Tele-Improvisation: A Multimodal Analysis of Intercultural Improvisation in Networked Music ...

Tele-Improvisation: A Multimodal Analysis of Intercultural Improvisation in Networked Music Performance

Roger Mills University of Technology Sydney

Submitted to the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2014

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP I certify that the work in this thesis has not previously been submitted for a degree nor has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree except as fully acknowledged within the text. I also certify that the thesis has been written by me. Any help that I have received in my research work and the preparation of the thesis itself has been acknowledged. In addition, I certify that all information sources and literature used are indicated in the thesis.

Roger Mills 2014

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Kirsty Beilharz who supervised this thesis and helped me draw together a decade of experiences and ideas that now form the basis of this work. She has shown me unwavering support, encouragement and patience for which I am eternally grateful. Special thanks are also reserved for my secondary supervisor Theo van Leeuwen who first inspired my approach and love of semiotics, and has kept a critical overview of the direction I have taken. I would also like to acknowledge the support I have received from Linda Candy, Ernest Edmonds, Andrew Johnson, Nathan Wilson, Ben Carey and colleagues at UTS Creativity and Cognition Studios and Sense Aware Lab. Thanks also goes to Anne Cranny-Francis for final critical feedback. I have also received excellent technical support from the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Media Lab at the University of Technology, Sydney. I am indebted to my many friends and networked accomplices around the world especially the Ethernet Orchestra who have shared endless hours of networked musical exploration and experimentation. This includes the case study participants and the late Richard Lainhart who lives on in the words of this thesis. My deepest gratitude also goes to my dearest friend and critic Vedad FamourZadeh for the many nights of collegial argument and debate, as well as to my collaborator Aref Toloei who extended his wealth of knowledge in helping me understand the nuances of improvisation in Persian and Indian Classical music. Lastly and most importantly, I would like to give a very special thanks to my mother Beverley Beddoes-Mills and my father Geoff Mills for their love and emotional support throughout the ups and downs of this experience. Thanks also go to my sister Kerstin Stevens as well as my extended family Carolyn, Jacky, and Roger who have all been there for me at different parts of the journey.

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Thesis Examiners Dr Catherine Hope Professor Gunther Kress Associate Professor Ian Whalley

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TABLE OF CONTENTS CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP  ............................................................  i   Acknowledgments  .................................................................................................................  iii   Table of Contents  .....................................................................................................................  v   List of Figures  ..........................................................................................................................  xi   List of Tables  ........................................................................................................................  xiii   ABSTRACT  ...............................................................................................................................  1   Chapter 1 - Introduction  .........................................................................................................  3   1.1 Introduction  .........................................................................................................................  3   1.2 Motivation and Background  ............................................................................................  4   1.3 Significance of the Research  ............................................................................................  5   1.4 Thesis Structure  .................................................................................................................  7   CHAPTER 2 - Literature Review  .........................................................................................  9   2.1 Introduction  ........................................................................................................................  9   2.2 Developments in Networked Music  ...........................................................................  10   2.2.1 Origins of Networked Music Performance  .....................................................................  10   2.2.2 Computer Networks  ............................................................................................................  10   2.2.3 Dislocated Networked Music Performance  ....................................................................  12   2.2.4 Wide Area Network Music Performance  .........................................................................  13  

2.3 Telematics and the Internet  .........................................................................................  13   2.4 The World Wide Web  .....................................................................................................  14   2.4.1 Multi-user Networked Music Systems and Projects  .....................................................  16  

2.5 Multichannel Telematic Sound  ....................................................................................  18   2.5.1 JackTrip  ..................................................................................................................................  19  

2.6 Latency and Ensemble Accuracy  ................................................................................  21   v

2.7 Choice of Interface  ..........................................................................................................  22   2.7.1 eJamming  ...............................................................................................................................  23   2.7.2 NINJAM  .................................................................................................................................  24  

