Fig 2.2 Group 2 theory: Response-Basedtheory of stress. Stress occurs as a response. 18 ....................................................................................................................................... 20 Fig 2.3 Intreaction group .................................................................................................... 48 Figure 4.1 Research Design ................................................................................................

X

Chapter One The ResearchLabyrinth -A Contextual Russian Doll

1.1 Background of study This study investigatesthe social and emotional issuesthat concern university studentsin universities in the Kingdom of Bahrain, particularly the stressesthesecause,and students' methodsof coping with them. Researchhas long recognisedthe nature of stressful role on university setting (Shields, 2001). Some researchershave indicated that university studentsmay be more prone to suffering from stressas a result of having psychologicalproblemsthan their peerswho do not attend university (Todd et al., 1997;Tyrrell, 1993). A university can be viewed as a distinctive socio-cultural systemthat containsa diversity of new experiencesfor students stimulate stress(Halamandaris,1995; Tisdall, 2001). Whereas,there are many transitions in an individual's lifetime; for many studentsentering university, this is the major transition in their lives. Indeed,the transition from high school to university can be seenas a complex life event for studentssince they encountera new, stressful environment (Fisher, 1994; Ross et al., 1999) and face particular issues,such as dealing with academic pressure,developing new interpersonal relationships, organising their time, and managing their personal finances. Each one of these issues demandsa degreeof adjustment. In fact, the numbersof stressorsare increasing.As we begin a new century, university students worldwide are challengedby the vast amount of knowledge available, which demands a high level of ability in sorting, evaluating and assembling (Simons et al., 2002). Most studentswill copewith all thesechallenges,but somefind that

1

they are issues,which have becomestressfulproblems (Fisher, 1994; Michie, 1998; Misra et al., 2000; Pereira, 1997; Tinto, 1975). The objective of this study is to investigate the negative consequencesof stress,such as physical illness, wasted potential, depression' declined academic performance, social isolation, and dropping out (Misra et al., 2000; Pereira, 1997).Thesenegativeeffects occur when studentsbecome overwhelmed and unable to cope positively with the sources of stress.For instance,Al-Rihani and Hamdi (1998) found lower levels of productivity and difficulties in psychological adjustmentbeing correlatedwith depressionamong Jordanian college students.Also, studentswith high levels of stresstend to perceive themselvesas less healthy and more prone to practice a number of poor health habits (Gupchup et al.,2004; Hudd, 2000). Sources of stress are not confined to situational factors. They are related to other predisposingfactors, such as attachment,personality, lower self-esteem,gender, and age. Additionally, some of the social and emotional problems experienced by university students may, in part, be due to the particular characteristicsof this stage of personal development(Simons et al., 2002). Erikson (1968) pointed out that the time of entering university is one that coincideswith a huge physical and identity crisis resolutionfor many students. For most, it is a time of instability, when individuals are making life-affecting decisions, such as choosing a career, life partner, etc. (Samions et al., 2002; Shannon, 1999). Each individual must learn to cope with these conflicts as part of human development(Schultz, 1990). Empirical evidence suggeststhat a domain-specific coping style may play an important role in the way studentsmanagestressfulacademiceventsand perform at college (Struthers, 2000). Student affairs administrators and counsellors in higher educationhave been concernedrecently with an apparentincreasein the number of difficult problems faced by students(Coll, 1995). Hence, a better understandingof how

2

students cope with their sources of stress is needed so that academic institutions and counsellingservicescanprovide effective help and guidance. There has been a limited amount of research among university students in particular circumstances(Abouserie, 1994; Marcotte, 1994; Olpin, 1996). For example, Kariv and Heiman (2005) stated that little researchhave examinedthe effect of perceive stresson coping strategies. Further, most stress and coping researchhas been based on western culture, understandingof different culture such as Arab culture responseto stressis limited. Accordingly, the current study attempted to explore and assessthe levels of stress in students at two private universities (Al-Alahlia and Open University) in kingdom of Bahrain, in addition to identifying and describing the coping styles they developedto reduce stress,as well as their counsellingneeds.

1.2 Statement of the Problem There is broad consensusthat the number of university studentspresentedto counselling and student health services has increasedand that mental health problems can severely disrupt a student's academic and emotional development along with having a possible impact on the student's family peers and academicinstitution (Al-Bahrani, 2004; Ellis, 2004). Cherian and Cherian (1998) have emphasisedthat coping with a new environment, such as enrolling at university, can be quite problematic. In a study of sourcesof stress among college students in Midwestern University, the five top sources of stress among studentswere found to be changesin sleeping habits, vacations/breaks,changesin eating habits, increasedwork load, and new responsibilities(Rosset al., 1999).A further study by Abouserie (1994) indicatedthat preparationfor examinationsand examinationresults were

3

the greatestsourcesof stressamong college studentsin the University of Wales college of Cardiff. While many specific events and situations have been implicated as stress sources for university students,more researchis neededto investigatethe nature of these sourcesand which sourcesare most prevalentin university students'live. It is unclearwhether most of thesesourcesof stressresultfrom interpersonalrelationshipor academic. Further, a review of the published literature of university students' sourcesof stress in general, and Arab university students' sources of stress in particular, has led to the following conclusion. It canbe observedthat researchin this area hasbeenclassifiedwithin different approaches. For example, some of the studies focused on disposition approach to stress, e.g. the optimism and perceived control over stress (Fontaine et al., 1993). Others focused on a situational approach,suchas the effects of cultural valueson coping with stress(Essauand Trommsdorf, 1996).However, few studiesshedthe light on transactionalapproach. Regarding Arab studies, Al-Zarad (1997) stated that most studies on Arab culture have dependedon one type of researchmeasure,such as a questionnaireor a fixed scale(e.g. The Money ProblemsScale)and concentratedon quantitativemethodsto indicate students' problems. Other studieshave focused more on qualitative methods.Very few studieshave combinedboth methodsof investigation. Most Arab research studies have examined general problems of studentssuch as study skills, values, personal,social and economicproblems.These studieshaverarely discussed the issue of sexuality, which can be sensitive in Arab culture. In contrast, the issuesof sexuality and alcohol dependencehave been discussedextensively in Westernstudies,as emphasisedby Al-Masherif, 2000.

4

The effect of cultural values has been observed by determining students' ranking of problems, as well as the importance of problems. For example, Jordanian and Algerian studentsrank economicproblems especiallyhigh, whereastheseproblemsare not so highly rated by Gulf Arab Students(Al-Masherif, 2000). Al-Abdeen (2002) has assertedthat most Arab studies have not discussedcoping strategiesor related personal variables such as awarenessof future, presentand past awareness;alienation, social and future problems or cultural changesand influences.

Researchershave begun to highlight the role of cultural factors, and suggestedthat the impact of cultural pressureson psychologicalwell-being might be greaterthan any other factors (Workers' Compensationand Rehabilitation Commission (WCRC), 2000). For example, in his cross-cultural study, Hofstede (1991) found that strong uncertainty avoidancecultures were more likely to be exposedto higher stresslevels than cultureswith weak uncertainty avoidance. In the same context, cultures that value mediation and contemplationrather than competitivenessare probably less stressfulthan others (Helman, 2000).

In the same trend, the responseto stress differs among students of different cultures. According to a cross-cultural study among college students, Americans reported more gastrointestinal stress symptoms,while French studentsreported more changesin mood, and Filipino students,especially women, tended to emphasisecardiovascularsymptoms, such as rapid heartbeatand shortnessof breath(Helman, 2000).

It canbe arguedthat both quantitative and qualitative methodsshould be employedto build up a more complete and valid picture of students' problems.The quantitative method will 5

reflect the existence,percentage,frequency, level and amount of the determinedproblem, while the qualitative method would provide the depth, explanation and causesof both determinedand undeterminedproblems.

Overall, this study will draw upon the conclusionsderived from previous studiesfocusing on stressin relation to other variablessuch as effective coping style and using integrationof methods qualitative and quantitative, to collect the data. For example, Bahraini students' sourcesof stressthat are associatedwith level of stressand with coping strategies,as well as their counselling needs, will be identified. Furthermore, using different combined quantitativeand qualitative methodswill help fill in gapsin our understandingof the source of students'problems.

1.3 Study Aims First, the study attempts to assessperceived levels of stress experiencedby university studentsin Bahrain. Second,it aims to indicate the primary sourcesof stressamongthese students. Third, it identifies the ways of coping with stress among university students. Fourth, it aims to assesscounselling needs.Finally, it examinesany differences existing among selected demographic variables (gender, locality; home students vs. non-home students)and perceivedstresslevels, sourcesof stressand ways of coping with stress.

1.4 Research variables

The studywill focuson four main variables. The first, sourceof stress,represents the independentvariable,as it stimulatesstressand counsellingneeds,and could determine 6

coping strategies.Demographicvariablessuch as gender,academicyear, martial statusand specialisationare alsoindependentvariables. Coping strategies are considered as intervening variables, since they play a role in predicting students' stressand counsellingneeds.In contrast,stressand counsellingneeds will be consideredas dependentvariables,since they result from the subject'sresponse.

1.5 Rationale for study Despite the fact that stress canhave a negative impact on a university student'ssuccess,if students are unable to cope successfully with his or her difficulties, few models are available which help to explain these coping difficulties in terms of stress and coping relationships.

However, empirical data are not readily available to guide the interventionsof counsellors who are working with university students. (Al-Banna 2001; Kindreich, 2004; Marcotte, 1995). Taking into consideration,the counselling profession,as describedby Al-Rowaie, (2001) is not as well establishedin Gulf Statesas in Westernculture. Thereis as yet no sign of remarkabledevelopmentin the field of counsellingin Bahrain. Only a small number of studieshave been conductedwhich recommendedsomesolutionsfor somespecific aspects of the students' problems. The need is for a study, which deals with all aspectsof the student's life, identifying the source of problems in order to develop new ways for and prioritising and solving their problems. As Maslow (1971) statedthat the good counsellor should help the whole person develop rather than allow that person to be squeezedby stress.

7

The outcomesof this study will increaseawarenessof studentsstress nature and provide appropriateinterventionson dealing with students'stress.Another significant aspectof the researchstudy lies in adding theoreticalcontribution to the body of multicultural stressand coping literature. The study of students'sourcesof stressis the researcher'sareaof interest, sinceduring the four years the researcher worked in the university as a staff academic member, the researcherobservedstudents'needsto discuss their stressissuesand learn the best way to manage their stress, and discussed this with her colleagues, who shared the same observation.As a result, the researcherwas encouragedand advisedby the psychology departmental authorities in university of Bahrain to address this issue, as identifying students' sourcesof stresscanhelp high risk studentsto understandwhat sourcesof stress they can control, so that does not affect their learning performance and personal development.Furthermore,faculty memberscanplay a key role in reducing students'stress if they are aware of it. Studiesof college teaching support the view that frequent contact with students and quality of teaching encourage students' sense of belonging to the university community, and, in turn, help them to cope effectively with stress. While teachersare not counsellors,they can be helpful to stressedstudentsby recommendinga number of coping strategies,such as improving studying habits, time management,and disclosing their thoughts and feelings about the course work. In addition, counselling service intervention and stress reduction programmesamong university students, can be based entirely on the sources of stressidentified by students.A full understandingof the nature and extent of student problems is required, in order to meet the priority of the counselling centre in any university in the kingdom of Bahrainin order to identify students' problems and help them to resolve or copewith them. It is, thus, the task of the researcher

8

to contribute by offering an empirical basisfor guiding the developmentof studentlife in the Kingdom of Bahrain.

1.6 Background about the Kingdom of Bahrain Bahrain literally meanstwo seas.The country probably got this name becauseof the sea surroundingthe islands, and the fact that in some areasthere are fountains of sweetwater. Bahrain comprisesan archipelagoof thirty-six islands situatedmidway in the Arabian Gulf close to the shore of the Arabian Peninsula. Bahrain is the only island state of the five Arabian Gulf states.Bahrain'ssmall size and central location amongArabian Gulf countries require it to play a delicatebalancingact in foreign affairs amongits larger neighbours.The kingdom of Bahrain is a memberof Gulf cooperationCouncil (GCC). The total area of the islands is about 706 squarekilometres, with a population of 716,150. Manama (Al Manama), the capital, is located on the north-easterntip of the island of Bahrain. Causewaysand bridges connect Bahrain to adjacent islands and the mainland of Bahrain continueson to the Saudi mainland town of Al Khubar. The causewayhas made Bahrain very accessibleto the market of Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait UAE, Oman and other regional Middle East countries.

Al Muharraq is the secondlargestisland, where the internationalairport is located.Arabic is the official language.However, English is widely usedin Businessand is compulsoryin schools.The main exports of Bahrain are oil, petroleumproducts and aluminium. Bahrain can be considereda multicultural society. There are Bahrainis with Arab origins and nonBahrainis with non-Arab origins e.g. Iranians,Indians and Pakistanis.Issuesof culture are

9

of great interest when considering social issues becauseindividuals' social or emotion behaviouris influencedby the cultural backgroundof their society. According to Hofstede(1994),Arab nations fall within the categoryof countrieswith large power distance,collectivism and among thosenations with high uncertaintyavoidance.As Hofstede (1984) indicated, individuals from uncertainty avoidancenations tends to feel higher stresslevels in situationsof uncertaintyand ambiguity; on the otherhand they prefer clear structuresand directions.Those classifiedas low on uncertaintyavoidancetend to be relatively tolerant and feel less stressdue to uncertaintyand ambiguity. A study by Redmond(2000) showedthat collectivist countriescould be predictedto handle stressless effectively through social integration (initiating and forming relationships)than those who do not socially integrate. Researchershave also found cultural differences in coping. For example, North Americans and Europeanshave been shown to use problem focused coping more than Asian and Hispanic people,who tend to favour emotion-focused coping and social support.(Essau& Trommsdorff, 1996).The mannerin which particular coping strategiesaffect well-being under differing cultural conditions is an important topic for further research(Passerand Smith, 2004).

2.8 Research Questions The following questions were consideredfor data gathering and analysis in this study, along with the qualitative approachstudy. 1. What do university studentsin Kingdom of Bahrainperceiveto be the main sources of stress? 2. What strategiesdo university studentsin Kingdom of Bahrain use to cope with or reduce their stress?

10

3. ResearchQuestion3: What is the stresslevel of university studentsin Kingdom of Bahrain? 4. Research Question 4: Do university students in Bahrain perceive a need for counselling? 5. Is there a relationship between sources of stress,levels of stress,managingstress and counsellingneeds? 6. What sources of stress affect levels of stress, counselling needs and coping strategies? 7. How do demographic characteristics(gender and locality) relate to: Sources of stress,Stresslevels, Counsellingneedsand Copingstrategies

2.10 Research Hypotheses One could study stress independently of other variables,but the ways that an individual copeswith stressaffects the individual's well-being. Stresshasbeen defined as that which exceedsindividual's coping resources(Folkmanand Lazarus,1984). The amount of stress experienced may be influenced by the individual's ability to effectively cope with stressful events and situation (Ross et al., 1999). Therefore, it is essentialto include a discussionof coping in any explorationof stress.Hamart et al. (2001) found that combining a measure of perceived stresswith a measureof effective coping provided a better predictor of life satisfactionamong young adults than did perceivedstress alone. The opposite effect was also reported,i. e. effectivenessof the coping strategydependedon the characteristicof the situation or the sourcesof stress(Passerand Smith, 2004). On the other hand, the need for counselling servicesis vital when pain, anxiety and pressurereach

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a point exceedingany stressthat might be justified as encouragingeffort and productivity (Strehle, 1992).Many studentseventually end up needinghelp with their coping difficulties from counsellorsand psychologists(Leong et al., 1997). Therefore,this study will try to identify sourcesof stressand stresslevels in relation with coping strategiesand counselling needs.The study will be guidedby the following main hypothesesto be investigatedusing the quantitativemethodapproach.

1. University students in the Kingdom of Bahrain experiencea significant level of stress. 2. University students in the Kingdom of Bahrain experiencea significant need for counselling. 3. There is variation in the sourcesof greateststressfound in university studentsin the Kingdom of Bahrain. 4. Thereis variation in the types of coping strategiesusedby university studentsin the kingdom of Bahrain. 5. There is a significant relationship between university students' coping style and sourcesof stress.

6. There is a significanteffect of demographiccharacteristics suchas genderand localityin theirrelationto: Sourcesof stress Stresslevels Counsellingneeds Copingstrategies

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1.7 Organization of Study The remainder of this thesis is organised into five chapters.Chapter 2 and 3 reviewed significant prior researchand provided the theoreticalunderpinningsfor the thesis. There were four major areasof literature discussedin these chapters:stress, sourcesof stress, coping strategiesand counselling needs. The following chapterpresentedthe study main questionnaireand hypotheses.Chapter4 describesin detail the researchmethodologythat will be employedin this study. In addition, describes and justifies the rationale for using qualitative and quantitative approaches in the proposed study. This chapter further presents the finding of an exploratory study, which is consideredas an initial stepin constructingquestionnaireitems. Chapter-5 and Chapter 6 were basedon the data collected and presentedthe results of the study and discussion,followed by the conclusionand suggestionsfor future research.

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Chapter Two: The Emergenceand Essenceof the Stressand coping strategies

2.1 Introduction The purposeof this study is to identify sourcesof stressamonguniversity studentsand the interrelationshipevident between sourcesof stress,coping strategiesand counsellingneeds. This chapterwill present a review of the pertinent literature divided into the three main areas of this study: stress, and coping. Each area covers theoretical views and related research from which the conceptual framework study aims of the study will derive. Following, conclusion,study aims,study questionsand study hypotheses.

2.2Definition and disputation It is recognisedthat stressis an inevitable factor in all our lives and the experienceof stress is commonto all people. In fact, someresearchers,such as Fisher (1994), have associated the whole of the 20" century with stress. This statementis supportedby Twenge (2000) who found that Americans(college students and child samples)increasedrapidly a full standarddeviation in anxiety between1952 and 1993. Correlation with social indices such as divorce and crime rates, suggest that decreasesin social connectedness and increasesin environmentalthreat may be responsible for the rise in anxiety. Societieswith low levels of social integration produce adults prone to stress and anxiety Societies with high levels of environmental threat such as violent crime and war havethe sameeffect. (Twenge,2000). Nevertheless,Ebrahim (2001) argues that stresshas been increasingrapidly in recent year. He claimed that that the concept of 14

stresswas known and experiencedby individuals through olden times. Therefore,the level of stressdid not increasedthrough periodsof time. These different perspectivescould be explained as the sourcesof stresscould vary over time, the sourcesof stresscould be limited or differ with current one, while the stress,as an experienceis common phenomenonover any period of time. From reviewing the vast amountof publishedliterature about stress,it is evident that stress and its positive and negative effects on the individual have receivedconsiderableattention by researchers.

Nevertheless,the conceptof stressis difficult to define,although it is associatedwith many things in our daily expressions.The original definition of stressformulatedby Selye (1983) was stated, "Stress is a non-specific response of the body" (p.2). Furthermore, Selye postulatedthat there were two types of stress.The first is "eustress"and viewed as positive stress, while the second is consideredas negative stress and is thus named "distress". Clearly, this definition consideredstressto be a physiologicalresponse.Indeed,most early work was basedpurely on this physical concept of stress.

Later researchfocusedmore on a psychologicalperspectiveof stress.Folkman and Lazarus (1984) defined stressas a relationship between the person and the environment, which is appraisedby the person as taxing or exceedingthe person's resourcesand thus threatening his or her well-being. This definition suggestedthat not only the stressorbut also the person's perceptionof his or her ability to adapt to the stressareimportant in the describing stress. More recently, these physical and psychological definitions have been integrated and expandedto createa more holistic conceptualisationof stress.For example,Seward(1994) 15

defined stress as the inability to cope with a perceived(real or imagined) threat to one's mental, physical, emotional and spiritual well being which result in a series of physical responsesand adaptations. The Oxford Dictionary (2002) identifies stress as "physical and psychological strain or tensiongenerated by physical, emotional,social, economic,or occupationalcircumstances, eventsor experiencesthat are difficult to manageor endure" (p. 711). From the above definitions, it could be concluded that there is disagreementabout the concept of stress. Nevertheless, this disagreement could be explained in terms of researches' perspectivesof the stress process. Some researchersperceive stress as a stimulus or a cause, while others perceive it as a responseor an outcome. In turn, this responsecould also be analysedas a physicalor psychologicalresponse. Other researchersfocus on the interpretation of the stress-producingevents and how a person copeswith them.

Thesevaryingperspectives in detailin thefollowingsection. of stresswill be discussed

2.3 Theories of stress A cursory survey of the available literature showsthat theoriesof stressare categorisedinto three main groups.Thesetheories discussthe statusof stressand its occurrence,i. e. how it occurs and when it occurs Cox (1979); Snyder and Ford (1987); Folkman and Lazarus (1984); Fisher(1987); Passerand Smith, ( 2004). The first group is recognisedas a stimulus-based group. Its approachfocuseson stimuli or situations that typically disturb or disrupt the individual. Thus, stress is treated as an independentvariable; external stressesgive rise to a stressreaction. In other words, it is consideredas a set of causesand not as symptoms. Passerand Smith, (2004) present an

16

example of such stimulus statementssuch as; `I have three exams next week', `I lost my classnotes', `my car broke down' and `I have got a lot of stressin my life'.

Stress is considered to be a condition of the environment, so it could be physical or psychosocial. It may be due to an intense level of everydaylife such as high temperature, high noise levels, perceived high levels of threat and disrupted physiological functions, (e.g. as disease,sleeploss and so forth), grouppressureand isolation. Fisher (1987) maintainsthat, in this definition, what is stressfulfor one person would also be stressful for another person. Cut-off points between high and low level stressesmay differ accordingto different individual's personalityor experience. This approachassumes that peoplerespondequally to the samepotentially stressfulsituation. This approachis illustrated in the following figure (Fig 2.1).

Figure2.1. Group1: Stimulus-Basedtheoryof stress.Stressoccursasa stimulus. Environment

Person

Stress

Strain

Stimulus

º Response

The second group of theories about stress is recognisedas a response-based group. It emphasisesa person's responseto a disturbing or noxious environment. The response,or patternof the response,is treatedas the stress,i. e. the occurrenceof the responsesyndrome is associatedwith the simultaneousoccurrenceof stress.This view of stressconsidersstress 17

as a dependentvariable or an outcomeof the stressor.Passerand Smith, (2004) presentan example of such response statementssuch as; I am tensed up, I am having trouble concentratingon things, I am having all stressedout. This conceptis illustrated in Figure 2.2 Fig 2.2 Group 2 theory: Response-Based theory of stress. Stressoccursas a response. Environment Stressar

I

Psychological Stress Stress

------º

Stimulus

-i'

Response

Physiological Stress

This particular view was adoptedby researcherssuchas Hans Selyeand Walter Canon.For instance, Canon was the first to describethe "fight or flight" response.This responseis designed to prepare the body to react to a threat or a danger. The responsepreparedthe body for enhancedmuscleactivity to either fight or flee from somecurrent threat. Selye explainedhow the body adaptsto stressby the term GeneralAdaptation

Syndrome (GAS). This adaptation process passesthrough three stages.During the first stage, the alarm reaction, the body responds immediately to the stress. Various physiological changesoccur to enablethe body to combatstress.If the stressoris stronger than the body's resistance,the body becomesmore susceptibleto infection and disease.In stagetwo, i. e. the resistance,the body makesa physiological changethat enablesit to adapt to long-term stress.Hence, its resistanceis usually high. In the third stage,the necessary energy for adaptationmay be exhaustedand, thus, final collapseoccurs.