2.8 Summary  ...........................................................................................................................  26   2.9 Musical and Distance Communication  ......................................................................  27   2.9.1 Telematic Presence  ..............................................................................................................  28  

2.10 Pragmatic Empiricism  .................................................................................................  30   2.10.1 The Body-Mind in Perception and Experience  ............................................................  31   2.10.2 Phenomenology and Perception  ......................................................................................  32  

2.11 Objectivism  .....................................................................................................................  34   2.11.1 Embodied Structures of Imagination and Reason  .......................................................  35  

2.12 Toward a Theory of Telematic Collaboration  .........................................................  36   2.13 Interaction in Networked Music Performance  .......................................................  37   2.14 Theories of Cyberspace, Networked Space and Musical Space  ..........................  41   2.14.1 Cybernetics and Cybersemiotics  ......................................................................................  43  

2.15 Listening  .........................................................................................................................  44   2.15.1 Dualist and Non-Dualist Divides  ....................................................................................  45   2.15.2 Listening and Interpretation  ............................................................................................  46  

2.16 Listening Theories  ........................................................................................................  47   2.16.1 Reduced Listening  ..............................................................................................................  47   2.16.2 Causal and Semantic Listening  ........................................................................................  48  

2.17 Time Consciousness: Retention and Protention  ....................................................  49   2.18 Audiation  .........................................................................................................................  51   2.19 Improvisation  .................................................................................................................  52   2.19.1 Free Improvisation  ..............................................................................................................  53   2.19.2 Tele-Improvisation  .............................................................................................................  55   2.19.3 Tele-Improvisatory Idioms  ...............................................................................................  55   2.19.4 Non-Idiomatic Versus Multi-Idiomatic Approaches  ..................................................  57   2.19.5 Improvisatory Interaction  .................................................................................................  58  

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2.19.6 Cultures and Idioms of Improvisation  ...........................................................................  61   2.19.7 Significance in Cultures of Improvisation  .....................................................................  63  

2.20 Intercultural Music, Cross-Culturalism and Appropriation  .................................  65   2.21 Analysing Interaction  ...................................................................................................  67   2.22 Conclusion  .....................................................................................................................  71   Chapter 3 – Methodology  ....................................................................................................  73   3.0 Introduction  .....................................................................................................................  73   3.1 Research Paradigm  .........................................................................................................  74   3.1.1 Constructing Intercultural Tele-improvisation  ...............................................................  76  

3.2 Research Approach  ........................................................................................................  78   3.2.1 Social Semiotics and Multimodal Discourse Analysis  ..................................................  79   3.2.2 Musical Aesthetics  ...............................................................................................................  83  

3.3 Representation, Expression and Meaning  ................................................................  87   3.3.1 Melody  ....................................................................................................................................  88   3.3.2 Rhythm and Time  ................................................................................................................  90   3.3.3 Harmony and Tonality  ........................................................................................................  92  

3.4 Parameters of Interaction  ..............................................................................................  94   3.4.1 Timbre  ....................................................................................................................................  94   3.4.2 Aural Perspective  ..................................................................................................................  96   3.4.3 Sequentiality and Simultaneity  ..........................................................................................  96   3.4.4 Interlocking  ...........................................................................................................................  98   3.4.5 Musical Texture  ....................................................................................................................  99   3.4.6 Social Heterogeneity  ..........................................................................................................  100   3.4.7 Social Unison  ......................................................................................................................  101   3.4.8 Homophony  ........................................................................................................................  102   3.4.9 Sonorous Motion  ................................................................................................................  102   3.4.10 Summary  .............................................................................................................................  104  

3.5 Conceptual Metaphor  ..................................................................................................  104   3.5.1 Image Schema  .....................................................................................................................  105   3.5.2 Structural Metaphors  .........................................................................................................  106  

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3.5.3 Orientational Metaphors  ...................................................................................................  107   3.5.4 Ontological Metaphors  ......................................................................................................  110  

3.6 New Domains Require New Metaphors  .................................................................  112   3.6.1 TELE-IMPROVISATION LANDSCAPE Metaphor  .................................................  113   3.6.2 Culture and Metaphor  .......................................................................................................  116   3.6.3 Metaphor and Causation  ...................................................................................................  117  

3.7 Instrumental Gesture  ..................................................................................................  119   3.8 Methods  .........................................................................................................................  121   3.8.1 Identifying Interactive Modes  ..........................................................................................  122  

3.9 Case Study Research  ...................................................................................................  123   3.9.1 Interface Requirements  .....................................................................................................  123   3.9.2 Participants  ..........................................................................................................................  124   3.9.3 Examining Interaction  ......................................................................................................  125   3.9.4 Data Collection  ...................................................................................................................  126   3.9.5 Case Study Procedure and Variables  ..............................................................................  128   3.9.6 Audio / Video Recording  .................................................................................................  129   3.9.7 Video Cued Recall  ..............................................................................................................  130   3.9.8 Translators  ...........................................................................................................................  131   3.9.9 Transcription  .......................................................................................................................  132   3.9.10 Memo Taking  ....................................................................................................................  132   3.9.11 Data Analysis  .....................................................................................................................  133  

3.11 Summary  .......................................................................................................................  137   Chapter 4 - Analysis  ...........................................................................................................  139   4.1 Introduction  ...................................................................................................................  139   4.2 Case Study II  .................................................................................................................  140   4.2.1 Excerpt 1: 0:00 – 9:31  ..........................................................................................................  141   4.2.2 Excerpt Summary  ...............................................................................................................  141   4.2.3 Descriptive Analysis  ...........................................................................................................  142   4.2.4 Excerpt 2: 0:00 – 1:52  .........................................................................................................  149   4.2.5 Excerpt Summary  ...............................................................................................................  149  

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4.2.6 Descriptive Analysis  ...........................................................................................................  149   4.2.7 Excerpt 3: 0:00 – 3:44  .........................................................................................................  152   4.2.8 Excerpt Summary  ...............................................................................................................  152   4.2.9 Descriptive Analysis  ...........................................................................................................  152  

4.3 Case Study III  ................................................................................................................  154   4.3.1 Excerpt 1: 0:00 – 9:31  ..........................................................................................................  156   4.3.2 Summary  ..............................................................................................................................  156   4.3.3 Descriptive Analysis  ...........................................................................................................  156   4.3.4 Excerpt 2: 0:00 – 6:23  .........................................................................................................  169   4.3.5 Summary  ..............................................................................................................................  169   4.3.6 Descriptive Analysis  ...........................................................................................................  170  

4.4 Case Study IV  ................................................................................................................  174   4.4.1 Excerpt 1: 0:00 – 4:38  ..........................................................................................................  177   4.4.2 Excerpt Summary  ...............................................................................................................  177   4.4.3 Descriptive Analysis  ...........................................................................................................  177   4.4.4 Excerpt 2: 0:00 – 8:08  .........................................................................................................  182   4.4.5 Excerpt Summary  ...............................................................................................................  182   4.4.6 Descriptive Analysis  ...........................................................................................................  182   4.4.7 Excerpt 3: 0:00 – 4:19  ..........................................................................................................  187   4.4.8 Excerpt Summary  ...............................................................................................................  187   4.4.9 Descriptive Analysis  ...........................................................................................................  187  

4.4.10 Conclusion  ................................................................................................................  189   CHAPTER 5 - Evaluation  .................................................................................................  191   5.1 Introduction  ...................................................................................................................  191   5.2 Criteria  ............................................................................................................................  191   5.3 Improvisatory Stages, Approaches and Strategies  .................................................  196   5.3.1 Initiation Stage  ....................................................................................................................  197   5.3.2 Development Stage  ............................................................................................................  197   5.3.3 Progression Stage  ...............................................................................................................  199   5.3.4 Recapitulation Stage  ..........................................................................................................  200   5.3.5 Conclusion Stage  ................................................................................................................  201  