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Both the stimulus-basedapproachand the response-based approachignoredthe active role of the person in his or her relationship to the environment. They viewed the person as taking a passive role in the operation of stress. However, a third group took into consideration the shortcomings of the previous groups and analysed stress within the processof interaction. This third group of theories of stressis called the interaction or intervening group. This group expressesthe view that stressarisesthrough the existenceof a particular relationship between the person and the environment.In addition, this model consideredstress as an intervening or moderatorvariable that occurs betweenthe stimulus situationsthat impinges on the individual and the potential responseof the individual to that situation.In this model, stresscould be analysedby mean of its antecedentfactors and its effects.

Researcherssuch as Mackay, Cox and Lazarus adaptedthis particular view. For example, Cox and Mackay see stress as an individual perceptual phenomenon rooted in a psychological processwhich can be describedas part of a complex and dynamic system betweenthe personand his or her environment,as shownin Figure 2.3.

19

Fig 2.3 Intreaction group

ýý

I

Actual Capability

Actual Demand

ý

I

Perceived Demand

Perceived Capability Cognitive (Appraisal

(1) c-n . ý Imbalance = Stress

I

I

1

Stress Response

Emotional Experience

Physiological Response

Psychological Response

f

1

Cognitive Defence

Behaviour response

20

Fig 2.3 Diagrammatic illustration of the person and his/her environment (person environmentmodel) (modified from Folkman and Lazarus,1984).

There is a major conflict between the actual demand of a person and his /her actual capability to do that job. Furthermore,there is anotherconflict betweenthe actual demand and perceiveddemand.As a result of theseconflicts, an imbalanceis formed, leading to stress. Stressis consideredto be a responseto the forces mentioned above.The response could be either physiological or psychological. The psychological response is further subdivided into behaviouraland cognitive responses. Whitman et al (1985) assertedthat this third model (the person-environmentmodel) is useful in understandingstressamong students.When studentsappraisetheir educationas a challenge,stresscan bring them a senseof competenceand an increasedcapacityto learn. When educationis seen as threat (distress), the negative aspect of stress can bring forth feelings of helplessnessand foreboding and a sense of loss. Therefore, approachesare neededto reduce students' distress,which lessenstudent's learning and performanceby providing them with a feeling of control over their educationand feed back information on what to expectand how to improve their performance.The researcherfound the description of transactionaltheory consistedwith the study nature,purpose,populationand design.

2.4 Responsesto Stress Responsesto stress related to the discussion of when and how stress occurs and is experiencedare organisedinto two main sets:physiological and psychologicalresponses. These responsesaim to reduce or control the stresslevel. Thus, an examination of these responseshelps pavethe way to assessingthe mechanismfor coping with stress.

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2.4.1 Physiological responses A physiological responseis consideredto be a body coping mechanism.It is defined as a physiological condition from which relief is neededfor physiological well-being. Examples include lack of food, oxygen and water, depletion of transmitters in the brain, physical diseases, exaggerated sympathetic adrenomedullary activity, exaggerated pituitary adrenocorticalsecretion,and so on (Snyder andFord, 1987,pp. 376-377). Stresswas first describedas a biological responseby Cannon and Selye, each of whom provided a physiological framework (Cox, 1979). Canon initiated his work in 1927 with a description of animals' immediate responseto stressful stimuli. His extensive research on cats led him to describe active patterns of sympathetic nervous system responsesto the acute stress of threatening emergency situations, which was characterisedas "flight or fight" reactions. When threatened,an organismpreparesto "fight or flee" by producing a heightenedstateof arousal. Later, Selye expanded Cannon's theory by explaining the mechanism of the body's physical responsein adapting to stress,which he termed the generaladaptationsyndrome (GAS). Selye observedthe fact that in all our diseasesthereseemto be commonsymptoms. These symptoms include fever, fatigue, and loss of appetite, achesand pains, which he termed the syndromeof being sick. Selye assumedthat this type of diseaseresults from a defective body or mental reaction to the stressors of everyday life. In addition, Selye believedthat it is not what stressesus that count, but rather the way we react to stress. On the whole, it could be concludedfrom Selye and Cannonstudiesthat they both consider the physical responseof stressas universal. However, their theory could be criticised, as it is limited to the laboratory and not intended for analysingpeoples' general responses.It

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doesnot take into account individual differencessuch as personalor process factors that influence or intervenein the responseto stress.

2.4.2 Psychological Response In contrastto the physiological response,the psychologicalresponsecomprisessubjective responses, involving

emotion, cognitive processes, behavioural adjustment, and

realignment of goals or denial (Lovallo, 1997). However, it essentialto consider that a psychological responsedoes not occur in the absenceof a physiological response.Both could be presentas responsesto stress. It is difficult to determinethe most appropriateresponseto the situation becausethere are many potential responsesand each has its cost, strengthand weakness.(Lazaruas,1984) proposedthat the psychological responsesbasedon the perception or interpretationof the eventand the meaningfor our lives. The model of Folkman and Lazarus (1984) explainedthe psychological stressresponsein terms of two forms of cognitive appraisal.They suggestedthat we first evaluateeventsfor their threat by meansof our belief about how the world should work and our commitments and personalvalues. In other words, the primary appraisalevaluatesthreateningsituations, while a secondaryappraisal evaluatesour options or available resourcesfor coping with thesesituations. (Folkman and Lazarus,1984) Folkman and Lazarusclassified the coping responsesinto problem-focusedand emotionalfocused. A problem-focusedresponseattacksthe problem with behaviour designedto gain information and to alter beliefs and commitment.It increasesthe person's awarenesslevel of knowledge. On the other hand, emotion-focusedstrategiesaredesignedprimarily to limit the degree of emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the eventitself. 23

Emotional responsesare expressedas anxiety, depression,guilt, hurt, anger, jealousy, shame/embarrassment and suicidal feelings. In general,Palmerand Dryden (1997) listed types of psychologicalresponse.For example behaviour response such as; avoidance/phobias,sleep disturbances/insomnia,loss of appetite/over-eating, poor time management,compulsive behaviour and interpersonal response. Also, interpersonal response, which expressed by passive/aggressive relationships, being unassertive, competitive, having difficulty making friends and withdrawing. Researchhas reported that the psychological stress responseis associatedwith types of stress events. For example, Hill-Wheelen and Jones(1986) reported that depressionis a common reaction to stressful life events. Furthermore, these responsesmay vary with differences in an individual's characteror coping style. For example,Lu (1994) found that neurotic students experienceuniversity transition as more threateningthan studentswith high locus of control. Similarly, Misra and Michelle (2000) reportedthere was great associationof stressorsand reactions to stressorswith time management,while Selabada(1990) maintainsthat student experienceof stressmay have a detrimentaleffect on their academicperformance. As well, academic stress has been related to counselling concerns such as anxiety and depressionamong university students.Furthermore,Chang (1998) reported that the more college students experiencestress,the lower their level of life satisfactionand the higher the level of depression.

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2.5 Demographic variables and stress There are several demographic variables influencing and moderating stress such as: gender, culture, martial status, academic level and age. Here, only two main types of demographicvariables,which are directly relatedto the studyaims, will be discussed.

2.5.1Genderand Stress Demographic variablesor social statussuch as gender,culture,age and marriagehavebeen found to influence or moderatestress(Strehle, 1992). With respectto gender,females show higher levels of academicand life stressthan males (Abousereie, 1994). In addition, females have been reported to show different stress responsescompared with males. For example, McKean (2000) reported that females experiencehigher self-imposedstressand more physiological responsesto stress,such as sweating,stuttering and headachesthan males do. Studieshave also reportedthat men have an inexpressive, stoic style of responding to stress,whereas women have an emotional expressivestyle (Milkie and Thoits, 1993).

It seemsthat men deal with their problems by controlling their emotions, acceptingthe problem and engaging in problem-solving efforts, while women deal with their problems by seekingsocial support,distracting themselves,letting out their feelings, and turning to prayer (Thoits, 1995).These findings would indicate that women are more vulnerablethan men to experiencing stress.Dwyer (2001) explained that these differencesmay be due to women being willing to report stress, as well as men and women appraising sourcesof stressdifferently due to socialization patterns,henceresulting in different socially derived needsor roles.

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However,researchers needto considerwhatspecificsourcesof stressleadwomenandmen to responddifferently.

2.5.2. Culture and Stress Researchershave shownthat not only genderbut also culture will influence stress.Cultural factors may play a critical role in shaping various parametersof the stress process, including appraisals,perceptionsand attributedto evaluative situations.(Zeidner, 1997).

Thus, researchershave begun to highlight the role of cultural factors, since it is suggested that the impact of cultural pressureson psychologicalwell being might be greaterthan any other factors (WCRC, 2000). As an example of the influence of culture, Hofstede (1991) found in his cross-cultural study that strong uncertaintyavoidancecultures such as France and German are likely to be exposed to higher stress levels than weak uncertainty avoidance cultures such as USA and China. In the same context, cultures that value mediation and contemplation rather than competitivenessare probably less stressfulthan others (Helman, 2000). With respectto sourcesof stress,Stevens(1976, cited in Hofstede, 1984) pointed out that Germansview the time as a source of pressureand stress,while the French perceive it as resourcewhich be controlled and utilized. However, for the British, time is seenas a tool for orienting oneself.

Culture could influence the perception of stress college students, in particular female college students (Hunter, 1998). Cross-cultural studies of university students have also revealeddifferencesregarding stress. For example, a cross-culturalstudy of Canadianand Asian Indian students showed that Asian Indian students experience less stress than

26

Canadianstudents.Indian studentswere also shown to prefer emotional coping strategies, specifically, positive reappraisal,seeking social supportand confrontation in dealing with stress(Sinha et al. 2000). In contrast,a cross culture study betweenTurkish and American studentsdid not show any significant differencesin sourcesof stress(Methew et al., 2002).

Other studieshave showndifferent responsesto stressacrosscultures.For example,AsianAmericansin generaltend to presentsomaticconcernsover emotionaldisordersmore often than Americansand WesternEuropeans(Iwamasa andKoorman, 1995). In addition, in a study among college students,Americansreported more gastrointestinal stresssymptoms,while Frenchreportedmore changesin mood and Filipinos, especiallythe women, tended to emphasise cardiovascular symptoms, such as rapid heartbeat and shortnessof breath (Helman, 2000).

2.5.3 Stress and Academic level While student's at all academiclevels may share some of the samesourcesof stressand coping responses,they cannotbe expectedto be homogeneousin this regard. Studentsin the advancedstreamare likely to havevaluesand attitudescompatiblewith high exceptions for success,academicachievement,and personalcontrol and autonomywhile studentsin lower academic streams are characterized by less motivation for success, lower achievementexpectation, and perceptions of less personal control and autonomy. Thus, various stressors and patterns of coping would be expected to differ across students' academicstreams(Mates and Allison, 1991).

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2.6Sourcesof stress(stressors)and levelsof stressamongUniversitystudents Many researchershave reported that university students are faced with an increasing number of stressorsthat affect their daily life (Brown and Ralph, 1999;Simons et al., 2002; Lo, 2002). In particular, studentsin recent times are experiencingmore stressfulsituations, as they confront huge challenges, such as absorbing enormous amounts of knowledge within a limited amountof time (Simonset al., 2002).

Stressorsaffecting studentscan be categorizedas academic,financial, time managementor self -imposed (McKean, 2000). Cherian and Cherian(1998) found that the main sourceof students' stresswas related to the following categories(in descendingorder of frequency) (i) studies, university and lectures; (ii) work, career and future;(iii) sensitivity, and confidence; (iv) family; (v) economic problems and lack of facilities; (vi) mild neurosis; (vii) sex and marriage; (viii) self-scheduleand independence;(ix) social problems; (x) health and physical matters;(xi) self and self image. Pereira(1997) categorisedsourcesof stress within four main areas: Personal problems (homesickness,loneliness, suicide, shyness, family problems; academic problems (lack of motivation, examination stress, withdrawal and drop out, academic work, facilities, lectures, other students, ethnic problems); financial and housekeepingproblems(financial problems,accommodation);and security problems (rape and sexual assault, violence at student social events, bullying, drugs and alcohol). Wills and Shiffman (1985, cited in Mates and Allison, 1991)have classified three types of stressoraccordingto the effects of their duration. Thefirst is calledmajor life events,which are acutebut of relatively short duration, for example, an illness, a moveto anotherschool, or the death of loved one. The secondtype is the everydayproblemsof life, suchas hassles in dealing with crowds on a bus, waiting on line, or having an argumentwith a store clerk.

28

A third type is enduring life strain - the chronic, long-term pressuresassociatedwith the performanceof roles, suchas being a studentor teenagesonor daughter.Mates and Allison (1991) have concluded that most researchstudiesfocus on major life events, while few have beenconductedin the areasof everydayproblemsor enduringlife strains. With respectto Gulf Arab region stressstudies,severalstudieshave also been conducted. A study of problems of Kuwaiti youth aged 16-20 ranked problems according to importance, based on frequency and percentage(Al-Saraf, 1994). Out of 52 problems experiencedby Kuwaiti students,this study identified five main problems: anxiety, defects in the curriculum, not feeling loved, lack of family adjustment,and fear of not finding a proper job or inability to establish a family in the future. Another study which looked at both problems and counselling needsof university studentsin Kuwait showedthat the need for counselling and social support was ranked first, while values and conflicts ranked second,study skills was third, and health concernsrankedlast (Al-Shareef and Muhammed, 1986).In a study of emotionalproblemsamong a sampleof studentsin Bahrain universities (Abada and Al-Omran, 1992),factor analysisrevealedthat 35 problemsout of 100 included in the scale were attributed to 8 factors: weak resolution, inability to take a decision, anxiety, inability to concentrate,emotional instability, loss of confidence,over-sensitivity, fear of failure and fear of making mistakes, in descending order according to their importance and frequency. With regard to the academic community in Bahrain, a few studieshave highlighted university students' problems (e.g., Abada and Al-Omran, 1992; Al-Megdad and al-Motawah, 2004), while focusing only on students' adjustmentsto the new learning socialenvironment.

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2.7 Theories of Coping Strategies Folkman and Lazarus (1984) have been the most influential in the conceptualisationof coping. They defined coping as: "constantlychanging cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceedingthe resourcesof theperson." (p.141). How people cope with a stressful situation appear to moderate a range of outcomes. Researchindicates that style of coping is one moderatinginfluence in the stress-distress relationship (Folkman and Lazarus, 1984). Selye (1976, p. 5) concluded it is not what stressesus that count, but it is the way we respondto stress.

Pearlin and Schooler (1978, in (Mates and Allison, 1991) distinguish between types of coping responses.Theseinclude: (1) responsesthat changethe situationout of which strain experiencesarise, which might consist of active attemptsto eliminate or reducethe effect of a given stressor;(2) responsesthat control the meaning of strain stressfulexperiences after they occur but before the emergenceof stress, which are exemplified by such activities as cognitive restructuring; (3) responsesthat function more for the control of stressitself after it has emerged,including participating in diversionary activities, such as practicing relaxation techniques,using tobacco,watching television or engagingin sports and music.

Research has distinguished between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping. Problem-focusedcoping is directed at managingor altering the problemcausingthe distress when stressful encountersare appraisedas amenableto change.Examples,include defining the problem, generatingalternative solutions, weighing the alternatives,choosing among them, and acting or developing new standardsof behaviour, and learning new skills or

30

procedures.By contrast,emotion-focusedcoping consistsof actions or thoughtsto control the undesirablefeelings that result from stressfulcircumstances.Emotion-focused coping more often occurs through avoidance,distancing and selectiveattention. Researcherstend to perceive problem-focusedcoping as being more beneficial than emotion-focusedcoping.

2.7.1. University students and coping strategies Adjusting to stressful collegeexperiencesrelatesto the ways studentscopewith their stress (Leong et al, 1997). A domain-specific coping style may play an importantrole in the way students managestressful events (Struthers et at., 2000). For example, the results of the studies by Leong et al. and Struther et al. showedthat active coping, which focuseson doing something positive to solve problems, was predictive of academic and personal/emotional adjustment.In addition, Mosley et al. (1994) concluded from their study that engagementcoping efforts, such as cognitive -restructuring, problem solving, social supportand express-emotion,are associatedwith low levels of depressivesymptoms. While Misra et al., (2000) pointed that university studentsoften attemptto control or reduce their stressthrough avoidance,religious, social supportor positive reappraisal. With regard to differences in coping strategiesbetween genders,the Struther et al. study concluded that there were statistically significant differences in focus and venting of emotions, seeking social support for emotional reasons,and seeking social support for instrumental reasons,with females scoring higher on all three scales.On the other hand, White (2000) found no significant differencesbetween female and males in their coping styles. As to differencesin coping with stressbetweencultures, Matheny et al. (2000) found that there were significant differences between American and Turkish students. Turkish studentsappearedto be better at organising and managing their time and energy and in 31

changing their thinking in the interest of reducing stress,while American studentsseemed more willing to disclosetheir feelings and thoughts. In the sametrend, Sniha et.al. (2000) Found in his cross culture study that India studentsmakea greateruseof emotion

-focused

coping strategy such as; confronting, distance, seeking social support and positive reappraisal. Another study for Shwartz (1987) showed that Chinese students identified academicevents as stressfuland where likely to use active coping strategy, while Saudi students identified personal events as stressful and where likely to treat the symptom associatedwith stress. Shwartz concluded that individuals from different cultures are socialized to identify different types of events (sources)as stressful and appraisethese eventsdifferently.

Both gender differences and cultural differences in styles for coping with stress will be examined in the present study of male and female university students in kingdom of Bahrain.

2.8 Summary The recent Chapterhas addressedthe theoreticalframework and related literature review related to the study conceptsof perceivedstress,coping strategies.In addition, the chapter has reviewedprevious researchstudies.Based on a discussionof the literature review and previous researchstudy; the presentstudy has identified severalaims. First, it attemptsto assessperceivedlevels of stressexperiencedby University studentsin Bahrain. Second,it aims to indicate the primary sources of stress among these students.Third, the ways of coping with stress among these university students are identified. It also examines any differences existing among selected demographic variables (gender and locality) and perceivedstresslevels, sourcesof stressand ways of coping with stress. 32

Chapter three: The Emergenceand Essenceof counselling needs

3.1 Introduction This chapter will detail an overview of the limited textual sources available on the contemporary counselling movement in an attempt to present current theoretical perceptionsof counsellingpractice in both Westernsocietyand Kingdom of Bahrain. The accountspresentedin this chapterwill be primarily normative. They will examinehow various theorists have constructedtheir view points of counsellingby examining what they propose ought to be its central constituentsand aspects.There are many problems with current theoretical perceptions of counselling, and there are conflicting elements that continue to addto the existing confusionin the field.

3.2 Students' Counselling Needs Counselling plays an important role in today's higher educational institutions. Its importance is derived from the role it plays in providing an adequateenvironmentthat, in turn, enhances students' academic performance (Al-Banna, 2001). Considering the increasingnumber of students'problemsat collegesand universitiesnationwide, the role of counselling,therefore,is crucial (Sax, 1997). As an example of theseincreasedproblems,a longitudinal study through three recenttime periods [1988 -1992,1992 - 1996,1996-2001] in a Midwestern University Counselling Service, six problems areas showed a steep increase from the first time period to the second, then appearedto stabilize from the second to the third time period. Problems following this pattern included relationshipproblems,stress/anxiety,family issues,physical 33

problems, personality disorders, suicidal thought and sexual assault (Benton, 2003). Primarily, to fully understandstudents'need for counselling, it is vital to understandthe concept of counselling,the structureof counselling and the role of counsellingservicesin meetingstudentneedsin higher education. Accordingly, for university authorities to prepare for and respond best to the current counselling needsof their students,they need to know what theseneedsand how it effect studentshealth,behaviourand achievement.

3.3 Definition of Counselling Most attemptsto define what counselling is begin with an explanationof what it is not. The British Association for Counselling(1993) offers this definition: "The overall aim of counselling is to provide an opportunityfor the client to work towards living in a more satisfyingand resourceful way. The term 'counselling' includeswork with individuals, pairs or group of people often, but not always, referred to as clients. The objectivesof particular counselling relationships will vary according to the clients needs but may well be concerned with developmentalissues,addressingand resolving specific problems, making decisions, coping with crisis, developing personal insights and knowledge, working through feeling of inner conflict or improving relationships with others. The counsellor's role is tofacilitate the client'swork but in ways which respect the clients' values,personal resourcesand capacityfor self-determination" (p.6). Felthamand Dryden (1993) define counsellingas "a principled relationship characterised by the application of one or more psychological theories and a recognised set of communicationskills, modified by experience,intuition and other interpersonalfactors, to clients' concerns problems or aspirations. Its predominant ethos is one of facilitation rather than of advice giving or coercion. It may be of very brief or long duration, take 34

place in an organisational or private practice setting and may or may not overlap with practical, medical and other matters of personal welfare" in fact, this definition goes further, and emphasisthat: " counselling is a service sought by people in distress or in some degree of confusionwho wish to discussand resolvethesein a relationship which is more disciplined and confidential than friendship, and perhaps less stigmatising than helping relationshipsoffered in traditional medicalor psychiatric setting."(p.20)

It could be concludedthat the aim of counsellingcould be summarisedin three statements. First, counselling supplies support and understanding; Secondly, it creates trusting relationships in a positive atmospherein order to permit clients to expresstheir feelings. Third, counselling involves working with clients to clarify feelings and situations. "The task of counsellingis to give the client an opportunity to explore,discover,and clarify ways of living more satisfyingand resourcefully" (B.A. C. Codeof Ethics, 1993).

Everyone's life hasperiods when help and supportare necessary.Transition processes,live events,crises, specific or traumatic situations or problems with personaldevelopmentare part and bundle of life (Pereira, 1997). For young adults in particular, Woolfe and Dryden (1996) indicated that the psychologicalproblems of the young adult period, ranging from ages18 to 25, are generally concernedwith personaldifficulties, which occur in relation to family, friends, feelings of anxiety or dissatisfactionwith their own behaviour, a senseof failure to meet desiredgoalsin life, and inability to function in the wider world.

3.4The Roleof CounsellingServicesin Higher Education The degree of stress and anxiety experiencedby students influences the need for a counselling service, as it has been shown to be one effective way to help students cope

35

better with stress,especiallythe high-level stressthat limits performance(Al-Banna, 2001; Strehle,1992). Over the last century, the role of the college counselling service has developed significantly. Early counselling involved merely academic and career counselling. The mean focus was on the students'needs and their related problems. Modem counselling servicesfocus on how to help studentscope with college life, and include a wide variety of services to the college community, including individual, couple and group therapiesfor dealing with issues ranging from chronic and severe mental illness to the common adjustmentissuesof the averagecollege students,crisis intervention services,consultation servicesfor faculty, staff and studentsand outreachand educationservicesfor the campus and community at large (Al-Banna, 2001; Layla, 2003; Nelson, 2003). In summary,there are four main models for the role of counselling services at colleges: the career and academic counselling model, the psychotherapymodel, the developmentmodel and the consultation/outreachmodel.

3.5 University Students and counselling needs According to Rana (2000), most studentsseekcounselling when a crisis point is reached, when they cannot find a way of moving forward on their own and they recognisethat they are in need of help. However, this generalisationcould be argued against,as it mentioned by Flisher et al (2002) that less than one-third of a group of studentswho were assessedto be psychologically ill on the basis of annual systematic structural interviews used counselling services. In the same study, basedon an examination of counselling service documentsfor studentsseeking counsellingover three years, Flisher et al found that there are several groups of students who were more likely to seek counselling. For example, female students were more likely to receive counselling than males. Also, students in 36

faculties allied to the humanities were more likely to seek counselling.First year study students were more likely to receive counselling services than more senior students. Furthermore, students eligible for financial assistancewere more likely to receive counselling services.In addition, a study by Kahn andNauta (1997) amongundergraduate studentsconcludedthat students'attitudestoward seekinghelp are influencedpositively by their problem-solving appraisal.

3.6 Counselling in Islamic context The term Muslim World refers to the area whose inhabitantsare predominantlyMuslim. This area extends from Morocco to Indonesia,with two gaps filled by people who are predominantly Hindu in India and Thailand and the other co-extensivewith China, Japan and Tibet. The traditional centres of the Muslim world are Makkah and Medina in Saudi Arabia. Although people may not practise Islam with the kind of fervour that prevailed among Muslims in the early days of Islam, strong Muslim communities are still found in such places as Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia etc., while there are also somecountries or areas such as Turkey, where the ruling authorities have constitutionally replaced their norm of Islam by Secularism.

3.6.1 Man* in the Islamic viewpoint The Muslims community believe in knowledge. This knowledge, althoughsincereand * Rogers use the term Man by meaning of human or individual, which refer to man and women. In Islam the term Man is a common word in Qur'an, which representman and women.

37

genuine,is however, only partial, becauseit is only an individual's experienceof reality, and as that individual is a humanbeing, his experiencecannever be complete. The only sourceof completeknowledge is God or, in the Muslim term, "Allah". Nevertheless,as a person's experiencecontinually expands,so his knowledge is also continually advancing and expanding. This expansionof knowledge meansto Bahraini Muslims continuedrecreation of the self, becauseknowledge of anything otherthan the self is a meansof making anything other than the self a part of one's self (Almoshawah,2001). It is through selfawarenessthat man becomesconsciousof his relationshipwith God, with nature and with the world at large; furthermore,it is within this self that the essenceof man lies hidden.

However, self-awarenessis not easily accessibleto every individual becauseof the nature granted to man by God. On the one hand, God hascreatedman in the best possibleimage and given him divine spirit, and God hasplacedman in the world of matter and given him a passionatesoul attachedto his body, which tempts him towards the lowest of the low. Moreover, the greatevil power hasnot been stoppedby God from trying to tempt man from the path of righteousness. Thus, man is constantly in conflict within himself and with forces surrounding him. Therefore,the norm of righteousnessrevealedor allow to man by God through his chosen Prophets(peace be upon them) can be respondedto by the divine spirit which is within man; at the sametime, there is a norm of selfishnesswhich evil powers within himself and outside him tempt him to acceptfor his temporary gainin this world (Mawdudi, 1985).

The Muslim can use imagination to help him to seethe inter-relationship among various experiences and perceptions. Furthermore, imagination can establish the relationship betweenthe spirit and the self. 38

3.6.2 Bahraini community attitudes towards psychology and counselling Religion is an important cultural factor that influences the decision to select a specific sourceof help and needfor counsellingin Muslim culture (Al-Bahrani, 2004). Since Bahrain is Islamic region, the Qur'an is the foremost reference of the Bahraini community, and on that the religious scholar are unanimous. The Qur'an gives general guidelines on all aspectsof conduct for the Islamic community. The secondsource of guidance in living is the Sunnahof the Prophet Muhammad(peace be upon him), which consists of all the narrations going back to the Prophet, that report his acts, sayings or things of which he tacitly approved. The tradition or Sunnahof the Prophet is supportfor the Qur'an; it testifies to its authority and enjoins the community to comply with it. It is most important to point out that Bahraini, like all Muslims, believethat the Prophet (peace be upon him) never spoke out of his own imagination or promulgatedhis own ideas, but only transmitted what God had revealed unto him (AL Zamil, 1997). However, in the Muslim community as a religious community thereare still strongdifferencesof opinion on various mattersof philosophy and conduct,arising out of differencesin interpretationof the Sunnah.There are four major schoolsof Sunnahin Islam which have togetherrendereda great serviceto the causeof Islamic life, especiallyjurisprudence.

There is a somewhatnegative attitude in the Bahraini community towards counselling,not becauseit comes from the Western,modem world, but becauseof its links to philosophy. Whereas, Western philosophy and some Muslim countries accept Descartes, Leibwitz, Kant, Hume and Hegel, and moreover, in the ninth and tenth Islamic centuries,there were Muslim philosophers such AL-Farabi or Ibn Sina (known in the West as Avicenne), are

39

little known and understoodin Bahrain. SomeotherIslamic countriessuch as Egypt have a positive attitude to counselling,psychologyand philosophy. Where the Bahraini community has a positive attitude is in using the Holy Qur'an and Sunnahto teachand understoodcounselling,and furthermore,using the Qur'an and looking to the Sunnahfor interpretation and guidanceon human characterand personality (Rabia, 1998).

Regards university students in particular, Al-Bahrani (2004) concluded that religious values, such as fate and God's will, help university studentsto copewith stress,sincethese religious values rooted in the social and educational system. Accordingly, the religious paradigmoffers an explanationfor why someArab Muslim people declinedto pathologies somebehaviourand thus did not usementalhealthservices. However, Al-Rowaie (2001) pointed out that other forms of counsellinghelp prominentin Arab Muslim culture. For example, family is a very important source of support. While mentoring,in general,is a part of "informal counselling"philosophy. This form of informal counsellingmay be consideredas a way of providing help or socialsupportto individuals.

3.6.3 Person-Centred approach The most widely usedtherapeuticapproachin Britain is the person-centred,psychodynamic approach.The person-centredthe most important part of humanistic improvement (Palmer et al., 1997). According to this approach,peoplehavetwo primary needs:self-actualisation and love, the feeling of being valued by peoplearoundthem.

Moreover,centralto theperson-centred theoryis self-concept, whichmeanshow someone perceivesall his attributesasaperson.Rogersusedthesimpleterm`conditionsof worth' to 40

describehow the self-conceptof the child is developedor shapedby parenthood(McLeod, 1998). Rogers' assumptionis that human nature as basically good. The concept of an organism is the idea of real and unique self and the personhas experienceand the placing of kind of experiencewhich focusing in his ability to become satisfied about actualising tendency(Jones,1989) However, Rogers describedthe personat the core as not terribly wrong; there is something positive underneaththe hurt -a self, which can go in a positive way, without anyhate (Rogers, 1961).

3.6.4 Rogerian Ideas and basic beliefs in Islam There are manypivotal points, centralto the understandingof person-centredtheory, which canbe interpretedin the light of Islam: The basic belief of Islam createsan attitude of peaceand contentment,purges the mind of jealousy, envy and greed and keeps away the temptationsto resort to what is baseand unfair to achieve success. Moreover, man's duty only to endeavourand to struggle fairly, knows that successand failure dependon God; if he wishes to give, no power can prevent him from so doing and if he doesnot, nothing will be achieved. Thereare two things which makeman cowardly: i)

Fear of death andlove of safety

ii)

The idea that there is someoneelse besidesGod who can take away life and that is man (Mawdudi, 1985)

Nevertheless,man has the capacity to acquire knowledge, the faculty to think and reflect, and the ability to distinguish right from wrong. God has grantedhim a certain amount of freedomof will and action.

41

The Bahraini community believe in faith as a Muslim community, which meansa faith that makesthem wholeheartedlysubmit to God. They follow the way of God, seekingto devote themselvesheart and soul to seekinghis pleasureby doing all that he likes andby avoiding all that he dislikes. Everyone in that community believes that one's faith should be given exclusively to God, which meansto concentrateone's loyalties, concerns,affections and adorationon God and not to allow any attachmentsto strike such deeproots in one's heart that one may ceaseto be capableof sacrificing them for his sake.

The Rogerian in the person centredapproacharguesthat people seekto fulfil two primary needs;first, the need for self-actualisationand secondthe need to be loved and held in high esteemby others (McLeod, 1998). In the Muslim community generally and in Bahraini especially, a person earnslove and respectwhen he becomesa believer in God and faith. Furthermore, the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: "None of you truly believes until he wishesfor his brother what he wishesfor himsef" (Bukari andMuslim). The main point in this "Hadith" is that people's friendship or relationshipshould not be for materialistic or superficial things; they should value others for God's sake. On the authority of Ibn Umar "The Prophet (peace be upon him) passed by man who was counselling his brother on modesty (he was advising him not to be shy or modest),the Prophet said.- Leave him, and do not advise him like this,for modestyis a part of faith ". (Bukhari and Muslim) Thus, anyone who joins in the Islamic community will have the samerights and social status, and they will respect different attitudes or excuse each other for differences. Moreover, everyone believes in faith and according to this faith is worship, includes for instance,dealings with parents,relatives and friends, helping the poor and destitute and open, happy relationships betweenpeople Each member in that community does these . 42

things, just to seekthe pleasureof God. Thus, worship is an all inclusive term for all that God loves of the external and internal sayings and action of a person. Furthermore, worship is everything one says or does for the pleasureof God, which includes not just rituals but also beliefs, social activities andthe personalcontribution to the welfare of one's fellow human beings. Thus, a person in performing worship will becomeaware and genuinewith himself and with others. This is in line with Rogers' important point in therapy,that the person should be aware of and fully experiencehis own feelings, including positive feelings, and be genuinewith himself (Rogers, 1961).The Prophet(peacebe upon him) said, "the new-born is born with innate disposition, and may become a Jew, a Christian or Magician by his parents" (Bukari and Muslim).

In the Muslim world there are different opinions about what is innate, and what Prophet (peacebe upon him) meantby Innate. On the one hand, someMuslim writers go with faith and worship, which meansGod knows before a person's birth, whether he will becomea Jew a Christian or Magician (AL Abdultife, 1975). On the other hand,there arethosewho think that what are innate is self-acceptanceand the child's belief is influenced by his parents, in interaction with his environment (AL-Zamila, 1997). Apparently, Rogers arguedthat the child needsa strongfeeling of being loved by his/herparents,but when they offer that to him, it may be conditional or unconditional(McLeod, 1998). Bahraini culture has someelementswhich are consistentwith the person centredapproach. However, religion has set a goal for man in the Bahraini community, and he achieveshis goal within the framework of the society in which he lives and has his being. The individual is thus seenin the context of his family, while the family always is seenin the context of society and societyin the context of the world of humanity on this earth. 43

Rogers' theory and attitude, coming from a Christian background,and Bahraini values and attitudes coming from a Muslim background, share some affinity and can work together because the basic nature of man never changes, despite the different concepts and philosophical approaches to human personality. Thus, Bahraini counsellors need to understandRogers' theory and explore the techniquesof the person-centredapproach,to seehow the approachcanbe adaptedto the Bahraini community.

3.7 Summary The recent Chapterhas addressedthe theoretical framework and related literature review related to the study conceptsof counselling needs.In addition, the chapterhas reviewed previous researchstudies. Based on a discussion of the literature review and previous research study; the present study has identified several aims. First, it aims to assess counselling needs.It also examinesany differencesexisting among selecteddemographic variables(gender,age,year of study, social status)

44

Chapter Four Methodology

4.1 Introduction The term methodology in social researchrefers to the strategies,which contribute to how information is identified and analysedin relation to a researchproblem (Gilbert, 2001). Methodology reflects the science view as Nachmiasand Nachmias (1992) pointed that: "Scienceis not united by its subjectbut rather by its methodology" (p. 14). This chapter describesand arguesfor the appropriatenessof the researchstrategiesfor a study, which aims to identify and prioritise university studentsin Bahrain universities ' sources and levels of stress,coping strategiesand counselling needs. First, the research methodsthat implied for this study are presentedand justified. In the secondand third sections, the methodological literature is reviewed in order to define and support the selection of the specific techniques,qualitative and quantitative,by which the data for the study are obtained and reported. Qualitative technique consideredas study one, while quantitative techniqueconsideredas study two, In addition, an exploratory study result is presented,as it consider being an initial step to construct the questionnaire.Also, pilot study results are presented as it considers being pre-test step for the constructed questionnaire.

4.2 Research Methodology Galliers (1994) reportedthat the selectionof an appropriateresearchmethodto collect data is a major task during the researchdesignprocesson the way to achievethe researchaims. This is becausethere are multiple methodologiesto choose from, so the selection of an 45

appropriatemethod is not an easytask. Psychologists,in particular, draw on a much wider range of researchmethodsthan anyother science.(Hayes,2000). Indeed, the nature of the data to be collected and the researchquestions determinethe researchmethod or methods that should be followed in any research(Breakwell et al., 2000). In the present case, the need was first to survey a large number of university studentsin Bahrain universitiesin order to gain a greaterunderstandingof the main sources of university students in Bahrain universities ' stress, and then to identify applicable requirementsfor coping with their stress. The survey approachis suggestedto be the best, if not the only, methodwhich, accordingto Cohen and Manion (1994), " gathers data at a particular point in time with the intention of describingthe nature of existing conditions, or identifying standards against which existing conditions can be compared,or determining the relationshipsthat exist betweenspecificevents" (p.83) In psychological survey research,the first issueto be decided is which approachshould be adoptedfor data collection, qualitative or quantitative,especially bearing in mind that, as Bryman (1996) put it "Bach has its own advantagesand disadvantages"(p.46). In distinguishing between qualitative and quantitative data, Verma and Mallik (1999) commented,"These labels do not representdiscrete categoriesor clusters,but are merely endpointsof a continuum" (p. 43).

As remarked by Paton (1990), a combination of methodscould help the researcherto tap the strengthsof each of thesedata sources,and therebyreducing the weaknessof a single method. Similarly, Van Dalen (1979) statedthat to obtain the information requiredto solve a problem, several instruments must be employed, as feelings, beliefs, expectations, experienceand behaviour differ from one individual to another. These differenceshave to be exploredaccordingly,but a singlemethod approachmay not give the researcherfreedom 46

to explore the full complexity of human interactionand behaviour(Hanwoodand Nicolson, 1995). Furthermore, the nature of the researchquestionsin the present study requires a multifaceted approach incorporating both questionnairesand interviews. Last, using a combination of both quantitative and qualitative method provides the researcherwith a number of sourcesof information, thus allowing data,which arenot availablethrough one method to be gathered through another. Although somewriters, such as (Guba, 1985), argued against the reconciliation of both quantitative and qualitative method, in social scienceresearchwhere social behaviouror institutional aspectsare explored,no strict rules regarding choice of methodology are maintained. Indeed,many scientists recognisethat using many methods during research,or triangulation, are the most familiar approachin social research(Brewer and Hunter, 1989). Cohen and Manion (1985, p.254) describe triangulation in the following words: "Triangular techniquesin the social scienceattempt to map out, or explain more fully, the richness and complexity of human behaviour by studying it from than one standpoint and, in so doing by making useof both quantitative and qualitative data".

In this study, both qualitative and quantitative methodsemployed Questionnairesused to generatequantitativedata. Face- to - face interviewshad beenusedto generatequalitative data, so as to develop a rounded analysis of University students' sourcesof stress and coping strategies. Therefore, the intention of this study was twofold. First, collecting quantitative data to indicate students' sources of stress, coping strategies and their counselling needs. The second aim of the study was to obtain qualitative data from participants (students), regarding students' experience of stress, coping with stress, counselling needs and coping strategies,the researcherused semi-structuredinterviews. This method facilitated the gaining of a sensitivedetailed understandingof existing sources 47

of stressand incorporateda wider variety of suggestionsof how it can be copedwith, and inform the essential needs of a counselling service. Semi-structuredinterviews made it possible to gain a broader picture by asking further probing questions,should an initial responselack detail.

The following Figure 4.1 gives a general picture of the overall design of the research strategiesemployedto addressthe aims of the study.

Figure 4.1 ResearchDesign

48

Figure 4.1 Flow Diagram of ResearchStrategy Reviewing Related Literature

Introduction about Stress,Copingand counsellingneeds

Chapter1

The researchexperience and interest Reviewingthe definition of Stress,Coping Strategies,Counselling needand Counsellingin Islamic context Chapter2 and 3

Methodology Exploratory /Pilot study Main study (Chapter4) Constructingresearch instrumentto obtain qualitative and quantitativedata questionnaire. I

Settingthe researchquestion(First Version)for the main data

Piloting, amendingandstandardisingthe questionnaire,Interview questionvalidity and reliability.

Designingresearchquestionnairefor the main datarequired Conductingmain study Interview and questionnaire Data Analysis

Results

Discussion

49

4.3Quantitativeinquiry (Study 1) Quantitativeresearchrefers to studieswhose findings are mainly the product of statistical summary and analysis(Shaughnessyet al, 2000), which is exemplified by social surveys and experimentalinvestigation(Bryman, 1996).However,the terms `quantitativeresearch' and 'qualitative research' are not confined to the ways of gatheringdata;they have cometo signify divergent assumptionsabout the natureand purposesof researchin social sciences (Bryman, 1996). As assertedby Verma and Mallick (1999), the choice of a particular perspective "has implications for the type of evidenceto be collected and the mode of analysis usedin the investigationof a researchquestionor issue" (p. 26). In fact, Babbie, (1998) and Chadwick et al. (1984) have stated that survey researchis probably the best known and most widely used researchmethod in social science. It permits the collection of data from large numbersof respondentsin a relatively short period and at a low cost. In addition, it is especiallyeffective when combinedwith other methods. In addition, Babbie (1998) indicated three possible objectives for a researchsurvey: it makes a descriptive assertion about some population, provides a useful device for a researcherwho is only beginning inquiry into a particular topic and makes an explanatory assertionabout somepopulation. There are basically two types of survey: the interview survey, in which the replies from the respondents are recorded by the researcher's collaborators, the interviewers, and the questionnaire survey, in which the respondentsthemselves are asked to record their responseson the instrument or form provided (Chadwick, 1984). Wolf, 1990 defined the questionnairesas "a self -report instrument usedfor gathering information about variablesof interest to an investigator.It consistsof numberof questions of items on paper that the respondentreads and answers." (p. 374). 50

Since the researcherhad to consider the time involved, bearing in mind that shehoped to gather information from at least two hundred students'survey researchwas chosenas the most appropriate method for this phase of the study. Furthermore, as the questionnaire enables the researcher to gather a substantial amount of data from a larger number of different categoriesin a short period of time, the questionnaireis one of primary tools for collecting data in this study.

4.3.1 Rationale for using a Questionnaire Questionnaires are regarded as the most widely and frequently used data collecting instruments.They canbe usedto obtain information about current conditions and practices, and explore attitudes and opinions about certain issues,objects and situations (Ary et al., 1990). Someadvantagesof the questionnairearethe following. First, it enables the researcherto gather data from a large number of respondents.A questionnaireprovides enoughtime to help respondentsthink and answer accurately. In addition, data from questionnairescan be analysedeasily (Henersonet al, 1987). In the same context, Oppenheim (1997) advocatesusing a questionnaire,as it is both efficient and practical, sinceit allows for the gatheringof a large and representativesample. Data can also be obtained from a questionnairewithin a relatively short time and at a reasonablylow cost. However, the limitations of using a questionnairemust be recognized,as it doesnot allow the data collected to be viewed in much depth, compared with other methods (Hayes, 2000). Consequently,for the purpose of this study, and to add depth to the quantitative data obtained from the questionnaire, it was thought reasonable to combine the questionnairewith semi-structuredinterviews,which will be discussedlater.

51

It was decided that the questionnairewould focus on the variables reflecting the study's main purposeand their dimensions:sourcesof stress,perceivedlevelsof stress,and coping strategiesamong university studentsin Bahrain universities,and, finally, counsellingneeds.

4.3.2 Constructing the questionnaire Questionnaireconstructionis the most crucial stagein doing a questionnaire-based survey. Bell (1993, p.75) made it clear that "it is harder to produce a really good questionnaire than might be imagined". Verma and Mallick (1999, pp.117,118) recommendedthat the first step in constructing the questionnaireis to identify clearly the general information neededand the objectivesof the study, to afford a touchstoneagainst which the first draft of the questionnairecan be tested. They added,"Care should also be takento ensure that, so far as can possibly be foreseen, the questionscover all aspectsof the study. On the other handyin designinga questionnaire,the researchermustbe wary of making excessive demandson the peoplefor whom it is intended(P.118). In order to develop the questionnaire,the researcherfirst decided on the generaltypes of information required based on the study objectives. Secondly, it was necessary to determine, in general, which people data would be obtained from. One category was suggestedas sourcesof the information wanted: studentsstudying in two of Bahrainprivate universities. More details about the categoriesand why they were selectedwill be given later. Thirdly, in accordancewith the study aims, the main body of the questionnaireis arrangedinto four sections: 1) sourcesof stress;2) levels of stress;3); coping strategies4) counsellingneeds.