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5.3.6 Deconstruction Stage  .........................................................................................................  202  

5.4 Instrumental Gestures  .................................................................................................  202   5.4.1 Case Study II  ........................................................................................................................  202   5.4.2 Case Study III  ......................................................................................................................  204   5.4.3 Case Study IV  ......................................................................................................................  206  

5.5 Conclusion  .....................................................................................................................  208   CHAPTER 6 - Conclusion and Future Work  ...............................................................  209   6.1 Summary of Findings  ..................................................................................................  209   6.2 Findings  .........................................................................................................................  210   6.2.1 Additional Findings  ............................................................................................................  213  

6.3 Implications, Ongoing and Future Work  ................................................................  215   6.3.1 Dialogical Interplay and Embodied Perception  ...........................................................  215   6.3.2 Intercultural Interplay  .......................................................................................................  216  

6.4 Practical Implications  .................................................................................................  217   6.5 Future Work  ..................................................................................................................  218   6.6 Conclusion  .....................................................................................................................  219   Appendix A - Peer Reviewed Publications  ....................................................................  221   Book Chapter & Journal Articles  ..............................................................................................  221   Conference Papers  .......................................................................................................................  221  

Appendix B - Sample Video Cue Recall Transcript  ....................................................  222   Appendix C - Memos  .........................................................................................................  233   Appendix D - Participant Musician Biographies  ........................................................  236   Appendix E - Translators  .................................................................................................  238   Appendix F - Ethics  ...........................................................................................................  240   Appendix G - DVD Track Listing  ..................................................................................  241   References  ............................................................................................................................  243  

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LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1 The League of Automatic Music Composers: Tim Perkis, Jim Horton, and John Bischoff, photo by Peter Abramowitsch.  ..............................................................................................  11   Fig. 2 Quintet.net interface notation window, image by Georg Hajdu.  ........................................  17   Fig. 3 Screenshot shows the multiplayer session window in eJamming interface.  .....................  24   Fig. 4 Screenshot illustrates the multiplayer session window of the NINJAM interface.  ........  25   Fig. 5 Matthew Samson’s Model of Relational Categories (Samson 1997, p. 138).  ...................  68   Fig. 6 Research approach adapting Crotty’s four elements of epistemology, theoretical perspective, methodology and methods (Crotty 1998, p. 5).  ............................................................  76   Fig. 7 Illustrates the interrelationship between multimodal discourse analysis and social semiotics in analysing and evaluating experiential meaning in tele-improvisation.  ....................  81   Fig. 8 SOURCE-PATH-GOAL image schema (Johnson 1991).  ..................................................  106   Fig. 9 VERTICALITY image schema (Zbikowski 1998).  ..............................................................  107   Fig. 10 CONTAINER image schema (Johnson 1987, see Tompkins & Lawley 2009).  .........  111   Fig. 11 Illustrates the cross-metaphorical mapping in the extension of physical space in Mark Johnsons’ MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphor (2008) to TELE-IMPROVISATORY LANDSCAPE metaphor.  ........................................................................................................................  113   Fig. 12 Illustrates the Image schema of the TELE-IMPROVISATION LANDSCAPE metaphor as a conceptual blend of MUSICAL LANDSCAPE (Johnson 2008), and SUCCESS IS A PATH (Moser 2000). The solid red border represents the nexus of the located and extended physical space of the tele-improvisatory experience that traverses the entire experience as dotted red lines. Three black lines in the centre of the diagram represent any number of musicians in an interdependent interactive space in which they may cross over each other, retrace their steps in the musical landscape or encounter obstacles such as unfamiliar tonalities, rhythms, or harmonic progressions.  ..............................................................  115   Fig. 13 Photogragh of video cued recall session with Bukhuluun Ganburged (case study III) and translator Zaya Khanchiimaa.  .........................................................................................................  130   Fig. 14 Photograph of video cued recall session between researcher in Sydney and participant MS in Braunschweig, Germany.  .............................................................................................................  131   Fig. 15 Screenshot of case study IV multiscreen video clip featuring dispersed musicians improvising in the telematic audio interface eJamming.  ..................................................................  134   Fig. 16 Diagram of the cycle of expression, interpretation and response enmeshed with the musicians’ embodied perception in tele-improvisatory interaction.  .............................................  136  