52

4.3.3 Questionnaire procedures Question selection, writing and proceduresfor administeringthe questionnaireshould be consideredcarefully, as Bell (1993) advised,"Care has to be taken in selecting questions type, in question-writing, in the design,piloting, distribution, and return of questionnaires" (p. 75). A good deal of thought must go into eachstep,because,as Youngman,(1994, p. 249) explains `for worthwhile results a muchmore rigorous procedure is necessary." Prior to constructing the questionnaire,identifying the sourcesof the questionnaireitems or questionsis very important. The first sourcefor the questionnaire,as recommendedby Youngman (1994), is relevant literature, which he describedas "the prime source" (p. 249). He addsthat the literature review will either "have revealed specific questions,or more generally it will

have suggested important areas needing more detailed

investigation". In the presentstudy, four areas of the literature in fact were examinedwith the hope of collecting appropriatequestions. First, the culture and belief systemsin historical periods in Bahrain were surveyed.Secondly,official documentsrelating to Counselling Services for student problems were reviewed. Some of the information collected for the initial fieldwork comes from official sources,which are not published,however. Third, a review was made of publishedmaterial, including books and articlesthat deal with the topic of this thesis, as well as newspapers,magazinesand TV programmeswhich dealt with student problems, mainly Bahraini publications in thesefields. These were recognisedto be the most important sourcesin the literature for collecting the questionnaireitems. However, a shortage of information in published materials with regard to university studentsin Bahrain universities ' experiencesled to the decision to seekanother sourceof appropriatequestions.This final and fourth sourceis the results from the initial exploratory study . 53

4.4 Exploratory Study The exploratory study was conducted(April 2002) in order to identify university students' sources of stress in kingdom of Bahrain universities. The main aims of this exploratory study were: a) To get a senseof the feelings of university studentsin Bahrainuniversities with regardto their understandingof their sourcesof stress;b) To categorisethesefeelings among university studentswith respectto demographicvariables;c) T suggestcounselling needsor other remediesnecessaryto deal with the stressproblemsof studentsaccordingto their seriousness.The analysis of this exploratory study contributed to the content of questionnaire. Bryman (2001) advocated conducting an exploratory study before constructingthe main researchquestionnaire,as this approachhelpsto uncoverany missing or unexpresseddata in answeringthe questionnairesand to interpret students'expressions. The data from the exploratory study have alreadybeen analysed. In this study, a random sample of 45 university students, 25 female students and 20 male students at different academiclevels of study were selectedrandomly to answeropen-endedquestionnaire. The researcher present the main aim of the questionnaire and give assuranceson its confidentiality, and the participantsthen agreedto volunteer and participatein completing this questionnaire. The questionnairewas designedspecifically to include two questionsin form of open-ended. The first question askedparticipants to describethe problemsthey had at the moment and how theseproblemscausedthem stress. They were askedto rate the problems in order of importance (number 1 for the most important problem,number 2 for the next most importantproblem, etc.). The secondquestionaskedhow they dealt with this problem or stressful situation. This open -ended questionnairewas reviewed by expert psychologists in Bahrain University to ensure it matches the ethical policies, regarding university studentsin kingdom of Bahraini universities.According to Robson(2002), there 54

are several advantagesto using open -ended questions:they are flexible, encompassmore depth and clear up any misunderstanding,produceunexpectedor unanticipatedanswersand make a truer assessmentof what the respondentreally believes. Last, they encouragecooperation. In this sense, the researcher observed that responsesto this questionnairewere above researchexpectations,as most studentswere co-operativeand discussedtheir feelings of stressfluently and in detail. The researcherusedcontent analysis to code the data. Content analysisis an approachto describe qualitative data, that is, data which do not appearin the form of numbersbut as words or other kinds of meaningful information, in quantitative form. However, content analysisis not qualitative analysis,even though it is usedwith qualitative dataInstead,it is a way of convertingthosedata into quantitative information (Hayes,2000). In addition, it is not a researchmethod,even though it is usually treatedas being so becauseconsidereda distinctive approachto analysis (Bryman, 2001). In a sense,content analysis is codified common sense(Robson,2002) Bryman (2001) alluded to the advantageof using contentanalysis,suggestingthat it is an objective approach of analysis. The coding scheme is clearly set out easily for it to be followed. Also, it is a highly flexible approach,which can be applied to a wide variety of different kinds of unstructuredinformation that canbe generatedwithin social groups. Robson(2002) hasidentified sex stagesto carry out contentanalysis: 1. Startwith researchquestion 2. Determinesamplingstrategy 3. Define recording unit

4. Constructcategories for analysis 55

S. Test coding on samplesof text and assessreliability 6. Carry out analysis

For, Bryman (2001) there are two crucial stagesin the content analysisprocessof doing content analysis. The first is designinga coding schedule,a form onto which all the data relating to an item can be coded and entered. The second is a coding manual, which containsstatementsof instructions to the coderthat also includes all possiblecategoriesfor eachitem being coded.In the presentexploratorystudy the coding items were casenumber and gender. The coding manual contained the possible categoriesof sources of stress: family problems, social problems, interpersonalproblems, academic problems, religious and ethical issues and general problems. These data were coded by computer, using Microsoft Excel software. Then these data were converted to numbers according to frequency. The sourcesof stress experiencedby the studentswere analysedaccording to their frequency of mention. These were expressedas percentages,as shown in Table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1 Exploratory study: Sourcesof stress (n=45) Domain

Study Family Social Personaland Emotional Health Economic Leisure Ethics Media Career Total

Frequency 90 75 65 49 44 43 43 43 42 4 456

Percentage 19.7% 16.4% 14.2% 10.7% 9.6% 9.4% 9.4% 9.4% 9.2% 0.8% 100%

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Rank Order 1 2 3 4 5 7 7 7 9 10

Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1 shows that the highest domain as a sourceof stressfor studentsis Study followed by Family then social. This result indicates that studentsin the exploratory study identified the study domainas the most frequentsourceof stress.

Table 4.2: Exploratory study: Sourcesof Stress among students- Female (n=25) Domain Stud Family Personaland Emotional Health Leisure Ethics Media Social Economic Career Total

Frequency 52 40 29 27 24 21 21 20 19 1 264

Percentage 20% 15% 11% 10% 9% 8% 8% 7.5% 7.1%

0.37 100

Rank Order 1 2 3 4 5 7 7 7 9 10

Table 4.2 show the frequency of sources of stressamong female students. The results indicated that the study domain ranked highest as a sourceof stressamongfemale students, followed by the family, then the healthdomains.

On the following, Table 4.3 showsthe frequency of sourcesof stressamongmale students in the pilot study. The results show that the study domain was the main sourceof stressin this group, followed by the family, social and economicdomains.

57

Table 4.3: Exploratory study: Sourcesof Stressamong student Male (n = 20) Domain Study Family Social Economic Ethics Media Personaland Emotion Leisure Health

Frequency 38 35 35 24 22 21 20 19 17

Percentage 16.2% 14.9% 14.9% 10.2% 9.4% 8.5% 8.1% 7.2%

Rank Order 1 2.5 2.5 4 5 6 7 8 9

Career

3

1.2

10

Total

234

100%

8.9%

It has been concludedfrom the results of the exploratory study that study problemsplay a major role in student stress. This result is consistentwith the findings in most studies conducted among university students, and is expected,since the demandsof university study are the main preoccupationfor studentsof this age, alongside new and different experiencesfor most of students,which can also lead to stress. Therewere no differences between males and females with regard to their main sourcesof stress,but the source of stress which ranked third was health and physical by females and economic issues by males. This difference could be attributed to the effect of the Bahraini culture, which conceivesthe role of the male as more concernedthan the female with economicissues.

4.SConstructing questionnaire When starting to construct the questionnaire,a decision must be made regarding the type and the form of questions that would be asked based on the literature review and exploratory study analysis data. In the light of the nature of the investigation, closed questionswere believed to be the appropriate form. This type of question was selectedin 58

accordancewith the advice of Oppenheim(1999) who suggestedclosedquestionnairesare "easier and quicker to answer, they require no writing, and quantification is straightforward; this often meansthat more questionscan be askedwithin a given lengthof time and that more can be accomplishedwith a given sumof money" (p. 114). A large number of items and questionsare assembled,and then require reviewing, refining and reducing. For each item, an examination is conductedagainst the following criteria suggestedby Bell (1993, p. 88): Is there anyambiguity, imprecision or assumption? Are you asking respondentsto remember?Will they be able to? Are you asking for knowledgerespondentsmay not have? Are thereany double, leadingpresuming,hypotheticalor offensivequestions? Undoubtedly,it was a difficult processto selectthe most appropriateitems and improve the questions.Therefore,in addition to the researchers'own refining, there was a great dealof consultationtook place with the researchers'supervisorsand with some colleagueswho sharethe sameinterest.

4.5.1 Questionnaire Scale A close-endedquestionnairewith five point Likert scalesis most commonly usedin social research.In this study, the respondentswere asked to mark a 5-point Likert -type scale from strongly agree (5 points) to strongly disagree(1 point), accordingto their experience of stressor coping strategies(seeAppendix A). The highest achievablescorefor eachitem is 5 points, whereasthe lowest achievablescoreis 1 pq{qý. The participants were asked to answer four sectionsof the questionnaire.The first section was designedto obtain generalbackgroundinformation on respondents,the secondsection

59

focused on the sourcesof stresswith a scale rating from 1 to five to assesslevel of the mentionedstresssources. The third sectionfocused on level of stress,with a scaleranging from 1 (never),to 5 (very often). The fourth section identified which coping strategiesstudentusedwhen they feel stress, with a range from 1 to 5 for frequency of use The final section focused on the counsellingneeds,with a scaleranging from 1 to 5 to assessthe level of counsellingneeds (see Appendix A)

4.5.2Translation of instruments into Arabic The questionnaire and interview were translated into the Arabic language, since the questionnairehad to be administratedin Arabic. Brislin and Triandis (1980) recommendedfour stepsfor the translationprocess: 1. The original version may be translatedinto the target language.

2. Thetranslationmustbe grammatically checked. 3. The target documentmust be translatedback into the original languageand checked with the original. 4. A pre-test is to be takenbefore the actual study is conducted. For translation of the instrument in this study, the researcher has translated the questionnaire content to Arabic. The researcher asked three experts from psychology departmentin Bahrain University to checkthe translation.Also, two linguistic expert were askedto ensurethe accuracyof this translationand its' grammaticalcorrectness.

60

4.5.3 Reliability Reliability is the extent to which the samemeasuringdevice, or a whole researchproject, would produce the same result if used on a different occasion with the same study aim (Robson, 2001). To maximise reliability, a multi-term indicator was used. Questions were worded clearly, and there was no risk of ambiguity. The sample was selectedstatistically with the intention that the data obtainedrelated directly to the study (De Vaus, 1986; Newell, 1993) If the items of the questionnaireappearto have a strong correlation, as define statistically, this would imply that the data obtainedrelated directly to the study (De Vaus 1986;Newell 1993). In order to test the reliability of the questionnaire,a Cronbachalphatestwas used. In general,associationsbelow 0.10 are not large enoughto be important, and may evenbe due to sampling error. Relationshipsbetween 0.10 and 0.20 are small but consequential; relationships between0.20 and 0.40 aremoderateto strong, and definitely large enoughto be substantial and important. Any relationship above 0.7 can usually be consideredquite strong (Dometrius, 1992, P.314).

4.5.4 Validity of questionnaire The most important criterion of researchis validity (Bryman, 2001). It is the test of whether the researchinstrumentsreally measureswhat it is supposedto measure(Pallant, 2001). There are severalkinds of validity, among which: face validity and contentvalidity. Holsti (1969) states that content validity, which emphasiseswhether the indicators are measuring different concepts,is most frequently relied upon. This can be assessedduring the pilot study by asking colleaguesor fellow studentswho are familiar with the purposeof

61

the study to consider the questions. De Vaus (1996) state that when conducting an attitudinal study using multiple indicators, the validity is proven more effective than if a single indicator had been used. Additionally, a study is more valid if the respondentsare interested in the subjectand if their anonymity is protected (De Vaus 1996). While the simplest form of validity is face validity. (Hayes, 2000), in which the test reflects the content of the concept.(Bryman, 2001) Face and content validity were consideredin this study. Thesewere ascertainedby asking membersof academicstaff to expressopinions on the face and contentvalidity of the items in the questionnaireaccordingto the following points: The clarity and appropriatenessof the wording of each items, and whether the content of the questionnaire adequately reflected the stress and coping experience on university setting. The refereeswere askedto determinewhether the items belongedto their categoriesor not, by ticking one of the four options: not relevant,minimally relevant, fairly relevant or very relevant. Furthermore, they were invited to make any suggestionsto improve the questionnaire. The researchercollected all questionnaires.To obtain more views on the questionnaire,the researcherhad invited additional referees to give commentsabout its content. The final version of the questionnaireswas preparedfor testits reliability and validity through a pilot study.

4.6 Questionnaire Testing 4.6.1 Pilot Study It was decidedto do a pilot study by distributing the questionnairesin order to ensurethat the questionnairesworked as intended. By piloting the instrument with some staff and 62

studentrespondents,the instructions,answeringcategories,coding procedureand reliability of piloted items were evaluatedin terms of contentand format. In short, the pilot study was seen as an effort to reduce any difficulties that might otherwise have affected the main researchstudy. In order to measureits validity and reliability, the questionnaire,in its Arabic version, was piloted during a visit to both BahrainUniversities in May 2003. In this pilot study, a sample of 20 students, 10 male and 10 Femalestudentsat different academiclevels of study were selectedrandomly to answer an open endedquestionnaire The researchhad presentedthe main aim of the questionnaireand gave assuranceon its confidentially, and the students then agreedto participatein completing it. Feedbacksfrom studentswere indicated if the questionswere clear and understandable. Based on their positive feedback,the questionnairedeemedto be reliable. Any suggestions about the wording have been taken into considerationin the final version. Along the main purposeof this pilot result of its reliability, analysisof the pilot study was basedmainly on descriptive statistic sinceit considersbeing a small sample.

4.6.2 Pilot result The pilot study of the current constructedquestionnaireprovesa high reliability as follow.

63

Pilot Questionnaire Reliability Table 4.4 Pilot Study: Reliability of questionnaire parts. Sourcesof stress

Coding

Alpha

Family Social

PartA PartB

0,8348 0,9229

Religious and Ethical Domain AcademicDomain

Part C

0,7176

Part D

0,9124

FinancialDomain

PartE

0.8423

Personal Health and Physical Domain Time management Other parts of the questionnaire Levels of stress Coping Counsellin needs*

Part F Part G

0,9163 0,9213

Part H Coding

0,9742 Alpha

Total p2 Totalp3 Total

0,8351 0,9705 0,9451

The results show that reliability of all the parts is over 0.7 that indicatesthat the reliability is high for all parts. Thereforethe decision had been to usethe samequestionnairewithin the main study.

Table 4.5 Pilot Study: Sourcesof students' stress (N=20)

StressSources Mean Time

management Religiousand

Ethical Domain Academic Domain Personal Healthand Ph sical Domain Social Domain Family Domain Financial Domain

%

Rank MinimuMaximum Sum

Std.

Deviation 52.81 1.1934

15%

1

m 1.11

2.544

14.5%

2

1.00

4.00 50.8

7732 .

2.537

14.46%

3

1.2

3.7

8569 .

2. 2.1661

14.25% 12.34%

4 5

1.00

4.44 50.0(

1.0

4.2

1.081

3.64 39.41

1. 1.

2.591 3 30.82 3.

2.6306

1.9706 11.23 1.650 9.4% 1.541 8.786%

64

4.3

50.7 43.3

1.0823 1.025 7358 .47654 .5455 .

Table 4.5 showsthat the highest sourceof stressfor studentsis time managementfollowed by religious and ethical, then academicdomain. This result indicates that studentsin pilot study identified the time managementas the most frequentsourcesof stress.

Table 4.6 Pilot Study: Sourcesof student stress-Male (N=10) Sources of Mea Stress Religiousand 2.26 Ethical Domain Personal 2.066 AcademicDomain 2.01921 Time mane emen 1.90 Social Domain 1.682 Health and 1.5722 Physical Domain Family Domai 1.4941 FinancialDomai 1.3681 Total 14.3719

%

Minimu

Su

Std, Deviation 22,64 84897 .

Maximum

15.75

1

1.0(

3.2

14.38 14 13.25 11.7 10.93

2 3 4 5 6

1. 1.2 1.11 1.061 1.0

3.67 3. 3.5 3.6 3.1

10.39 9.51 100

7 8

1. 1.

2.2 2.46

20.6 1.1162 20.1 67617 .91851 19.00 . 16.821 .8018 15.7 81138. . 4804 14.9 . 13.68 5143 .

Table 4.6 shows that the highest sourceof stressfor male studentsis religious and ethical followed by personal, then academicdomain. This result indicates that students in pilot study identified the religious and ethical domain as the mostfrequentsourcesof stress.

Table 4.7 Pilot Study: Sources of student stress Female (N=10) Mean Time management Academic Domain Personal Religiousand Ethical Domain Healthand Physical Domain Social Domain Family Domain FinancialDomain

Rank

Minimum Maximum Sum

Std. Deviation 99767 33.56 .

3.3556 16.2

1

1.8

4.3

3.056

2

2.04

3.7

2.93331 14.1 2.825 13.64

3 4

1.4 1.9

4.44 29.3 4. 28.2

8999 .60534 .

2.760

13.3

5

1.8

4.2

88217 .

2.2588 10.9 1.80591 8.72 1.714 8.277

6 7 8

1.3 1.2 1.1

3.1 22.5 2.5 18.08 3.00 17.14

14.758

65

30.57

27.601

.

70377

56162 .44111 .5450 .

Table 4.7 shows that the highest sourceof stressfor female studentsis time management followed by academic,then personal domain. This result indicates that studentsin pilot . study identified the time managementas the mostfrequentsourcesof stress.

Table 4.8 Pilot Study: Levels of students' stressand counselling needs(N=20) Mean

Minimum

Maximum

Mean

Totalof sources

2.192

1.06

3.2

2.192

of stress Levels of stress

3.171

2.0

4.0

3.171

Counselling

2.894

1.37

4.3

2.894

Std. Deviation .7348 6211 . 1.02527

needs Table 4.8 shows that levels of stressare 3.1714,which consideredas high regard 5 points Likert scale.While the extent sourceof stressis below average.

Table 4.9 Pilot study: Levels of students' stressand counselling needs- Male (N--10) Mean Minimum Maximum Total of

1.796

1.06

2.764

2.07

3.5

6033 .

2.178

1.3

3.6

75711 .

sources of stress

Levelsof

Std. Deviation 3.01 7171 .

stress

Counsellin needs

Table 4.9 shows that levels of stress, extent source of stress and counselingneeds are below average regardfive points Likert scale.

66

Table 4.10 Pilot study: Levels of students' stress and counselling needsFemale(N=10) Mean

Minimum

m Maximu

Std. Deviation 52641 .

Total of sources of stress

TOTALPI 2.588

1.6

3.2

Levelsof stress

TOTAL

3.57

3.1

4.07

28661 .

TOTALP

3.610

2.21

4.3

7122 .

Counselling needs

Table 4.10 shows that female students express high level of stress and needs of counselling.

Table 4,11 Pilot study: University students' coping rank (N=10) Mean

N

1

20

1 50 .

4 00 .

54 75 .

77999 .

2

20

1.50

3.83

52.33

65360 .

3

20

1.50

3.67

48.50

67424 .

2 4167 . 2.3534

4

20 19

3 67 . 3.14

48.33

5

1 00 . 1.14

2.3500

6

20

1.38

3.13

47.00

89099 . 75197 . 57583 .

2.2500

7

20

1.00

3.63

45.00

2.1083

8

20

1.17

3.00

42.17

Accepting 2 7375 responsibility . Plan full TCOPE7 2.6167 problem solving TCOPEI Confronting 2.4250 TCOPE5

coping

TCOPE4 Seeing social k TCOPE3 Self-controlling Positive TCOPE8 Reappraisal TCOPE6 TCOPE2

AEsc nce Distancing

Minimum Maximum Sum

Std. Deviation

Rank

44.71

74890 . 56526 .

Table 4.11 showsthe highestrank of coping strategiesacceptingresponsibilitiesfollowed by plan full problem solving.

67

Table 4.12 Pilot study: Coping Rank among university male students (N=10) Mear N Minimu Maximu TCOPE

Planfull problem 2.383 1 solving TCOPE Accepting 2.300C 1 responsibility TCOPEI Confrontivecoping 2.15001 101 TCOPE Self-controlling 2.071 101 TCOPE Positive Reappraisal 2.02 1 TCOPE Distancing 1.9 1 TCOPE Seeking social 1.883 1 support TCOPE EscapeAvoidance 1.77 1

Su

Std. Deviation 23.8% 6528 .

1.6

3.3

1.5

3.5

23.OC

.

1.5 1.14 1.381 1.1 1.0

3.1 3.14 2.8 3.0 3.3

21.5 20.71 20.2 19.5 18.8

1_. 00

2.7

17.7

72201 .819 .5552 .7288 .8855 . 7041 .

7619

Table 4.12 showsthe highestrank of coping strategiesacceptingresponsibility Followed by plan full problem solving. Table 4.13 Pilot study: Coping Rank among university female students (N=10) N Minimum Maximum 1

1

2.50

4.00

Std. Deviation 31.7 5277 .

2

1

1.83

3.67

29.5

3

1

1.50

3.8

28.5

4

1

2.2

3.63

27,211 43221 .

5 6

1 1

2.001 1.8

3.67 3.13

27.0 26.7

.51997 .3961

7 g

1ý 1

1.5 2.001

3.14 2.67

24.0 22.67

.5532 2960 .

Mea Re TCOPE

Accepting 3.175 responsibility TCOPE Seeking social 2.950 support TCOPE Plan full problem 2.850C solving TCOPE Escape 2.725C Avoidance TCOPEI Confrontcoping 2.700C TCOPE Positive 2.675C Reappraisal TCOPE Self-controllin 12.66671 TCOPE2 Distancing 12.2661

Sum

. .

5094 59551

Table 4.13 showsthe highestrank of coping strategiesis acceptingresponsibility Followed by seekingsocial support.

68

4.7Main Study Sample 4.7.1 Sampling method Before commencingany study, it is vital to be awarewhether the natureof the sample will matter for any conclusiondrawn from it (Breakwell, 2000, p.92). In this senseselecting a sampledependson the type of measurementthe researcherwantsto make,the natureof the population being studied, the complexity of survey design, and the resourcesavailable Breakwell, 2000).

In general, there are several types of probability sampling: simple random, systematic, multistage, cluster and stratified sampling(Bryman, 2001). Stratified random samplingis consideredto be the most appropriateprocedureassociatedwith the presentresearchstudy, as it involves quantitative methodology." Stratified random sample involvesdividing the population into a number of groups or strata, where membersof group share a particular characteristic or characteristics"(Robson, 2002, p. 262). In fact, stratified random sampling can be more efficient than simple random sampling,and the meansof a stratified sampleare likely to be closer to the populationmean (Robson,2002). In addition, it can be usedwhen it is relatively easyto allocateunits to one stratum or more (Bryman, 2001). For the purposeof this study, two strata would be determined,Locality (home-studentsvs. nonhome-students)and gender, sincethesearethe only demographicvariablesthat were easily extracted from information about population distribution held at the registration office, while other variableswere only extractedfrom the relevant questionnairesections.

4.7.2 Sampling size Regardingsamplesize, Robson (2002) pointed out that the larger the sample,the lower the likely error in generalising. However, it is not yet possible to apply a generalrule as to 69

sample size in this case, as this will depend on variations in population with regard to certain characteristicsof the study. It has been suggestedby De Vaus (1986) that a samplesize of 10% of the population for comparable groups is a requirementfor accuracy. However, Ary et al. (1990) statethat although this is the belief of most researchers,it is an opinion, which is not necessarily accurate. The argumentis that the samplingprocedure,not the size of the sample,is more indicative of whetheror not the sampleis representativeof thepopulation. Additionally, Diliman (1991) statesthat the selection criteria and substitution procedures are also contributory factors to the representationsof the sample. Therefore,a purposive selectionwas employedin order to meetthe criteria that directedthis research. The criteria usedfor the sampleselectionwere 30.5% (200) of total numberof studentsin two universities (656 students) in Kingdom of Bahrain, Al-Ahlia University and Open University, distribution of studentby gender(80 female, 120 male), locality (home-student 97, non-homestudents103).

4.7.3 Questionnaire Distributions and Procedure Questionnairescan be given to respondentsdirectly (self-administered)who read the instructions and questionsand then record their answers(Bryman, 2001). The decisionas to which method is to be adopted,accordingto Bell (1993); and Bryman(2001)should be made at an early stage. Youngman (1994) emphasisedthat "Cost, effort, delay and willingness are just a selection of thefactors affecting choice of distribution methodand thereforeno single ideal procedure can be offered"(p. 263). In the light of suchconsiderations,the plan before the distributarieshad been madeto adopt a self-administeredmethod with all researchcategoriesthe questionnaire,in its Arabic

70

version,wasdistributedto universitystudentsduringa visit to bothBahrainUniversities; Al-Ahlia and Open University in May 2004.

4.7.4 Main sample Reliability (Coefficients of Internal Consistency) Reliability is the extent to which a measureproducesconsistentresults (Rudestan,1992) and how free it is from random error (Pallant,2001). Internal consistencyis the degreeto which the items that make up the scale are all measuringthe same underlying attribute (Pallant, 2001). Internal consistencyis applied not to singleitems but to groups of items that are thoughtto measuredifferent aspectsof the sameconcept(Litwin, 1995).To testthe instrumentfor internal consistency,the questionnairewas assessedusing Cronbach'sAlpha coefficient. A value of above 0.7 was obtainedwithin all the variableson standardization sample, which consist of 200 responders; this indicated that the questionnaire was reasonablyreliable.

Table 4.14 Main study: Questionnaire variables reliability among the entire sample Questionnaire parts

Cronbach'sAlpha

N of Items

Sources of stress

959 .

113

Level of stress

767 .

14

Coping strategies

944 .

66

Counselling needs

905 .

19

N=200

Table 4.14 Show that Cronbach's Alpha coefficient was above in all variables. This .7 indicatedthat the questionnairewas reasonablyreliable.

71

Table 4.15Main study: Reliability amongdifferent Sourcesof stressdomains Cronbach's Alpha

N of Item

Family Domain

876 .

17

SocialDomain

884 .

17

AcademicDomain

705 .

12

ReligionDomain

873 .

23

759 .

14

FinancialDomain

818 .

11

PersonalDomain

871 .

10

Time ManagementDomain

898 .

9

Sources of stressdomains'

Health& physicalappearance

Table 4.15 Show that Cronbach'sAlpha coefficient was above in most domains.'I,his .7 indicatedthat the sourceof stressquestionnairewas reasonablyreliable.

4.7.5 Validity (Construct Validity) Constructvalidity was measuredby correlatingthe 8thsourcesof stresswith its total, level of stresswith its total, coping strategywith its total and counsellingneedswith its total. All were significantp= IJt;u" 443)1tA-%L-týY4 ý Cr Ymu,.ll ý c1º..ýý

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APPENDIX E

158

Department of Human Sciences,Brunel University

Research Student Research Proposals: Ethical Monitoring

Form

1)DESCRIPTION 4flQJI

Name of proposer: Title of Project:

/leggy Cpý,

Jý

1Lh"

Supervisor:

0'.

Jej

Sian Gaýiý S

jl q arv

Brief Summary of Project a) aim(s) of the study / researchquestion b) nature of the participants, if applicable, and how accessedor recruited c) the researchmethod(s)

II) SUMMARY OF ETHICAL ISSUES: (to be completed by proposers) (First complete the section over the page; then turn back to this sectionto identify any issues and sayhow they will be addressed):

III) ETHICAL COMMENTS AND REQUIREMENTS OF REVIEWERS (to be completed by reviewers).

Proposal to be resubmitted?

Yes

0'

No

IV) REVIEW OF ETHICAL ISSUES CONCERNING PARTICIPANTS Have you read the documentsoutlining the ethical guidelines for the relevant discipline(s)? (BPS: Ethical Principles for Conducting Researchwith Human Participants, 1993; BSA: Statementof Ethical Practice, 1996;ASA: Ethical Guidelines for Good ResearchPractice, 1999)

No Please CIRCLE the relevant responseto the questions below. If a circle appears in the RIGHT HAND column, provide an explanatory note in the Ethical Issues section over the page (precautions, permissions obtained etc). No

Will participants be informed of the general objectives of the study, and their consent obtained?BPS3.1, BSA1b, ASA4a-f

Will theresearchinvolve anyof the following?BPS3.2-3.5,BSA1e Animals

Q

Yes

Personsunder the age of 16 years

Yes

Personswith special needs

Yes

Personswith mental disorders

Yes

Detained persons

Yes

Other personsdisadvantagedin any way

Yes

Will somesort of deceptionbe practised? (Withholding information or misleading becomes unacceptableif the participants are likely to object or show uneaseoncedebriefed). BPS4.l -4.3

Yes

Will a debriefing be given to participants, to complete their understandingof the natureof the researchor to obtain informed consentwhere this cannot be obtained in advance?BPS5.1-5.3

No

Will participants be informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any point? BPS6.1-6.2,BSAlbi

No

Will researchrecordsremain anonymous,and confidential to the researcherconcerned? BPS7.1, BSAlbii, 3, ASA4f, 5a-e

No

Will researchinvolve possible harm or stress, physical or mental, to the participants? BPS8.1-8.4, BSAla, ld, ASA2a-b

Yes

Will researchinvolve undue intrusion or encroach on privacy? BPS8.3, ASA3a-b

Yes

If observation is employed,without the explicit consent of those observed, is this a public place and would they normally expect to be observed here by strangers?BPS9.1, ASA5a

Yes

If observation is employed,without the explicit consent of those observed,will the anonymity of participants be safeguarded?BSA2

Yes

Are there any other matterswhich might give rise

Yes

to ethicalconcernandto whichtheDepartmentEthics Committee'sattentionshouldbe drawn? Haveyou submittedor will you submittheproposalto anotherEthicalMonitoring body?If so,which body? N0

*Whenresearchingchildrenunder16 yearsof age,it is essentialthat researchers are is in You accompanied or thatresearch carriedout apublic space. mustensurethat consentis obtainedin advancefrom parentsor thosein locoparentis. The researchershould inform intervieweesof the useto which the interview will be put and should clarify the extent to which participantswill have accessto and be able to comment upon the data, and the degreeof consultationand feedbackin relation to publications. ASA7a-d ýn

Signatureof Propos

ate: 'o

a

3 " ca .O U\

Form scrutinised by :

A_Nam Iu

(reviewer 1).Q.::.. :.. ý .................

l, (reviewer 2)....... ,

Date:

VV

3"o

2aa¢-

Date: ý

Reviewers: normally supervisorand Head of Discipline. Copy of form to be held on file by the Departmental ResearchAdministrator. CR 20/11/01

Study Aims This study hasseveralaims. First, it attemptsto assessperceivedlevels of stress experiencedby Bahrainiuniversity students.Second,it aims to indicatethe primary sourcesof stressamongthesestudents.Third, the ways of copingwith stress.among university studentsare identified. Fourth,it aimsto assesscounsellingneeds.It also examinesany differencesexist amongselecteddemographicvariables(gender,age, year of study, social status)andperceivedstresslevels,sourcesof stressand ways of coping with stress. ResearchQuestionnaire The following questionswere consideredfor data gatheringand analysisin this study: 1. What do Bahraini university studentsperceive to be the main sourcesof stress? 2. Do Bahrainiuniversitystudentsperceivea needfor counselling? 3. What is the stresslevel of BahrainiUniversity students? 4. What strategiesdo Bahrainiuniversity studentsmanageto copewith or reduce their stress? 5. Is there a relationshipbetweensourcesof stress,levelsof stressand managing stressand counsellingneeds? 6. How do demographiccharacteristics(age, gender,year of study, martial status,GPA) relateto: I. Sourcesof stress 2. Stresslevels 3. Counsellingneeds 4. Copingstrategies ResearchHypotheses The studywill be guidedby the following mainhypotheses: 1. Bahraini university studentsare faced by different amountsand extent of sources of stress, Problems such as, family problem, social, emotional/ personal, aacademic,health, and religious/ethicalproblems,with regard to year of study,subject,gender,and socialstatus.

2. There is a significant relationship between university students' coping style and their levels of stress, with regard to year of study, subject, gender, and social status.

3. There is a significant relationship between university students'particular coping strategiesand the amountand extentof sourcesof stress,with regard to year of study,subject,gender,and socialstatus. 4. There is a significant relationshipbetweenuniversity students'coping style and the extentof their counsellingneedswith regardto year of study,subject, gender,and socialstatus. Research Methodology Methods:

In this study, both qualitative and quantitative methods will be employed. Questionnaireswill be used to generate quantitative data, and face-to face interviewswill be used to generatequalitative data, so as to developa rounded analysisof University students'stress'and copingstrategy.

Locationof studyBahrainUniversity,Kingdomof Bahrain. Participants: For the questionnaireresponses,the sample: will be generally a stratified random sample of Bahrain University students,representingdifferent agesfrom 18 to 25. The studentsvary in their year of study, genderand martial status.For the interviews participants,anotherstratified random samplewill be selectedfrom the teacherpopulation,and furtherstudentsaswell.

APPENDIX F

159

Table I Samplebroken down by College

ff-

Fftq

or ACCOUNT BANK BUSN COMP ENGLISH IT ?ICAL Total

'

Fercen 1.0 6.5 30.5 5.5

2 13 61 11 -73.5 74 32 200

37.0 16.0 100.0

Table 2 showsthat majority of studentsM. 5%of studentsare studyingInformation technology.

Table.3 Samplebroken down by Yearof study N 1

ý

Frequency 117

Percent

ý

68

34.0

3

13

6.5

4

2

l. o

Total

200

i(?Q.Q

ss.s

Table 4.3 showsthat the majority of students581/bwere in first year.

4 Samplebroken down by Age Vrdid 18.00

ý

aenc

ý

°le

38

14.0

40

20.0

37

18.5

29

14.5

19

915

23.00

22

11.0

24.00

13

6.5

'21ö0

2

1,0

20ý

1QO, ß

i9 09

21.00 22.00

TOtal

Table shQwsthat the majority of students'age rangedbetween18-20. .3 4.5 Table Samplebroken down by academicaveragelevel 0/0

1.00 2.00

F're uenc 53 66

26.5 33.0

Good

3.00

66

33.0

Poor

4.00

9

4.5

v.poor

5.00

6

3,0

200

100.6

Excellent

v.good

Total

.o snowsmatme matorrtvorstuaen

Table Samplebroken down by Martial status F single Engage Married 1TiV&EO Widowed Töiitl

1.00 2.00 3.00 4:00 5.00

ienc 156 9 20 5

"r6 78.0 4:5 10.0 2.5

to

200

100.0

Table4.6 sham that ifl aiarityof the sarnDle78%W616 single.

N6;

(P

Zý

N

z N Im

pN

g

ý5

6r '4'

Na

m

,Z w_

Zý em , T~J

ö

ß Ä

N

r1

+Zdcqs

ö

Zý °' N

N yN

Ný yNº

fl l

N

g

NQ Q-p

N

IV

pNg

ýýn

ai

Ygil\

to

"W

((]]

"

ý]

I

I

#

"'

Zý ý'" w

N ý ý ý

I ý't6 ý. ý

ar

H

%4 ý CL

... cý

I

äýý

.

Desctlptives Descriptive Statistics

ac oeptingresponibity positivereappraisel probismsalving sattcantrolling socialsupport confrontive a 5eavoidänee

4.00 4.00 3.86 4.00

Moan 2.8337 2.7614 2.7450 2.6457 2.6383

1.17

4.00

2.5767

1.00 1.1T

3.88

2.4800

4.00

2.4558

200 200 200 200 200

Minimum 1.00 1.14 1.17 1.14 1.00

200

N

200

distancing

200

Valid N (listwise)

200 1

Maximum 4.00

Std. Deviation 66748 . 63729 . 64385 . 56692 . 68832 . 80355 .

81076 .

81881 .

-f

Descriptives gender = 1.00 oescMptirreEtatlstlssa

MUMüM 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.88 4,QQ

2.7708 2.7292 2.7202 2.8M

120 120

1.00 1.17

4.00 4.00

2.55e28 2.4833

120 1F0

1.00

3.88

2.3729

ac+oeptingrespnnibilty

120

prtýlslemsclWnO

120

ýb3ýivärt3Aýi3ýis8i sefl°controlliny confirontive gQClalguppQrt

120 120 12Q

distancing

esoapeavoidance Valid N listarise) a. Wc1e =1.00

MW

MiilibiüPh 1.00 1.17 1.14 1.14 1,17

N

Std. Daviatibil 70605 . 67849 . 84513 .

218Q19

8`1703 .62734 ,

70875 .

62488 . 58742 .

gender a 2.00 D666Piptiv8StktiBtit*°

Minimum Maximum

N

Mean

ac'xbptiiiamaooilibiltii positivereappraisei

8o

1.25

4.00

2.9281

$0

1,$7

4,00

3"=

probiemsoiving gQGalgupport

8o 80 80 80 80 80

1:17 1.33 1.29 1.25 1.33 1.33

4:00 3.83 3.86 3.88 3.83 3.67

2:7888 2.7667 2.7054 2.6406 2.5688 2.4146

seifcontro8ing esoapeavoidancse confrontive

distancing Valid N (iistuvise) a. gender= 2.60

80

td.Deviaäon 59692 .

42425

59149 . 63963 . 47968 . 61346 . 56981 . 60829 .

Descriptives gender = 1.00 Page1

Descriptive Statistics* MininiluM 1.00 1.00

N

totem

totals

120 120

tbtäif totaic

120 120

totaig

120

tot?ib totale

120 120

totale Valid N (Iisiwise

120 120

Mä1 mufn 5.00 3.91

Mean 2.8991 2.4681

1.00 83 .

5.00 4.25

2.3917

1,00

6,00

212373

1.00 93 .

4.24 4.07

1.8868 1.7643

3.65

1.6461

1.00

2.3833

Ste. DbVibtiail 1.02839 68448 .

.89164 71567 . 4 ..

71140 . 64705 . 60409 .

a. GROVE 1.00

gender = 2.00 DýSMPM StatisM'

Minimum Maximum

N

tbtaih totaic totaig

tQtald totatf totatb totale

totala Valid N (listwise) a. gender = 2.00

80 60

1.67

80 80 80 80 80

1.26 1.00 1.00

5.00 3.92 4.6Q 4.22 4.73 3.88

1.00 1.00

3.50 2.88

1.42 1.QQ

Std.Deviation

Mean 3.0825 2.88152 2.ä47ä 2.5402 2.2193 1.9191

.89804 37711 . 100» 64736 .79840

1.9134 1.5176

54985 . 50031 .

.

66593 .

8o

T-Test gender = 1.00 One-Sample statistics!

N oa totaip2

toile 4

Std.Deviation

Mean 120

120 120

2.2221

3.1702 2.5937

6. gender=i. 00

.

Std. Errör Mean 05397 .

59116

05142 . 04685 .

56328 . 51319 .

One"ßampleTesta Test Value =1

t 22:646 totejag 42.208 tote 4 34.019 8. gander= 1.00 totalpa

df 119 lie 119

Sig. 2-tailed mg 000 . 000 .

Mean Difference 1:22210 2.17024 1.59369

95% ConfidenceInterval of the Differenca Lower Upper 1:3290 1.1152 2.0684 2.2721 1.5009 1.6864

Page2

gender = 2.O0 One-SampleStatistics' Std. Error

N oa t**102

to 4 a" gender= 2.00

8o 80 80

Mean Std.Deviation 2:300Q :5Q541 3.3152 46091 . 2.6973 38487 .

Mean :05651 05153 . .

04415

One-Sample Test Test Value =1

Confidence Interval 03sYo

Mean t

t+Dtga teffi1Q2 tb%104

äf

23.008

79 79 79

44.928

38.448 a. gender= 2.00

S' i. (2-td) 000 .

000 . 000 .

Dr'ffOPbM6

1.29999 2.31518 1.88735

of Jbik t_8w6t

1.1875 2.2126 1.8095

U006f

1.4125 2.4177 1.7852

T-Tost national =B One-SampleStatistics'

Std,Errer N toäips »lQ2 tebip4 a" national=B

97 97 97

Std.Deviätibn 55917 . 58174 . 50297 2.5561 .

Meän 2.1881 3.1716

Meän 05678 . .05704 05107 .

One-SampleTeat' Te"stllälue=1

t

L:

a

20.926

pý

38.074

tft lp4 30.470 " nationai=

df 96 96 98

Sig. (2-tailed) 000 . 000 . 000 .

mean Difference 1.18807 2.1715ß 1.55608

95% ConfidenceInterval of the DtIference Lower upper 1.3008 1.0754 2.2648 2.0584 1.4547 1.6574 4

national =ß

Page3

One-SampteStatistics'

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

$

103

2.3148

totetp2 totaip4

103 103

3.2818 2.7096

ä. national=G

Std. Elf Mee

55343 . 48181 .

.

05453 .

04844 . 04220 .

42829

One-SampleTest' Test Value

t ote a 24:108 tQtaW 47.101 tcftlp4 40.512 a. national=G

df 102 102 102

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

Mean Difference 1:31464 2.28155 1.70962

95% ConfidenceInterval of the Difference Lower Upper 1;4226 1:2066 2.1855 2.3776 1.7933 1.6259

Page4

General Linear Model Mult(varlate Teatsb Effect intercept

Value

Pil ac'sTrace Wicks'Lambda Hotelling'sTrace Roy's LargestRoot PillarsTrace Wicks'Lambda

gander

I-IMU i g's TWO

Roy'sLargestRoot Pillars Trace Wks' Lambda Hetelling'sTrace Roy's LargestRoot Pillars Trace Wicks'Lambda Hotelling'sTrace toy's LargestRoot

national

gender* national

a. exactatattsttc

982 . 018 . 53.152 53.152 259 . .741 350 .

F Hypothesisdf 528.566a 18.000 528.5660 18.000 528.5680 18.000 528.5660 18.000 3.4820 18.000 3.4820 18.000 3.482a 18.000

350 .13b ,

862 . 160 . 160 . .164 836 . 196 . 196 .

Error df 179.000 179.000 179.000 179.000 179.000 179.000 179.000

Sig. 000 . 000 . .000 000 . 000 . 000 . .000

3.4820 1,Sw

18.000

170.000

1 coo

ICON

000 .

1.590°

18.000

179.000

1007 067

1.5900 1.5900 1.94ßa 1.948° 1.9486 1.948°

18.000 18.000 16.000 18.000 18.000 18.000

179.000 179.000 179.000 179.000 179.000 179.000

067 . 067 . 015 . 015 . 015 . .015

.

b. Design:Intercept+gender$national*gender * national Tests bf Between-Subjects Efeetä Sbý;ma

Model

Da ibihdai5tVaribt)la totala totaib

Type Sum S luýara3

of

Maansquare .437 336 . 1.983 371 .

F 1.365 698 . 4.543 827 .

sic. 255 . 554 . .004 480 .

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

560 . 2.195 1.939 499 . 683 . 562 . 1.107

759 . 2.503 2.073 1.615 2.502 2.593 3.136

3.474k

3

1.158

3.145

.518 .061 .105 187 . 081 . 054 . 027 .

lfalfoohtrollinC

1.80

sociatsupport acceptingresponibfity

4.800"'

3 3

.621 1.533

1.980 3.351

2,244"

3

NO

6.0156 200p . 2.2304

3 3 3

2.005 067 . 743 .

1.310' 1.009b

3 3

tbtaiC

5.948°

3

totald

1.1141J

3

totale

3103P

3

confrontive

1.6a1fi 6.5849 5.818h 1.4971 2.0499 1.6661 3.320k

distancing

tgtee tetalg totalh totalpal totalp2 totalp4

escepeavoldence preblemselving poeitivereappralset

ON

M2

1,8>a7 5.761 169 . 1.854

04 ,

.

.

026

121

020 .

1188

.001 .924 139 .

Page1

Tests of Between--SuubJeob Ef eft Source Inkwoept

entVariante

df

Mean

re

F

totale totalb totatc

478.761

1

478.761

727.979 1228.510

1 1

727.979 1228.510

totald

1200.099

1

1200.099

2673.073

totals

647.534 1018.275

1 1

647.534 1018.275

1791,427 1379.189

1

1091.713 1244.992 1701,146 1818,643

tatAtf

totatg totath

tQtapal

1091.713 1701:146 978.105 2012,477 1335.648 1263.815

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1464,875

1464,875 303,312

totatd totals totalf totalg

791 . .262 4.333 .251 1.085 1.377 4.368

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

791 . 252 . 4.333 .251 1.065 1.377 4.368

2.474 822 . 9.928 559 . 3.000 1.865 4.981

totaih

1.305

1.395

tataptll

1 1

1.305

288 . 1.014

288 . 1.014

931 . 3.714

446 ,027

1060

acceptingresponibilty

1346.533 1347.055 1549.987

asr"bavowtlnaa

1198.178

probtemsolving

1448.213

positivereappraisel

socialsupport

totale tetalb

totala

totap2

totap4 contrQntive

distancing selfcontroAing socialsupport accsptingnssponibilty escapeavoldance problemsolving positivereappraiset

1

1

444

1

027 . 321 . 419 . 1.932 1.084 3.205 077 . 416 .

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

3185.528 7372.935 6161.545 3581,112 3100.153 4250.318 2943.933 3515.543 3442.575

1448.213 3444.416

. 321 . 419 . 1.932 1.084 3.205 077 . .416

000 .

000 . 000 .

2814.771

1 1

1141.423

Sig.

1497.042 1510.377

978.105 2012.477 1335.648 1263.815 1141.423 1346.533 1347.055 1549.987 1198.178

totap2 totalp4 confrontive distancing se!%ontroNing

gender

TypeIii sum of Squares

078 . .873 1.322 4.221 2.458 9.209 182 . 1.037

000 .

000 . 000 .

000

wo , 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 .

000

000 ,117

. .471 002 . 455 . 085 . . 174 027 .239 .

.338 055 .

163 ,781 . .351 252 . 041 . 119 . 003 . 670 . .310

Page2

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects source national

Variable

totata totalb totatc totald

totals

Typt III sum of Squares 222 . 786 . 154 . 307 .

df 1 1 1 1

MeanSquare 222 . .766 154 .307 .

F

3.

693 . 1.589 352 .

684 . 2.379 .000

1 I

860 . 8.314E-09

totaig

.860 6.314E-06 1.920

1

1.920

2.190

totaih

1493

1,393

i, 489

522

1 1

340

1

tbt8if

totalpal

.

522

1.691

.340

1.247

1

1.171

5.401

3.274

1

3.274

9.278

distancing selfcontrolling

3.152 1.299

1 1

3.152 1.299

8.562 4.101

socialsupport

1.714

1

1.714

3.747

049 .

111

totalp2 toialp4 confrontive

1.171

acceptingresponibilty

.

.

049

1

3ft¬IpbOvbiäAfieb

2.501

1

2.501

7.188

problemsolving positivereappraisel

033 . 1,8w 192 . 001 . 1.311 .363 1.433 .245 004 . 2.240 .439 492 .

1

033 . 1,888 192 . 001 . 1.311 383 . 1.433 245 . 004 . 2.240 439 . 492 .

079 . 4,128 600 . 002 . 3.004 653 . 3.965 332 . 004 . 2.395 1.422 1.801

gender"national totals tetalf3 totale totald totals totalf

totatg totalh talpi41

totalp2

totalp4 conirontive

distancing selfcontrolling socialsupport accxptingrssponibilty escapeavoidance problemsolving positivereappraisel

.

,048

031 . 437 . 004 . 1.164 1.056 .003 067 . 263 .

I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1048 031

. 437 . 004 . 1.184 1.056 003 . 067 . 263 .

.

222 088 . 1.187 012 . 2.543 2.396 008 . 161 . 655 .

406 . 209 .554

. 409 .

125 . 998 .

141 .224 195 .266

.

021 . 003 .

004 . 044 . 054 .

.740 008 .

779 .

044

440 . 968 . 085 . 357 . 048 . 565 . 949 . 123 . 235 . 181 .

,828

767 . .277 912 . . 112 123 . 927 . 689 . 419 .