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Fig. 17 Screen shot of Sina Taghavi (ney) left, and focus musician Michael Hanlon, (guitar) right, improvising from separate locations at University of Technology, Sydney City campus with the telematic audio interface eJamming.  .....................................................................................  141   Fig. 18 Musical score example of the two melodic lines moving from sequential call and response to overlapping, simultaneity as the musicians become more familiar with each other in tele-improvisatory interaction. Ney is the top line and guitar is underneath.  ..........................  144   Fig. 19 Screen shot of Michael Hanlon (guitarist and focus musician) top left, Shaun Premnath (tabla) bottom left, performing at separate locations at UTS, Sydney with Peyman Sayyadi (tanbur) right, performing from home studio in Montreal, Canada.  ..............................  155   Fig. 20 Musical score example of the way in which the tanbur (top line) preempts the first beat of the cycle in an anacrusis like manner and then pushes through increasing meters of 5/4 and then 6/4 while tabla attempts to maintain the original 4/4 represented as C (common 4/4 time) in an 8 beat cycle.  ............................................................................................................................  165   Fig. 21 Musical score example of sequential imitation between guitar and tanbur.  ....................  171   Fig. 22 Screen shot of networked musicians improvising from sound studios of UTS, Sydney, Australia, and home studios in Sheffield, UK and Braunschweig, Germany.  ...........................  175  

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LIST OF TABLES Table. 1: Data table of transcribed musical interaction, gesture and musicians’ reflective comments.  ....................................................................................................................................................  135   Table 2: Key performance indicators of case study II.  ...................................................................  141   Table 3: Key performance indicators of case study III.  ...................................................................  155   Table 4: Key performance indicators of case study IV.  ...................................................................  176   Table 5: Stages of tele-improvisation incorporating interactive modes and parameters of interaction with related approaches and strategies.  ...........................................................................  193    

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ABSTRACT This thesis presents an interdisciplinary, practice-led framework for the analysis of intercultural musical interaction in tele-improvisation (musical improvisation via telecommunication systems). Recent developments in network technology and high-speed broadband have created unprecedented opportunities for hitherto improbable meetings between musicians of different cultures to improvise with one another across global distances. While network technology eliminates distance in geographical space, signifiers of presence such as co-located acoustics, gesture, facial expression and body language are not available to mediate this experience. Video streaming of dispersed locations and collaborators cannot replace the essential nuances of co-located performative interaction. Most research in this field has focused on improving technical and interactive network music performance, highlighting the need for an evaluative framework and language for revealing musicians creative and strategic thought-processes. This thesis examines the approaches and strategies that musicians develop to perform with unknown and geographically dispersed collaborators through its analysis of three case studies that feature musicians improvising in the telematic music system eJamming. The analysis employs a social semiotic analytical framework combining multimodal discourse analysis (MDA), and ideas from the related field of cognitive linguistics (CL). This multimodal approach employs MDA to analyse music, sound, gesture and transcripts of networked musicians’ reflective experiences of tele-improvised musical interaction. These transcripts are examined through an interpretive framework of conceptual metaphor theory that enables an understanding of the ways in which musicians perceive and structure their interaction. The innovation of the proposed framework provides a pedagogical model for musicians and researchers to learn about cross-cultural musicians’ interaction in the rapidly growing field of Networked Music Performance (NMP). The main contributions of this thesis are: •