Page3

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects 3ource

Error

totala

ndentVariable

totalb totatc totatd

totale tat8ff totalg totalh

df

MeanSquare 196 196 196 196 196

198

171.870

196

10:337

186

60.561 53.499

196 196

42.487 69.171

196 196

72.184 62.094 89.684 86.416 88.217

196 196 196 198

probtemsoiving

82.295

196

positivereappraisel

7$,50

1$5 200 200 200 200

tota0al totap2

tota04 confrontive

distancing seifcontroiling sociaisupport acceptingrespcnibiity

81RA-06i3vaONt. a Total

Tylib III Sum of Squares 62.682 94.469 83.54+4 87.996 70.847 144.712

totals totalb totale totald

totals totalf

totatg totalh 1i9t3Q81

totalp2 totalp4

Conkwtlvs

distancing selfoontrolling socialsupport acxaptingrssponibilty escapeavoldance problemsolving positiven3appralsel

572.609 863.567 1343.576 1336.068

740.117

1225.405 1293.790 1946.741 1077.491 2139.T32i 143187$ 1400.333 1281.861 1463.918 1486.444 1694.688 1304.313 1589.500 1605.918

196

F

S.

320 . 482 .

436 . .449 361 . .

738

8717 . 1835 309 . 273 . 217 . 353 .

368 . 317 . 458 . 441 .

.

348

420 .

,401

200

200 200 200 200 200

200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

Page4

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects Source UorrectedTotal

Variabte

Typa III Sum of Squares

MeanSquare

df

0 totalb totalc totald totale

63.992

199

95.478 91.492 89.110

199 199 199

74.774

199

tiitalf

146.393 1T8.434 14: 1S5 62.058 56.648 44.174

199 199 10 199 199 199

72.491

199

totaig totaih totOaal totalp2 totalp4 confrontive distancing

75.838

199

selicontrolling

63.958

199

socialsupport acceptinflrespönlbilty

94.284 88.660 74.232 82.495

199 199 199

baýpbäVbiäaPti; a

problemsolving positivereappraisel a. R Squared m.020 b. R Squared = 011 . G. R Squared =. 065 d. R Squared M. 012

$01$31

F

S'

.

10 1$$

(Adjusted R Squared x. 005)

(Adjusted R Squared = -.005) (Adjusted R Squared = 051) . (Adjusted R Squared x -. 003) e. R Squared = 053 (A(4usted R Squared =. 038) . f. R Squared = 011 (Adjusted R Squared = 004) -. . 9" R Squared = M7 (Adjusted R Squared =, O=) h. R Squared =. 031 (Adjusted R Squared =. 016) I. R Squared =. 024 (Adjusted R Squared =. 009) J. R Squared a 038 (Adjusted R Squared K.023) . XR Sqüä?bd =. o46 (Adju tbd R Squared = 031) . 1, R Squared =. 029 (Adjusted R Squared =. 014) m. R Squared %.049 (Adjusted R Squared 034) . n. R Squared = o26 (Adjusted R Squared = 010) . : ID.R Squared = 081 (Adjusted R Squared =. 067) . p. R Squared = 002 (Adjusted R Squared = -. 013) . q. R Squared =. 028 (Adjusted R Squared = 013) .

Regression Model Summary LModel

I AdjustedR Std. Error of R Square S uare the Estimate 460' 179 47881 212 . . . . Predictors: a" (Constant),totalpat, totalo,totale,tomla,totalf,totald, totalb,totap R

Page5

ANOVAp Sum of S area

Model egression

df

11.759

MeanSquare 8

F

1.470

8.412

S' . 000 .

Residual 191 229 43.789 . Total 55.5+48 199 ä. Predictors:(Constant),tota)pat, totalc, totale,totala,totalt, totald,totalb,totab b. DependantVariable:totatp2

caalwsisflw Unstandardized s B Std.Errbr

MOäýli (Constant)

totals t6t8lb totalc totald

male tatatf totaig totalpa1

2.386 -. 164

-.228 -.094

-Zi

-.123 -.137 -.140 1.480

J3.DapaMaMt VBiiäbi8'tatäip2

.

Standardized

Coefficients Batik

092 . 098 .

083 .1$ ,

089 .

074 . 089 . 413 .

t 14.750

162

-.177 -.299 -. 120

-.U3

-.143 -.222 -.252 565 _J,

-1.797 -2.363 -1.128 11420

-1.373 -1.843 -1.580 3.564

SID. .

000

074 .019 .

261 .

Qw ,171 . 067 . 116 . 000 .

Regression M6a6lsummary Model 1

-1 AdjustedR R S uare R Square 184 466a 217 . .

Std. Errorof the Estimate 42562 .

ä. Predictors: totald,totab,totab (Constant), totalpai,totaic,totale,totale,total?, ANOVAb

Sumof

F MeanS uare Squares df I 1.197 6.605 8 9.573 egresson Residual 191 181 34.601 . Total 199 44.174 a. Pratilatars:(Can3tant),tatapal,tatala, totall, tatala,totalf,tataki, tatalq totalb, b. DependentYarial3le: tetalp4 Model

Sig. 0008 .

Page6

coamotento Unatantiatt zed Coefficients

Standardi! d Coefficients seta

Std. Error

(Constant)

1.773 -.095 -.089 140 .

totale

totalb

totale Wald totale totatf totals

.144 081 . 086 . 074 . .092

009

-.073 102 003 . totsIpa1 406 . a. DependentVariable:tolalp+4

-.115 -.131 202 . 013 .

-.Ö93

m

Q 006 . 480 .

Q6 ,

079 . 367 .

t 12.335

000 . 243 . 301 . .058 919 .

-1.172 -1.038 1.904 102 . 4221 182 . 436 . 1.103

.W 8ä6

. 971 . .271

Regression Model Summary Model

R

R Square 6038 364 .

AäQUateä R Square 337 .

Std. ErrorOf the Estimate 43018 .

a" PruiL"ibes: (Cbmtäiit), pö§ifiv8i'88ý5ý5ý8i§al, di§täiibiiia, 8cý8ýtii1ýP83ýiiif5iffy, escapeavoidance, socialsupport, confrontive, problemsolving, seffcontrolling

ANOVAI'

Sumet

Mbdet

5ou&ft

1

ýýºe8sian

20.206

df

Reaidüsi

8

Meän5WOre 2.526 185 .

F

Sib.

13.650

00e8 .

191 35.342 55.5-033 IN a. Predictors:(Constant),positivereappraisel, distancing,acceptingresponibilty, oscapoavoidance,sociatgupport,confirondvo,probtemsotving, seitcontrolling b. DependentVariable:totalp2 1"bi6l

CbBRfbi6hw

Mbäei

(

nstant)

r.anrrontfra distancing

selficontrolling socialsupport accaptingrQaponibilty eecapeavoidance problemsolving sitiverea iaei A. DependentVätiiä6le:tötä102

Unstandardized l.ýDffi81eD Std. Errot B 170 1.516 . 048 073 . . 032 Ö62 . .

162 ,095

: 120 . .096 012 . .079

1000

4062 064 . .067 075 . 081 .

Standardized co 1 .. Bets 055 . 038 .

t 8.899 654 . 523 .

Sib. 000 . 514 . 601 .

4124 162 . 111 . 014 . 95 .

two 1,886 1.434 155 . 972 .

: 064 . 153 . 877 . 332 .

AN

1,m

ö$0 ,125

Regression Page7

Mode{ Summary

R SM. Erýr of Jýýjübtaä RS uare uar+s the Esßnt te 99191 -1 06555 '9811 . - . a. Ptoäimm: (Caiistarit),pa3faverbapj3Paiaai,tlilltänaii3g,

Modef

R

escapeavoidance, socialsupport, wnfrontive, probternsolving, setfrontro#ing

ANOVAti

MOW I

Sumof

S°ümb 43.353

Regression Residual

.

elf 8

MOM SON* 5.419

191

821

.

Sio. 0006 .

F 1261223

004

44.174 199 Prediotors: distancing,aac:eptingresponibiltY, a. (Constant),positivereappraiset, ling seftQntrol. e$capeavQldance, $Qolalsupport, cQnhntlve, problemsQlving, b. DependentVariable:totalp4 TBiAI

c6BmZierlw Unstandardized ýýt3 Std. Error B 026 105 . . 011 109 . . 009 112 . .

AAbdei

(Constant) c0i111'bntiva

distäncing settcontrolling sodaisupport acceptingresponibitty e8capeavotidance problemsoiving itiverea isel S. DepetiderttVäriä6le:t6täIP4

1st ,

:113 061 . 142 . 130 . 143

Standardized

,013 QQ9 : 010 . 010 . 011 . 011

Betä

t 4.031

139 . 146 .

9.728 11.814

. 087 . 183 . .178 194

12:047 6.240 13.836 11.428 11.842

t81 ,166

11,838

5ia. 000 . 000 . 000 .

OOO ,Q00 : 000 . .000 .000 000

Regression Nl&Ml summary

Model 1

R .6656

R Adjusted R Square S uare .443

394 .

Std.Errorof the Estimate .41130

totalt,accOp09responldlttY, totale,totale,totalc,dlstanclnfl, a. Predictors: týonstaritJ,poslovereappralsel, totaiG totalb, aMOntraltlnC, tataln,aaeialsuppmaaeapeavaiöanee, totalö, prablamaaMnQ, eantrantlvs, aNÖVnb Sum of $1" F dt MoanSquare usres ý. Regression Ni. 000 1.537 ýa Residual WMU i6 . , Total 56.548 199 a. Predictors:(Constant),positivereappraisel, totale, totale,totaic, distancing,totacf,acceptingresponibilty, totalh, sociefsupport,escapeavoidanoe,oonfrontive,totald,totaib,problemsolving,seffaontrolling, totaig b. DependentVariable:totsIp2

Model ; `-

Page8

Coefflafents"

(Constant) totala totalb tötete töteli! totale

totalfi tataly totalh confrontive distancing ssifcontrolling socialsupport ameptingresponibilty eseap8avaldanöe

prablarrºsbnnno positivereappraisel a. DependentVariable:totalp2

unatanäarälteä Coefficients a PA. Erro 1.370 . 184 . 057 071 . . 067 -.015 . 035 055 -. . 067 128 -. . 061 A00 ö0 . QQS Q44 , :053 006 . . 046 166 . . 072 009 . . 016 061 . .204 084 . . 105 060 . . 063 090 . . 014 .071 . 028 .074 . 081 092 . .

Standamiiaa Coeftlents sets 7.485 081 . 020 -. -.044 -.159 115 .QQ$ . 008 . .306 011 . 016 . 219 .

137 . 114 . 016 . 035 . 111 .

we

-.228 -.622

-1.m8

1.623

1Q9 :087

. 3.635 .129 253 .

2.431

1.740 1.439 997 .

388

. 1.138

000 . 421 . .820 534 . 083 . 108 .

913 ,

930 . 000 . 897 . .801

016 .

084 . 152 . 844 . 700 . 257 .

Rýgrogeion Model Summary Std. Error of Estimate the uare 06635 980 9910 982 . . . a. Predictors: (Constant), posißvereappraisel, totala, totals, totaic, distancing, totatf, acceptingresponibitty, totalh, sociatsupport, escepeavoidance, c:onfronfive, toteld, totalb, txoblemsolving, selfoontrolling, totaig

Model

R

adjusted R Square

R

ANOVAp Model egression Residual

Total

Sidi Squares 43.368 806 . 44.174

df 16 183 199

Mean3 uare 2.711 004 .

F 615.687

Sig. 0002 .

totals,d$tancln9, accepttn9respontbltty, (Constant}, totale,totale, total't, a. PredlctorS; posltlvereappratsel, aettaanttalling, totalg tatain,ao alaupport, aaempaavoldarea, corfrontive,tötald, totaib,problemäaivinQ, bk DependentVariable:totalp4

Page 9

Coef'Efotente

un3tsndi, i~diýtad coeffreients ß td. Error

M (anstsnt) totals totalb totalc Wald

.

111

-.010 -.004 -9.613E-05 007 . 004 totale -. totaif -006 totatg .007 tc3talh 004 . confrontive . 110 distancing 113 . sslfcontroliing . 147 114 sociafsupport . acceptingresponibilty .059 138 escapeavoidance . pi'ablat113aßhnc 133 . 144 positivereappraisel . $. DependentVatiable:ttMlp4

030 .

011 . 011 . 009 . 011 . D1D QQ7 : 009 . 007 . 012 . 010 .014 .

.010 010 . 011 . 012 . 013 .

st3ndlyiYlizad Coefficients ta

t 3.756

-.012 -.005 000 . 010 .

-.599 -.338 -.011 864 .

0't 'I

843 -, 803 . 520 . 9.405 11.396 10.844 11.751 5.845 12.134

-.005 ,

014 . 008 . 141 . 146 . 177 . 167 . 084 . 179 . 181 . 194 .

..MT

11.158

10.951

i. 000 .

.370 736 . .991 508 .

714 .

,400 423

. 604 . 000 . 000 . .000 000 . .000 000 . 000 . 000 .

Page10

General Linear Mat#e! Regression coefficients" Qnstandardized Standardized Cbbffeient3 Coeifieieiltý Beta Model B Std.Error 1 (Constant 2.388 182 . töt8lä 164 092 -.177 -. . totalb 098 -.299 -.228 . totaic Q$4 12Q g6ä . 343 totaid 271 103 -. -. . totale 099 -.143 -. 123 . total! 074 -.222 0.137 . totaig 089 =.252 ..140 . 1.565 iotalpal 1.480 . 413 6. DependentVariable:tota02

Sin.

t 14.750

.

000

074 . "019 261 . 009 . 171 . 067 . 116 . 000 .

-1.797 -2.383 -1.128 -2.628 -1.373 -1.843 4.580 3.584

Regression Regression Coefficients' Unstandardized Coefficients Std. Error B

Model

nstant confrontive distancing seifcontrolling

sobiaisupport 8ci;äpiiiiQMpöilibittji

escapeavoidance probiemsoiving pesitivaraappraisel a. DependentVariable:totalp2

1.516 048 . 032 . .162 095 . 120 .

170 . 073 . 062 . .086 062 . 064 .

; 079 .

075 . 081 .

086 .012

067

Standardized Coefficients Beta

.055 038 . 174 . .124 152 .

.111 014 . .095

t

8.899 654 . 523 . 1.895 1.539 1.865

1,434 AN 972 .

Sig. 000 . 514 . 601 . 060 . 125 . 064 . 1158

877 . .332

Regression

Page 1

Cceficientsa

N

i

(Constant) confronäve riistantft st3fton"ifinp

sociaisupport acceptingresponibilty escapeavoidance

prQWemgoivins RGsitivereappraisel Dependent Variable:totalp4 a.

Urýstaýdaýad Coýcients 8 td. Error 105 056 . . 011 109 . . 112 009 . . 151 . .013 009 113 . . 081 010 . .

, 142 130 . . 143

Starºýýiýizee Co®fficients

139 . 146 . 181 . 188 .

087 .

,183 178

,Q1Q 011 . 012 .

. 194 .

t 4.031 9.728 11.814 11.529

12.047

8.340

13,836 11.428 11.642

BL. . .000

000 . 000 . 000 . DDD

000 .QQQ

, 000 . 000 .

Regression CoeRkierttso

MogLI (Constant) totala totalb totale tötl3lä

totale totalf

tQtalg tc3talh

confrontive distancing salfcontroliing

socialsupport acaeptingresponibilty eat.apeavöidance probleiYlsolving posiiivereappraisel a. DependentVariable:totalp2

ilýstaýidaiýad Coefficients !3 td. Error 1.370

057 . -.015 -.035 -. 126 100 .

:008 005 . 166 . 009 . 016 . 204 . 105 . 090 . .

014

028 . 092 .

.

staýariyitsn Coefficients t

eta

7.465

184

071 . 067 . 055 . .087 081 .Q44 : .053 046 . .072 061 . 084 . ow 063 . 071 .

074 . 081 .

806 .

081 . -.020 -.044 -.159 115 .

-.228 -.622 -1.868

. 306 . 011 . 016 .

087 . 3.835 129 . .253

:QQB 008

1.823 ,109

219 .

2.431

035 .111 .

1.138

137 . 114 . 016 .

1.740 1.439 197 . 388 .

Sig. 000

. 421 . 820 . 534 . 063 . 106 .913 .930 000 . 897 . 801 . 016 . 084 . 152 . 844 .

700 . 257 .

R$gro$$ioh

Page2

CaBfftcfsntsA St811äetdited Coefficients 6e

uoatenderfted Coefficients 13 Std.Error

1

(Constant)

.111 -.010 -.004

totale totalb totale tot8id

-9.613E-05 007 .

totale totalf

-.004

00i?

,

tOtelg totath confrQntive distancing solfcontrolling socialsupport acceptingresponibiity escapeavoidance

.007 004 . .110 .113 147 .114

.

.059 .138 133 .

problePnsörvißo

positivereappraisei a. DependentVariable:totalp4

144 .

.030 011 . .011 009 . .011

-.012 -.005 000 . 010 .

-.005 -.0ii 014

010 .

067 ,009

. 007 . 012 . 010 . 014 .010

. 008 . 141 . 146 . 177 . 167

.

.

013 .

04 .

084 . .179 181 .

.010 011 . .012

t 3.756 -.899 -.338 -.01'I 884 .

S. 000 . 370 . 736 . 991 . 508 .

367 -. 441

714 .400

803 . 520 . 9.405 11.396

423 . 604 . 000 . 000 . .000

10.844 11.751

5.845 12.134 11.158 10.J81

000 .

000 . 000 . 000 . 000 .

Rýgrossion coe[Rcients'

klodei

1(

tantj totala totalb totaic

totaid totate telaif tbtäto

Unstantlardized Goeffieients Std.Error B 1.893 .180 A O 090 fl83 . . 096 =. .t)85 068 185 . . 170 .064 . 077 111 -. . Aö'9 .055 078 083 . .

totaih 017 . B. DependentVariable:seifcontrolling

037 .

Standardized coefficients

Beta

sig.

t npý83

=.0

=.118

.221 200 . -.1290 104 . . 127 029 .

10.515 -.920 =1.138 2.715 2.021 -1.438 'i.243 1.217

20 .

000 . 359 . 256 . 007 . 043 . 152 . 215 . 225 .

77ö .

Regression

Page3

CoeRfoterºtse uý3taýdaiad Coefficients B Std. Error 1.695 219 . 110 -.052 . 103 -.011 . 247 083 . . 004 102 . . 078 004 -. .

ORO (onstant) totale totalb täta1C totaid

totale

total? A36 totai9 081 . totalh 017 . a. DependentVariable:socialsupport

Staýdaidýibd Coefclents Bets -.043 -.011 244 . 004 .

-.ice

160 , 112 . 025 .

,Q67 076 . 070 .

7.731 -.470 -.105 2.980 035 .

-.818

IM

000 . 839 . 917 . 003 . 972 .

418 .Q45

1.067 250 .

, 287 . .803

t 8.594 -.788 -.848 3.346

Sid. 000 . 432 . 398 . 001 .

Regression Descriptive Statistics Mean acaepiingnesponibilty

2.8338

totals

1.5947 1.9597

tötalb totalc

2.5021

totald

2,4070

towe

1.8239 2.3227 2.3615

total tOt99 totaih

2.9644

Std. DaViiltIan

N

66748

200

56707 . 89287 .

200 200

M17 ,61298

20

85770 . 94697 . 97495 .

200 200 200

.

57805 .

.

200 200

CaaMalanea`

Model

(Constant) totale totelb Mille

totald totale Wait totalg totalh

Unstandardized Coefficients Std. Err B 209 1.793 . 105 -.082 . 088 083 -. . 254 .079 .

1033 -Q16 067 . 063 . 115 .

Standardized Coefficients Bete

1007

089 , 064 . 072 . 067 .

-.070 -.088 268 .

1033 -015 074 . 089 . .168

133

-184 895 . 864 . 1.748

I73

854 . 372 . 389 . 086 .

a. Dependent vanabia:aýaptinpraapanibi>tijr

Regression

Page 4

Coefficients ö Urn3t da Coefficients Std.Error B 177 1.312 . A89 095 -. 083 023 . .

stanaalb6 zed Coefficients -.088 026 .

-1.069 279 .

072 083 . . totale O5 078 .Qä4 totalt Q1ä : 062 totals 212 . . 057 totath 046 . . a. DependentVariable:escapeavoidance

079 .

875 .

: 329 . 074 .

222 : 3.447 817 .

(onstant) totata totatb totale tatäld

067 .

132 .

t 7.4)7

seta

147 .

053 .Q17

t 000 . .286 780 .

1.973

050 .

383 . 483 .8ää

ate

001 . 415 .

Regression CaeffioNants" St ndardi ! Coefficients Beta

Um, standi IZed Coefficients

m221 1

Constant5 totale totalb totale tötald totale totael

tQtatg

B 1.939 046 . -.093 233 . 064 .

Std. E .

-.080 186

-. 076

totaih 069 . a. DependentVartabte:probternsotving

209

041 . -.100 246 . 067 . -.077 .1ß8 -.112 105 .

105 . 098 . 079 . 098 . 089 .064 . 073 . 067 .

t 9.273 441 . -.948 2.946 856 .

-.900

11eä3 -1.049 1.037

i 000 . 560 . 344 . 004 . 513 .

389 . "Qä1 296 . 301 .

Regression CDGihGtentaa Uti8t8ilä8ýt1¢bd Coeffk;ients (Constant) totals totalb totale

201 . 100 . 094 . 076 . 094 iatalä . M totale -AU totalt ,062 :049 teta18 122 070 . . totalh 061 012 -. . a. DependentVariable:positivereappralael 1.890 -.082 047 . 295 . -.031

Stäiiöäftt`ttbb Coefficients

-.073 051 . 313 . -.033

Ö$D -,OK

; 181 . -.018

9.426 -.818 493 . 3.881 -.332

-1728

797 . 1.745 -.189

000 . 414 . 622 . 000 .

.740

467 ,427

. .083 851 .

Page 5

T-Test Paired Samples Statistics

air

totals

1

totalb

Pair 2

totale totals

Pair

totals

3 Pair 4 Pair

totald totale totale totala

5

totaif

Pair

6

Pak 7 Pair

6

Pair

9 Pair 10 Pair

totals

totalg tetata totalh totalb totalc totalb totald totalb tale tataib

Mean 115947 1.9597 1.5947 2.5021 1.5947 2.4970

N

Std. Deviation 56707 20Q 200 69267 . 200 56707 . 200 67806 . 200

2w

56707 .Q46Q7

1.5947

200

56707

2.9.644 1.9597 2.5021 1.9597 2.4970 1.9597 1.8239 1.9597

200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

total?

2.3227

200

totalb

12

1;95$7

totalg

2.3615

200 200

Pair 13 Pair 14

totalb totalh totslc totald

200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

200

15 Pair 16

totale totals tom"

1.9697 2.9644 2.5021 2.4970 2.5021 1.8239 2.5021 2.3227

Pair

totaic

2.5021

17 Pak 18 Pair 19 Pair 20 Pair 21 Pair 22

Pair

totalg

313615

200

totato tetalh totald totale totald total? totald totale totald totalh

2.5021 2.9644 2.4970 1.8239 2.4970 2.3227 2.3615 2.4970

200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

2.9644

200

totale

23

tQtaIt

Pair 24 Pair

totale totale totale

25

totalh

96646 .04010

1.594T 2,3616

Pair

totatc

04732 . 04010 . 04334 . 04010 . 08085 .

1.5947 1.8239 1.5947 2.3227

200

2.4970

1,8230

200

2.3227 1.8239 2.3615 1.8239 2 9644 ,

200 200 200 200 200

.

86917 . 56707 . 61298 . 56707 . 85770 .

200 200 200 200 200

11

Pair

56707 .

Std.Error Mean 04010 04898 . 04010 . 04795 .04010

.

97495 . 69267 . 67806 . 69267 . 66917 . 69267 . 61298 . 89287 .

85770 .60267 .

94697

04010 .

.

.06894 04898 . .04795 04898 . 04732 . 04898 . 04334 . 0098 .

06063 .Q4888

,

06696 .

69267 . 97495 . 67806 . .66917 67806 . 61298 . 87806 . 85770 .

.04898 06894 . 04795 . 04732 . 04795 . 04334 . .04795 06085 .

sy4607 ,67806

106646 04796

67806 .

. 97495 . 86917 . 81298 . 66917 . .85770 66917 . .94697 68917 .

97485 .

1612

.85770 61298 . 94697 . 61298 . sit749

04795 .

. .06894 04732 . 04334 . 04732 . 06065 . 04732 . 06696 . 04732 .

06894 .

04334

06065 . 04334 . 06696 . 04334 . 06894 . Pape 1

Palmd Samples Statistics

Sit}. Error Pair 2'

it

Pair 27 Päir 28

totalg totaif totaih totelg MUM

N

Mean 2.3227 2.3615 2.3227 2.9644

Std. 200 200 200 200

2.3615

200

2.9844

200

Deviation_Mean 65770 . 94697 . 85770 . 97495 . 94697 .

97495 .

06065 . 06696 . 06065 . 06894 .08696 .

.

08894

Paired Samples Cenelaüena N Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3

totals & totalb totals & totale totals & totald

Pair 4

200 200 2200

totale & totale

200

Pair 5

totals & totatf

Paira

totale& totalg

Pair 7 Pail 8 Pair 9 Pair 10 Pair 11 Pair 12 Pair 13

totals & tctalh Bitalb & tatalt totalb & totald totalb & totale totalb & totasf totalb & totalg totalb & totaih

200 200 200 200 200 20Q 200 200

Pair 14

totalc & totald

200 200

Pair 15 Pair 16 Pair 17 Pair 18 Pair 19 Pair 20 Pair21 Pair22 Pair23 Pair24 Pair 25 Pair 26 Pair 27 Pair 28

totalc & totale totalc & total totale & totalg totale & to Ih tötald & tale totald & totalf totald & totalg totald & totalh totale & totalf totale& tot ig totale & totaih total & totalg totasf& totalh totalg & totaih

200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

Correlation 629 . 237 . 422 . 352 .

423 . 523 . 3153 . 452 . 600 .406 : 476 . 602 . 541 . 507 .

ODO 001 . 000 .

000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 .

,QQ0 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 .

353 . 381 . 429 . 447 . 505 .

000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 .

.6 625 . .387 532 . 474 . .530

. 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . .000 ODD 000 .

475 .

465 .

655 .

.000 OW

Page2

Paired Samples Test

NO WD

r1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair 5 Pair 6 Pair 7

totals- totalb totals - totaic totale =totald totale - totale totals - totalf totals - tctaig

Pair 8

totalb- totalc

Pair 9

Pair10 Pair 11 Pair 12 Pair 13 Pair 14 Pair 15 Pair 18 Pair 17 Pair ¶8

tOtata - totalh totalb - totald totalb- totale totalb - totatf totalb - totaig totalb t totaih totalc=totald totals- totale totalc- totalf totale- totaig totale - tOtaih

Pair 19 totald- totale

Pair 20 Pair 21 Pair 22 Pair 23 Pair 24 Pair 25

Pair 26 Pair27 Pair 28

totald - totalf totald - totalg totald - totath totale - totalf totale - totalg

totals - totalh

totalf - totatg totatf - totath totaip - totaih

Moan 36500 . _.90738 -.90225 -.22922 -.72802 -.76979 -1.38974

-.54238

- 83726

Std.Deviation 55421 . .77367 66990 . 67294 . 80382 . 81009 . 93299 .

711740 .60821

eflbb3

Std.Error Mean 03919 . 05472 .04737 .

04758 . 05684 . 05728 . 06597 .

08073 .Q43Qi

13678 . 36302 -. -.40179 =1.00474 00513 . 67815 . 17936 . 14058 . -.48238

: .71472 80587 . 76581 . 83638 . 66912 . 73600 . .86737 89746 . 90531 .

.06133 06346 . 08402 .

: 13546 . 46749 -. -.49880 _.53757

.78682 79801 . 76329 . 83914 . 80944 .87151

: 05643 . 05397 . .05934 05724 .06163

87872 . 95300 . 79824 .

06213 . 06739 . 05644 .

67303 .17423

-1.14052

-.03877 -.64172 -.60294

83983 .

.

. .06054 05698 . 05415 . 05914 . 04731 . 05204 .

04324 .Q8ä46

.

90%ConfidenceInterval of the Difference Lower U '. 42976 -.30024 _.99781 =.81695 -.98053 -.82397 30786 -. -.15059 82195 -. -.63409 86148 -. -.87213 -1.47878

-.82621

60844 05228 . -.45719 ".49128

-1.10247 -.07306 59215 . 07800 . 03571 . -.56815

58828 .08082

, 04221 . 55668 -. . 59685 =.63216 -1.24235

-.14145 -.75308 -.69622

-1.28072 -.43855 -.4606 21929 . -.26885 -.31231 =.90701 08331 . 76418 . 28071 . .24545 -.35657 74779 . 26764 , .22871 -.37830 . 40074 =.44299 -1.03868

08391 . -.53036 -.50967

t .9.314 46.582 -19.047 -4.817 -12.809 -13.386 20.782

-10.692 -12472 2.687 .6.371 -7.420 06.969 108 . 13.031 2.924 2.215 -7.223

14.876

3,w6 2.401 4662 .8.406 4.392 -18.507

-.624 -9.523 -10.682

Page 3

Paired Samples Test

S'

df Pair Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair S Pare Pair 7

Pair '8 Pair 9

totals - totalb totals. totalc totala - totald totals- totale totale - totasf totals - totaig

199 199 199 199 199 199 199

totalb - totals totalb - totald

199

totalb - totatf totalb - totalg totalb " totalh totalc =totald totals - totale

199 199 199 199 199

totale - totalg totald - totalh totald - totale totald - totaff totald - totaio totald - totalh totals - total totale - totalg totals . totath totatf - totalg totatf - totath 101812 - totalh

199 199 199

tbtaia - totalh

Pais1Ö totalb totale -

Pair 11 Pair 12 Pair 13 Pair 14 Pair 15 Pair 16

Pair 17 PaWP18 Pair 19 Pair 20 Pair 21 Pair 22 Pair 23 Pair 24 Pair 25 Pair 26 Pair 27 Pair 28

totals - totasf

199 199

199

199 199

199 199 199 199 199 199 199

24aikd 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 00Q :

008 .000

. 000 . 000 .914 .

000 . 004 . 028 . 000 . 000 . \`w

.

017

000 . 000 . 000 .

000 . 533 .

000 . 000 .

Page4

Correlations tot8

Q1

arsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed)

g2

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation

N

92

g4

Sig. (2-tailed)

N PearsonCorrelation Sid. (24eileö)

95

N g8

Pearsoncorrelation

$g. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation

g7

g6

Sig. (2-tailed)

N PearsonCorMiatton S. (2-tailed)

910

N PearsonCorrelat(on

786 . .000 200 824 .

iw ,200

588 . 000 . 200 693' . 000 .

200 507 . 000 .

200

.

m"

am

200 749 . 000 . 200 687 . .

000

200 870 . 000 .

20

641 . %. (2tailed) 000 . N 200 Cornelaßonis significantat the 0.01 level .

Correlations

Page9

Correlations

1

f2

f3

f4

PearsonCorrelation S. (24ailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (22-tailed)

N fS

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (24ailed)

N 16

PearsonCorrelation

3b, t2-tailed) f7

f8

N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N

19

PearsonCorrelation

Sie.(2-tailed) t,O

N

CQfT latlon Pearson

total? 552 . 000 . 200 567 .Om .

200 568" . 000 . 200 457 . . .

.

000

200 617

000

200

1828 .000 200 668 . 000 . 200 662 . .000 200

720 .

000 .

200

664 . Sie. (2tailed) 000 . 200 N f11 459 PearsonCorrelation . 000 Sig. (2-tailed) . N 200 ". ObrTeiäiiöni"ssigriificäntit tfie 0.011eve1

Correlations

Page8

Correlations fatale

e1

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (24ailed) N

e2

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N e3

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N

e4

eS

as

e7

e8

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N

PearsonCorrelation S. (2-talked) N PearsonCorrelation 8g. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2 tailed)

N e9

Pearaan Caitelation

Sit. (2tailed)

010 all

e12

613

N Pearson Correlation Sig. (24ailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

N Pearsonco relation

Sig.(2-tailed) N e14

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed)

377 . 000 . 200 5i8 .

000 ,200 549 . 000 . 200

481 . 000 . 200 626 . 000 .

200

257 000 .

200 647" . 000 . 200 505 . 000 .

200

472 .

000 .

200 Am** 000 200 522 . 000 . 200 .

483 . 000 .

200 508 .

,000 200 .474 .

000

N 200 *`. correlation is significantat the 0.01 level

Correlations

Page7

Coneiatbns Vale Pearson 609 ation . Sig. (2-tailed) 000 . N 200 d2i PearsonCorrelation 502 . Sig. (2-tailed) QQw , N 200 d22 PearsonCorrelation 486 . Sig. (2-tailed) 000 . N 200 d23 PearsonCorrelation 635 . Sig. (2-tailed) 000 . N 200 Correlationis significantat the 0.01 level . d2O

Correlations

Page6

Correlations totaid

d3

PearsonCorralation Sig. (2 tailed)

d4

X15

d7

d8

200 593'" .

N

200

PearsonCorrelation

d10

PearsonCorrelation N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (24ailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (24ailed) PearsonCorrelation Sg. (2-tailed)

d13

Sig: (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed)

N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N

dl5

Pearsörr CÖitelätiöir

d1ä

Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation

d17

Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation

d19

000 200

200 4

N Pearson Correlation

dill

.

604

N

03

d14

.

571 . 000 . 200

N

ä 11

wo

,

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sip. (2tailed)

$ig,(3tatted) d8

000 .

N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed)

Sig. (2-tailed) N

d6

406 .

Sig. (22-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2tailed) N PearsonCorrelation

5b,(2taiied) N

.

.

567

000

000 . 200 357 000 . 200 502 . 000 .

200 4198 .

000 .

200

572*11 . 000 . 200 520 .

000 . 200 315 . 000 . 200 am*" ,

200 615 .000

. 200 645` .

000 . 200 449 . 000 . 200 m. ,

000 .200

Page5

Correlations

cl

c2

sä c4

05

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation

Sig.(2-tailed) co

N PearsonCorrelation

Sig,(2-talked) c7

c8

c9

c1Ö

N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-täiled) N

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N

totale 493 . 000 . 200 409 . ,t$ 200 616" . 000 . 200 457* . 000 . 200 489 . 000 .

200

.000 200 597 . 000 . 2200 583 . 000 . 200 535 . Ow 20

495 .

000 . 200 Pearson Correlation c11 223 . Sig. (? tailed) 002 . N 200 PearsonCorrelation 519 c12 . Sig. (2-tailed) 000 . N 200 Ccurelatlonis gigniTiCaCtt Q. Q1 Ievei at the

Correlations Correlations

dPearson d2

Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-talleed) N

totald 458 . 000 . 200 409 . 000 . 200

Page4

Carneiatkns

bl

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2tailed)

N b2

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed)

N bS

b4

b5

b6

b7

b8

b9

biO b11

b12

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (24ailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sip. (2tailed)

N PearsonCorrelation Sig, (2-ta0ed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCarrelatian S. (2-täiled) N

Pearson Corrrelat%n Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (?tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N

bIS

Pearson Correlation

b14

Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (24ailed) N

b15

Pearson Correlation

bIS

Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (24ailed)

b17

N PearsonCorrelation

$b, (3tailed)

tataie . .

341

000

200 626

.ice ,

200

.711 000 . 200 822E . .000 200 .516 000 .

200 m. , 000 . 200 558 . 000 . 200 440 . 000 . 200 738 . 000 . 20

618 .000 .

200 698 . 000 . 200 664 . 000 . 200 634. . Ow , 200 669 . 000 . 200 885 .

. . .

000 200 598

000

200

$1I , :0QQ 200

N ". Correlationis significantat the 0.01 level

Page3

Correlations total&

Pearsoncorrelation

al

S.

(2-tailed)

N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation

Q

a3

*4

Sig. (2-tailed) N

PearsonCorrelation Sip. (2-tailed)

85

N PearsonCorrelation

a6

Sig,(24800d) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed)

a7

as

59

a10

N Pearson Correlation S. (2-tailed)

all

N Pearson Correlation

a12

Sig. (?.tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N

03

Pearson Cörrelatibn

a14

Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N

815

Pearson Correlation

a16

Sig. (24ailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sip. (2taller)

ail

310 . 000 .

200 575 .000 , 200 601" . 000 . 200 .+402 . .

. ,

000 200 524

000

200 tea.

.000 200 661 . 000 . 200 71E . .000 200 783 . 000 .

200 .591 000 . 200 792 .

000 . 200 621 . 000 . 200 502 . 1000

290 611 . 000 . 200 681 .

000 200 735 .

.

000 .

N PearsonCorrelation

200 V4"

$lg,(2-tailed)

ooo

.200 N Correlationis significantat the 0.01 level

Page2

Correlations

Page1

Corneiatlans

hi

h2

totail

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed)

765 . 000 . 200

.8 Ow

, 200 .802 000 . 200 680 . 000 . 200

N h8

h4

h5

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed)

774 .

000 .

N h8

200

7't$+ .000

PearsonCorrelation

$19,(2talled) h7

N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N

h8

PearsonCorrelation

R9

Sig. (2-tailed) N -PearsonCorrelation Ski. (2-1: 6116d)

N

F

200 710 . .000 200 803 . 000 . 200 .67ä

000 .

Correlationis signifloantat the 0.01 level

Correlations

Page10

Correlations tOta 2

p1

p2g2

p2q3

p2g4

Pearson cxrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N

-2g5-

Sig,(3-tailed)

p2g8

p2g9 P qý0 p2g11

P2412

p2413

p2414

w

200 683 . 000 . 200 646* . 000 . 560 . .000

200

PearsonCorrelation

p2q7

\!

200

Pearsoncorrelation Sig. (2-tailed)

N NO

591 . 000 . 200 519 .

N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig.(2-tailed) N PearsonCoffelaiari Sig. (2-tailed)

N Pearson Correlation Sig: (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (?.tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sip. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed)

424 000 .200 245 . 000 . 410 . 000 . 200 497 .

000 .

200

460 . 000 . 200 630 . 000 . 200 626 . 000 . 200 420 . lwo 200 368" .000 .

N 200 Cörretsiionis siDnHposnt at the 0.01 level

Correlations carrslsrtlans

p4q1

aansonorrýa on

Sie. (2-tefbä)

N

iota d

439 .

.000 200 Page11

Correlations tb4a 4

Pearson

rrelatinn

Sig. (24ailed)

p4g3

N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed)

N p4g4

p4g5

P446

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (24ailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (i tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sip. (2tailed)

N p4q7

PearsonCorrelation

Sig,(stalled) p4q8

P'44g

p4q1D

N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sg. (2-t6iled)

N p4g11

p4q12

p4g13

04414

p4q15

p4g16

p4g17

p4g18

PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig (2-tailed) . N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sig. (24ailed) N Pearson Correlation

460*11 .000

.

200

442 .Ow

,

200 406 . 000 . 200 442 . 000 . 200 399*11 . 000 .

200 444 . 000 . 200 .531 000 . 200 471 . 000 . 200 338 . 000 .

200

.465 000 . 200 446 . 000 . 200 432 . .000 200 273 . 000

,

200 236 . 001 . 200 .2281

Sig. (22-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation Sip. (2-tailed) N PearsonCorrelation

000 . 200 331 . 000 . 200

$g, (2-tailed)

:Goo 200

N

130

Page12

Correlations tbM 4

p4q19

Pearson rrelatron 315 . Sig. (2-tailed) 000 . N 200 Correlationis siqnifisantat the 9:01 level

Page13

T-Test Paired Samples Statistics

ender 1.00

Mean 118461 1.9868

N

Pair

totala

1

totalb

Pair

totala

1.6461

120 120

2 Pair 3 Pair

totals totale totald totals

120 120 120 120 120 120 120

4

totals

Pair

totals

5

tothlf

2.3833 1.6461 2.4681 1.6461 1.7643 1.6461 2.3917

120

6

Pair

totala

1.mei

120

totaig

Pair

2,75

totale

7 Pair a Pair 9 Pair 10

totalh totalb totale totalb totaid totalb totals

1.64461 2.8991 1.9666 2.3833 1.9868 2.4681 1.9868 1.7643 1.9888

120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120

Pair

tatalt

2.b917

120

Pair 15 Pair 16

totalf totalb totalg totalb totalh totale totald totale totale totale tatlklf

1,966ß 2.2375 1.9868 2.8991 2.3833 2.4881 2.3833 1.7643 2.3833 2.3917

120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120

Pair

totale

2.3833

120

17

11 Pair 12 Pair i3 Pair 14

Pair 18 Pair 19 Pair

totalg

212375

120

totale totalh totald totale totaid

20

totaaf

Pair 21 Pair

totald totalg

2.3833 2.8991 2.4681 1.7843 2.4881 2.3917 2.4681 2.2375 2.4881

120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120

22 Pair

tataisy

Std. Deviation :60409

Std.Error Mean MIS

71140 . 60409 .

06494 . 05515 .

80409 .03544

03315 .Q8540

71567 . 60409 . 88448 . 60409 . 64705 . 60409 . 89184 . 60409 .

1.02839 71140 . 71567 . 71140 .

68448 .71140

. 64705 . 71140 .

06533 . 05515 . 06248 . 05515 . 05907 . 05515 . 08140 .

. 06515 . 09388 . 06494 . 06533 . 06494 . 06248 . 06494 . 05907 . 06494 .

89184 .11140

08140 .06494

93549 . 71140 . 1.02839 71587 . 68448 . 71567 . 64705 . 71567 . 89164 .

08540 . 06494 . 09388 . .06533 08248 . .06533 05907 . .06533 08140 .

IW4 71567

,08540 06533

09388 .

71387 .

. 1.02839 .68448 64705 . .68448 89164 . .88+448 93549 . 86448 .

totalh totale

2.8991

120

1.02839

23

totelf

1,7843

120

Pair 24 Pair 25

totale totalg totale ý

2.3917 1.7643 2.2375 1.7643 2.1

120 120 120 120 120

,64705 89164

. 64706 . 93549 . 84705 . 1.02838

08333 .

. .09388 06248 . 05907 . 06248 . 08140 . 06248 . .08540 08248 .

05007 ,08140

. 06907 , 08540 . 05907 . 09388 .

Page1

Paired Samples Statistics

1.00

Pair

2

Pair

totaig totalf

27

totalh

Pair

totalg

28

2.00

Pair

MUM

Mean 2.3917 2.2375 2.3917 2.8991 2.2375 2.8991

N 120 120 120 120 120 120

Std.Deviation 69184 . 93549 . 89164 . 1.02839 .93549 1.02839

80 80

50031 .66583

Std.E1rbr Mean .081 08540 . 06140 . 09388 . 08540 . 09388 .

I

totale

1.5176

totalb

Pair

totala totald totale totale totale

5

114101 1.5176 2.6802 1.5176 2.5402 1.5178 1.9184 1.5176

80 80 80 80 80 60 80

totaef

2.2193

80

Pair

tbtel8

1.5176

80

8

totaig

2.5475

60

Pair 7

totala totath

1,5176

$0

10031

Pair 8

tetalb totale

3.0625 1.9191 2.6802 1.9191 2.5402 1.9191 1.9134 1.9191 2.2193

80 80 80 80 80 60 80 80 80

.88604 66593 . 57711 . 66593 . 84736 . 66593 . 54985 . .66593 79840 . 66593 .

. 07446 . 06452 . 07445 . 07238 . 07445 . 06148 . .07445 08928 .

. 88604 . .57711 84736 . 57711 . 54985 . 57711 . 79840 . .57711 93929 .

. 09906 . .06452 07238 . 06452 . 06148 . 06452 . 08926 . 06452 .

2

Pair

3 Pair 4 Pair

Pair

9

totale

totala

totalb

Pair 10 Pair

totald totaib totale totaib

11

tbtälf

Pair 12 Pair

totalb totaig tQtalb

1.9191

80

2,5475

$0

1.9191 3.0626 2.6802 2.5402 2.6802 1.9134 2.6802 2.2193 2.6802

80 80 80 80 80 60 80 80 80

13 Pair 14 Pair 15 Pair 16 Pair 17

totale totald totalc totale totale totaif Me totalg

2.5475

60

Pair

totalc

2,002

$0 80 80 80 60 80 80 80 80 80 60

totath

18

totath

Pair 19 Pair 20 Pair 21 Pair 22

totald totale totald totaef totald totaig totald 0b0ä18

Pail

totale

3.0625 2.8402 1.9134 2.5402 2.2193 2.51402 2.5475 2.5402 3.0825 1.9134

23

total?

12193

40

05594 .07445

, 50031 . 67711 . 50031 . 64736 . 50031 . 54985 . .50031

, 05594 . 06452 . 05594 . 07238 . 05594 . 06148 . 05594 .

79840 .

.

50031 .

.

93929 .

88604 . 64736 . .54985 .84736 79840 . 64736 . 93929 . 64736 . 88604 . 54985 .

,7040

05594

10502 .

.05694 09906

07445

ma I66593

137711

08926

10302 ,07445

10502 .0452 09906 . 07238 . 08148 . 07238 . 06926 . 07238 . 10502 . 07238 . .09908 08148 . ,

0026

Page2

Paired Samples Statistics

nder

z.uu

air

o

24

totaig

Pair 25

totale totalh

Pair

totalf

26

tatato

Pair 27 Pair

totaff totalh totalg

28

totaih

Mean 1.9134 2.5475

Std.Errät' Mean 54985 .06148 .93929 10502 . . 34983 08148 . . 09906 88604 . .79840 08926 . . 93929 10502 . .

Std.Deviation

N 80 80

1.9134

80

3.0625 2.2193 2.5475

80

2.2193

80

3,QG35 2.5475 3.0625

80 80

80

79840 .8004

08928 .QNQ6

80 80

93929 . .88604

.10502 09906 .

Paired Samples Correlations Reinder 1.00

N Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair4 Pair 5 Pair 8

totala &totalb totale& totale totals & totald total&& tbthlb totala & totaif totale & totalg

Fair7

totals& Math

Pair 8 Pair9

totalb & totale totalb & totald

120 120 120 120 i20 120 120 120 120

Pair 10 Pair 11

totalb & totale totalb & totaaf

120 120

Pair 12 Pair 13 Pair 14

totalb & totalg totalb & totalh totale & totald

120 120 120 120

Pith 15 total"& tÖtilb Pair 16 totalc& totatf

X593 .403 4&3 . 613 .

120

totaig & totalh

323 .654

air i

totale total

129

Pair25 tom &totalh Pair 26

total & tötal0

Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair 5

totale& totals totale & totald totale& totale totals & total

Pair 6

totale & totale

Pair 7 Pair 8 Pair 9

totals& totalh totalb & totale tötaib& totald

80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

000 . 000 . 000 .

000 .

Pair 28

totald & totale total! & totaff totald& totalg totald & totalh totale & totatf totals & totaig

1000

466 .

.641 571 . 508 . 311 .

Pair27 totaaf & totalh

Pair 19 Pair 20 Pair 21 Pair 22 Pair 23 Pair 24

000 .

000 . 000 .

387 ,474

totals& totaig

Palr 18 totalc& totalh

S113. 000 . 002 . 000 . 000 .

473 . 467 .

120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120

Pair 17

106

i20

Corralatlon 721 . 284 . 485 . 469 . 411 .

. 526 . 488 . .583 653 . 420 . 567 . 491 . 590 .

. 451 . 236 . 369 . 158 . 427 .483 .

318 . 460 . 590 .

000 . 000 . 000 . .001

000 ,000

. 000 . 000 . 000 . .000 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 .

000 .

00Q ,000 . 036 . 001 . .161 000 .000

.

004 . 000 . 000 .

Page3

Paid

aýýar

2.00

Samples Correlations N

Pair 10

totalh & totale

80

Pair 11 totalb & totalf Pair 12 tötälb & tot8lg Pair 13 totalb & totath Pair 14 totalc & totald

80 80

Pair15 totalc4 totale

80

80

00

Pair 16 totals& tetalf Pair 17 totalc& totalg Pair 18 totalc& totalh Pair 19 totald& totale Pair 20 totald & totatf Pair 21 totald & totaig Pair22 totald & totalh

80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Pair 23

totale & t6t8tf

80

Pair24 Pair25

totale & totaig totale & totalh

Pair28

totaet & totaig

Pair27 Pair28

tetalf & totalh totalg& totalh

80 so 80 80 80

lääbrl Cb??

307 .

489 . 584 .

506 . ,j 398 .

307 . 439 . 369 . 462 . .479 553 . 571 .373 .

449 .

4U5 .499 . we 656 .

Si

. 006 . 000 .

000 . 000 .2w

, .

000

.008 000 . .001 000 . .000 000 . 000 . 001 . 0ö0 . 1000

.000 000 . .000

Page4

Paired Samplespest PairedDifferetleea

sndsr 1.00

Pair I Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair4 Pair5 Pair6 Pair7

totals - total totalsi totals totals=totale totals- totale totale- totalf totals - totalg totata- tatälh

Pair8

totatb- totals

Pair9

totalb - totald

Pair10 mall; - totale Pair 11 Pair 12

Pair 13

totalb- totasf totalb - totalg

totalbi totalh

Pair 14 totale- totale Pair 15 totalc- totale Pair 18 totale- total( Pair 17 totale - totalg Pail 18

tbtälc - tötalh

Pair 19 totald- totale Pair 20 Pair 21 Pair 22 Pair 23

2.00

Pair24 Pair25 Pair26 Pair 27 Pair28 Pair I

Pair2 Pair3 Pair 4 Pair 5 Pair6 Pair 7 Pair8 Pair9 Pair 10 Pair 11 Pair 12 Pair 13

totald - total totald - totalg totald- totalh totale - total?

totale - totaig totals i totalh totatf- totalg total - totalh totalg - totalh totals- totalb

totale- totale

totals - totald totals.- totale totals - tatalf totale - totalg totals- totaih totalbi totals totalb - totale totalb - totale totalb - total totalb - tötal0 totalb- totalh

Pair14 totale- totald Pair 15 Pair 16 Pair 17 Pair 18 Pair 19 Pair20 Pair 21

totals- totale totals - total( totaia - totalg totale- totath totald " totals totale - totasf totald- totalg

Mean . 34069 =.73725 -.82204 -.11821 -.74559 -.59142 -1.25300

-MIT

481 -. X35 22248 . 40490 -. '. 25074

=.91231 -. 08478

81905 . 00833 -. 14583 . -.51574 70353 . 67845 23062 . -.43096 ".64738

=.47321 -1.13479 15417 . 50741 -. -.66157 -.40147

-1.18255 -1102257 -.39575 -.70167 "1.02985 =1.54485 -.76109 -.82110 00572 . -.30020 -.62838 -1.14339

113888

.76682 48089 . .13271 _.38229 82682 , .32090

-. 00728

Std.Deviation .50116 79451 . .66973 64558 . .84670 75458 . 95981 .

72580 .ä140 , 69949 . 84201 . 72686 .65375

.

Std. Error Mean 04575 . 07253 . 08114 . 05898 . 07729 . .08888 08762 .

68624 . Q501 ,

06385 . 07686 . 06635 .

07794 .

90% ConfidenceInterval of the Difference upper Lover 41653 -. -.26484 65749 a. _.61702 92339 -. -.72069 21595 -. -.02047 -.87372 -.81746 70561 -. -.47723 -1.39825 -1.10775

-.60839 -.67411 .11662 -.53233 36073 .

=1.04151

-.29675

-138833 32833 . -.27748 , 14074

_.78311

69513 . 80193 . 84433 . 92518 . 93378 .

06346 . 07321 . 07708 . 08446 . 08524 .

-. 18998 .49769 -.13611 00582 . -.65705

02041 74040 . 11944 . 28584 . -.37443

79026 . 77892 .

, 07214 . 07111 .07796

-, 11102 . 54883 -.

. .36021 -.31308

.07112 08282 . 07556 . 08633 . 07499 . 07010 .

=.59111 -1.27209 02891 . -.65052 -.78589 -.51814

=.35532 -.99749 27943 . -.36429 -.53726 -.28480 -1.03504

84029 .81842

85402 .

77907 . 90728 . 82772 . 94570 . 82149 . 62700 .

88018 .85661

, 68233 . .73927 82376 . 66791 . 65008 . 59489 . 72193 . 74918 . 77123 . 70481 .

40784 61852 . 82916 . 85990 . ß6043 . 62657 . 74894 . 79312 .

03027 .07471

.

07481 .07334 07629 . 08265 . 09210 . 09703 . 07268 . 06851 . 08071 . 08376 . 08823 . 089x8 .

,05784 06915

. 09270 . 09614 . 09620 . .07005 08373 . 08887 .

60857, .0474Q

".75662

-1.28705 -1,14464 -.52271 -.83924 "1.18314 4.70636 -.88208 -.73150 -. 12861 -.43961 -.77190

80200 .20030

-.49814

-0050 26878

-1.20130

-. -.56411 ".87657 1.38335 -.64012 -.510+40 14006 . -.16079 -.48487 -.00848

. 30860 . 42730 =.54240 51023 . 18154 . -. 15487

. 61618 . 29272 . =.22216 74342 . 46028 . 14030 .

02803 ,65172

,25308 88191

Page5

Paired SamplesTest Paired Dfl%feneaä

2.00

Pair 22 Pair23 Pair24 Pair25 Pair26 Pair 27 Patt 28

toteldIMFtotale totatf totals totaig totale - totath totaff- totalg totaff- totalh

totälg - Mtäth

Std Error . Mean Std. Deviation Mean 74069 08281 .. 52228 . . 06749 30593 718251 .. . . 63411 84876 09489 -. . . 52048 09173 -1.14911 . . 87844 09821 -.32818 . . 10441 -.84318 .93386 . 51500 75880 08481 -. . .

90% ConfidenceInterval of the Difference Lower Upper 66011 08445 ". 45154 .. =.16031 79205 -. -.47617 -1.30178 -.99643 49164 -. 16472 -. -1.01896 -.66941 -.85616 -.37384

Page6

paired Samples Test

2MW 1.00 --

Pair1

totale- totellb

Pair2 Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair 5

totalae totale totala: totald totale - totals totals - totat

Pairs

totals- totalg

Pätr 7

Pair 8 Pair 9

tbtatä - tbtali5

totalb - totale totalb - totald

Pair 10 totalb- totals Pair 11 Pair 12

Pair 13 Pair 14

-8.588 -14.301 -8 578 3.484 -5.268 3.7799

df 119 119 119 119 119 119

119 119 119 119 119 119

totalb º totalh totale - totald

=11.706

totale- totals totale- totalf totale- totalg totale- Main

8.456 -.108 1.727 -0.050

119 119 119 119

Pair19 totald- totale

11.875

119

1,023

119 119 119 119 119 119 119 119 119 79

Pair 15 Pair 16 Pair 17 Pair 18 Pair20

Palr21

2.00

totalb - totalf totalb - totalg

t -7.447 =10.165 -13.446 -2.005 9.846

totald- totaef

totald- totalg

-1.336

3.197

Pair 22 Pair 23 Pair 24 Pair 25 Pair 26 Pair 27 Pair 28 Pair 1

totatd- totath totale- totalf totale - totalg totals - totalh totaef- totalg tota#- totalh totelg - totalh totale - totalb

-13.701 2.040

Pair2

totale-totale

-15.539

Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair 5 Pair 6 Pair 7 Pair 8 Pair 9 Pair 10 Pair 11

Pair 12 Pair 13

Pair 14 Palr 15 Pair 16

Pair 17 Pair 18 Pair 19 Pair 20

Pair 21

totals - totald totale - totale totala - totaef totals - totalg totale - totalh totalb totale totalb - totald totalb - totale totalb - totaef

totalb- totalQ totalb - totalh

totale- totald

total totale totale - totalf

totale - totaig totale - toteth totald - totals totald - tota#

totald - totatg

-6.061 4047 6.654

-5.878 -8.822 -5.727

-13,942 -5.188 -8.489 . 11.182 -15.921 -10.472 -9.338 071 . -3.584

-7.288 -12.337

21041 11.089 4.972 1.380 z3.974 8.948 3.632 -.082

119 119

79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79

79

79

79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79

Sig. (2-tailed) 000 . 000 . .000 047 . .000 000 .

000 .000 .000 , 001 . 000 . 000 . .000 184 . 000 . 914 . 087 . 000 .

000 .

13Q$ 002 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 000 . 044 . 000 . 000 . 000 .

000 .QQQ

, 000 . .000 000 . .000 000 . 000 . 944 .001 .

000 .000 .

1043 000 . 000 . .171 000 . 000 . 000 . 935 .

Page7

Paired SamplesTest

2.00

air 22 Pair 23 Pair24 Pair25 Pair26

totald- totath totale - total totale =totatg totale- totath totatf- totalg

Pair27 totatf- totath Pit 28

tbtalg - totaih

t 6.307 =3.497 -8.682 -12.527 -3.342 -8.076 -8.072

df

Sig. 79 79 79 79 79 79 79

000 . 001 . 000 . .000 .001 000 . 000 .

Page8

T-Test One-SampleStatistics

N totalpai tQta, 02

totap4

244 200 200

Std. Deviation Mean 242533 55844 3.2282 52833 . 2.6352 .47115

Std. Error Mean :43948 03736 . .033332

Ore-Sample Test

totalpa1

totalp2 tote 4

t 31.738 59.644 48.081

Cif 199 199 199

Mean Sig. 2-tailed Difference 000 F 1.25326 . 2.22821 000 . 000 1.63515 .

95% ConfidenceInterval of the Difference Upper Lower 1.1754 1.3311 2.1545 2.3019 1.5695 1.7008

Page1

Reliability Reliability Statistics Cronbach's AI ha :959

N of Items

113 Item"Totai Statistics scats

ScaleMeanif

ä

item-Total if ItemDeleted ItemDeleted Ow.elatlon 246.9000

3848.593

a2

3471050

3817,389

0.3

247.6500 248.0350 247.8750 246.0850 247.6100 247.2050 247.5600 247.9200 247.4700 247.7850

3623.696 3651.954 3640.170 3652.775 3614.551 3595.400 3590.821 3621.913 3598.492

a4 85 as s7 a8 a9 810 all

02

3633.165

a13

347.7600

3809.691

a14 a15 a16 a17 bi b2 b3 b4 b5 156 b7 b$ b9 b 1G

247:9850 247.9000 247.4700 247.9150 247 3550 . 247.3500 247.3450 247.6750 248.8800 247.4300

3641:593 W33.648 3598.803 3627-966 3518.153 3597.897 3592.790 3601.839 3818.991 3611.010

348.7100

3581.493

247:4550 247.3750 247.6100 247.5000 247.7000 247.2300 247.3950 247.5700

36221.425 3696.411 3603.505 3597A57 3800.945 3590.278 3802.150 3599.925

247 49 50 .

3W5.598

248.0200

3593.688

34818300

3838,084

247:0400 246.0400 246.9250 246.4250 247.8000 245.0550 245.8900 246.0550

3621164 3516.888 3602291 3602.678 3831.298 3591.309 3814.078 3609.600

b 1i

b12 b13 b14 WS 1516

1517 c1 c2 C3 c4 05

c6 C7 c8 ý

Corrected

Variance

Cronbach's Alpha if Item ße1. etQ4

100 .

959 .

.

. 959 . .959 959 . .959 .958 958 . .959 958 .

406 :364

205 . .265 202 . 443 . .475 589 . 460 . 541 .

334 .4T5 , 4342 Ma .477 402 . 305 . 490 . 538 . 527 . 350 . 414 .

558 ,314

: 585 . 477 . 568 . 573 . .+455 523 . 511 .

959 ,859

959 .

,958 i959 969 . 958 . 959 . 959 . 958 . 9w . 958 . 959 . 959 .

'M 959 958 . .958 958 . 9w . 968 . 956 . 958 .958

457 .

.

193 ,362

1939 06

412 . 276 .

.404 326 . .293 397 . 291 . 317 .

959 .

: ON 959 . 959 . 959 . 959 . 959 . 959 .

item-Total Statlatlas

9l C11 a12 dl d2 d3 d4 ti5 d6 d7 d8

d8 dlQ d11 d12 d`13

d14 d15 d16 d17 d18 d13

d20

scale Caftatan Varianceif item-Total Item Deleted Correlation 3629.308 163 . 045 3663.3+47 . 3608.180 .364 359 4.244 410 . 3617.829 361 . 384 3605.964 . 3590.452 485 . 530 3580.601 . 3810.441 375 . 3807.887 387 246.5450 . 3632,507 346,Q75Q 344 ,245 247.1250 3627.879 . 247.0550 3603.731 384 . 387 247.3450 3609.202 . 246.7550 3604.859 387 . 360 8.340 343 248.8900 . 246.7650 3626.995 205 . 527 247.0200 3584.784 . 246.4050 3598.875 .464 540 247.0400 3587.898 . 5`10 247'.5100 3600.1?1 . 364 247,405Q 3501.710

ScaleMeanif Item Deleted 246.8450 248.7450 246.6450 245.9550 247.5150 246.3550 246.3250 246.8800 248.4850

247 04 50 .

d21 d22 d23 s1 ý

246.2200 245.6350 246.5200 247.8900 247.0850

e3 84

247.4100

359 7.169

65

247.9450 248.8700

3614.745 3601.660 3578.562 3637.807 3623.757 3629.419 3631.560 3593.289

eä

248.1300

3832.908

e7 e9 e lo ell "12

34,8050 247.6000 247.6800 247.7850 247.0000 248.0750

3589,76i 3616.422 3633.163 3624.873 3615.196 3641.356

e13

246.5700

3607.714

914

247.2500

3614.688

40

fl

f2 1`8

f4 f5

f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11

.

483

309 . .386 5218 . 211 . 284 .

267 . 329 . 435 .

151 .

504 ,425

. .245 330 . 290 . 337 . 327 .

.324 4`13 . 292 .

247 56 50 .

3610.920

245.7750

3607.341

247.6000

3816.583

247,6400

3616,620

125

246.0450 247.4000 246.9150 248.2800 246.4950 246.89W 247.7000

3589.641 3606.884 3591.978 3569.409 3571.487 3593.652 3607.558

.367 433 . 392 . 491 . 454 . .400 443 .

409 .

a C"baal,,

Alphaff Item Deleted 969 . 959 . .959 9% . .959 959 . 958 . .958 .959 989 .854 , 959 . 959 . 959 . .959 959 .

959 . 958 . 958 . 958 . 938 . 459 , 968 .

9w . 959 . 956 . 969 . 959 . 959 . 959 . 959 .

080 .459 , 9w . 969 . 959 . 959 . 959 .959 .

959 .959 .

.

959

939 .

1658 ON 969 . 959 . 958 . 958 . 969 . 959 .

Page2

Item-ibffif

SZ g2 g3 g4 g5 g6 g7

98 99

Scale meanif Item Deleted 246.9050 246.8750 246.7900 246.5950 247.3300 247.4300 2482750 248.9150 246.9750

Statistics

Seale Varianceif Item Deleted 3565.122 3562.562 3596.358 3572.795 3600.162 3599.412 3559.718 3577.194 3579.311

g1l)

246.8950

3562.338

h1

2464200

ä570,053

112

246.3400

3562.879

h3 h4 h5 h6 h3 h8 h9

246.2150 246.6100 246.0600 246.0800 246.1850 246.1050 246.7450

Carree'tea item-Total Correlation 636 . 653 . .410 .549

3581.788 3588.752 3567.403 3577.019 3589.076 3586285 3583.166

414 .

.552 509 . .494 495 .

582 .

Crrbat`8 Alpha if Item Deleted 958 . 958 . 959 . 956 . 959 . 958 . 958 . .958 958 .

938 .058

.586

:

532 . .510 620 . .563 485 . 519 . 519 .

958 . 958 . IN 958 . 958 . 958 . .958

666 .

958 .

Reliability Reliability Statlstlas

item-Töti1IStätlstlts

p2ql p2q2 p2q3 p2q4 p2g5

P246

Scala meanit Item Deleted 2.0350 42.4350 41.8700 41.8000 41.9800 41.8700

ýcate

variance If

Item

ted 46.647 47.765 46.5W 45.920 46.581 48.815

p2q7

42.1800

51."8

p2g8 ß2Q6 p2q1Q p2g11 p2q12 p2q13 p2q14

413250 41.9050 41.7600 41-8600 41.2950 41.9650 42.4750

4778 48.127 48.566 45.900 46.430 49.119 50.070

ýocýted itafll-fatal Co ation 486 . 404 . 474 . 553 . 440 . 291 .

105 .

1282

379 . 334 . 531 . 533 . 287 . 236 .

ýronäach's AlphaIf PtaPh Deieted 743 . 751 . 744 . 737 . 747 . 762 .

778 .

761 :753

. 758 . 738 . 739 . 762 . 767 .

Reliability

Page3

Rellabillty Statistics CM6AC" Alpha 944 .

N of items 86 11aR1-TSt81 S!alll8tlss

p3g1 p3q2 P3q3 P3q4 p3q5 P3qS p3q7 0348 p349 p3q1O 0411

Scale ScaleMeanif Varianceif Item Deleted Item Deleted 171.0250 943.442 953.672 170.6650 171.3350 947.430 949.855 171.5650 171.4900 945.950 943 035 '171.3250 . 171.3850 937.650 171.3100 938.587

171.0500

025,006

p3412 p3q13 p3414 p3q15

171:1650 171.1000 171.5950 171.6600 171.1650 171.2700

940038 %5.970 940.815 945.391 942.671 941.163

p3416 p3q17

171.6600 171.5600

942.236 940: 107

p3418 0419 P300 p3g21 p302

171.3450 171.1750

937.473 931.170

1T1,4100

MAT

171:34350 171.3900

945:439 940.892

Corrected Item-Total Correlation 377 . 249 . 298 . 274 . 329 . 376 . 477 . 430 .

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted 943 . 944 . 944 . 944 . 944 . 943 . 943 . 943 .

:455 436 . 367 . 313 . .346 417 .

943 943 . 943 . 944 . 944 . 943 .

5Ö$

367 . 397 .

468 . 551 . 1505

:341 .362

045

171.1850 171.1300 171.3100 171.1900

9W.785 941.732 931.260 942.215

170.9750 171.2200

939.321 934.968

170.9000

934.010

17112200 171:6650

036,420

AN

171.8600

W3,915 944.905

P3435

171.7200 171.2200

943.831 940.183

:346 298 . 355 .

p3q36 p3437 p3q38

171.5100 170.9500 170.9500

9W.624 933.103 933.405

p3439

171.0450

933.842

p3äi40

171.7450 171.3100

947.920 931.401

171,1750

27,502

171.. 475Q

944103

171.5850

947.400

171.2500

934.751

944 .

943 . 943 .

p3q24 p3q25 P3436 P3427 p3428 p3429 03430 p3q31

PW2 p3q43 P304 p3q45

,w 944

508 .

932.992

P3441

943 . 943 .

943 .

171.1350

p3q33 43g34

943 . 943 .

563 .

p3q23

p3432

043 ,

493 . 403 . 558 . 419 . .466 538 .

419 .

399 . 528 . .590

510 .

286 . 545 . 1570

347 .324

.

.495

943 . 943 . 943 . 943 . 943 .

.

944 944

943 . 943 .

943 .943 "

942 . 943 .

944 . 943 .

042

944 944 .

.943

Page4

Item-Total Statistics

Saale Varianceif ItemDeleted

ScaleMeanif Item Deleted

ý

i

93846 p3q47

171.1160 171.7900

93n2.233 948.257

p3g48 p3q49 p3g50 p3q51 p3q52 p3g53 03454 p3q55 P3g56

171.4850 170.9800 171.5550 170.9350 171.2050 171.4450 171.3800 170.92200 171:2600

933.507 929.527 941.012 937.659

P3q$7

171.0700 170.9100

931.261 932.424

p3g65

170.9000 170.9450 171.4450 171.0450 171.4900 171.2850 '1711.2150

931.608 934.334 937.595 931.068 938.261 930.641 935.446

P

171.8900

948.416

p3q68 p3g59 p3g60 p3q61 p3q62 P3463 P3g64

944.988

937.685 935.307

0371.782 7432445

Cot1eated Item-Total Con-elaton 537 . 291 .

490 . .617 409 . . 486

Crai1bWah s Alphaif Item Deleted 943 . 944 .

943 . 942 . 943 . 943 .

378 .

.

483 .578

943 .

435 . 500 .

,

634 . 539 .

533 . 467 . .394 561 . 423 . 547 . 487 .

243 .

943

943 . 943 .

484Z

943 . 943 .

943 . 943 . 943 .

943 . 943 . 943 . .

943

944 .

Reliability Reliability Statistics

ha

N öf Item's

905

19

Page 5

Nam-'Totalätatistlos

R4g1 p4q2 p4ct3 p4q4 p4g5

p4q6 p4g7 p44g8 P449 p4g10 p4g11 p403 p4q13 p4q14 p4q15 p4q16 p4q17 p4g1ß p4j19

scale meanit Item Deleted 57.3900 57.3900 56.9900 57.1250 57.0200

87.2600 56.9700 56.9900 58.8550

SCA16 Varianceif Item Deleted 344.028 343.656 340251 342.532

340.211 335.600 344.411 336.452 339.170

57.2800

343.499

äO:7656

344423

56.7800

339.067

56.7600 57.0250 56.7800 57.0300 57.1950 57.5350 57.5400

342.887 343.160 3212918 344.100 346.027 355.366 348.099

COMM Item-Total Correlation

605 . 621 . 646 .

C of bst % Alpha if Item Deleted 900 . 899 . .898

735 . 580 . 751 . 727 .

896 . 900 . 896 . 897 .

656 . 696 .

629 .653

,

706 .

636 . 584 . 303 . 593 . 581 . 359 . 487 .

Ms 897 .

899 .$99

,

897 .

.899 900 . 931 . 900 . 900 . 906 . 902 .

Page6

160