A framework for the analysis of interaction in intercultural tele-improvisation;

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An evaluation of cross-cultural musicians’ approaches and strategies to teleimprovisation; and

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A theory of intercultural interaction in tele-improvisation. 1

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CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction This thesis is concerned with the ways in which expert musicians of different cultures and musical traditions interact with one another in tele-improvisation. This involves negotiating the unknown in first encounters with new musical cultures, interacting via new musical languages, practices, expectations with potentially unfamiliar instruments in a dislocated and non-visual telematic environment. The aim of the research is to understand the social and experiential characteristics of networked intercultural tele-improvisation, and how networked musicians perceive signification and meaning in tele-improvised dialogues. The study will therefore answer the following questions: 1. What are the ways in which networked musicians of different cultures interact in tele-improvisation? 2. How do networked musicians of different cultures perceive signification and meaning in tele-improvisatory interaction? 3. What are the musical and cognitive approaches and strategies that networked musicians of different cultures develop to interact in tele-improvisation? To address these questions, the thesis presents an interdisciplinary, practice-led1 model that can be used by musicians and researchers to better comprehend the social and experiential characteristics of tele-improvisation in networked music making. It provides a qualitative study of the experiences of expert musicians of different cultures interacting in dislocated and sometimes unfamiliar musical terrain with collaborators that they do not know. The project aims to develop an understanding of the ways in which networked musicians interact with one another in these circumstances, focussing on representation, interpretation and exchange in tele-improvisatory collaborative interaction. The investigation is achieved through a multimodal analysis of three case studies, featuring dispersed expert musicians improvising in the network interface eJamming. The analysis focusses on communication in intercultural interaction, and the creative and cognitive strategies that the musicians employ to negotiate this dislocated musical experience. Its 1

The term practice-led research is used here to describe research focussed on understanding “the evolution of new practices” (Candy 2006, see Candy 2011, p. 35) arising from the needs and enquiries of practice, rather than with the sole intention of developing an artefact.

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objectives are a detailed examination of the following three key areas pertinent to intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction: •

Signification in improvised musical dialogues

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Cross-cultural interpretation and exchange of musical motifs (melody, harmony, tonality, rhythm and timbre)

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Musical and cognitive approaches and strategies for interaction

1.2 Motivation and Background The motivation for this research comes from the author’s long-standing experience in the performance and research of telematic audiovisual performance (Mills & Jenkins 2004a, 2004b, 2006, 2007; Mills et al. 2005; Mills 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010; Mills et al. 2010a; 2010b; Mills et al. 2011; Mills 2012a; Mills 2012b, Mills & Beilharz 2012; Mills 2014a, Mills 2014b; Mills et al. 2014). As a classically trained musician and self-taught improviser of thirty years, the ability to be able to improvise and learn from musicians of different cultures with whom one may otherwise not meet, gained a conceptual hold as far back as the late 1990s. As will be discussed shortly, networked music making has a much longer history of technologists and composers hacking programming languages, and developing software to link machines and/or dispersed musicians together. Participating in the beta-testing stages of developing telematic systems VisitorsStudio (Jenkins, Catlow & Garrett 2001), eJamming (Gluckman, Redman & Kantor 2007), Ohm studio, (Ohm-force 2011), Sea Swallow (Slawig & Utermöhlen 2014), questions concerned with understanding the interactive networked musical and cognitive experiences between musicians became more salient than those between musician and machine typical of HCI (human computer interaction) UX (user experience) or GUI (graphic user interface). As demonstrated in the following review of literature, scholarly research in this area has been largely dominated by a technological enquiry of improving connectivity and interface design for creative purposes, rather than seeking to understand the social and experiential characteristics of the telematic experience. It also became clear that despite the potential of network technology to link musicians of different cultures and musical traditions, with a few exceptions, the majority of improvisers using popular telematic music systems such as eJamming, NINJAM and JackTrip were

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from North America or Europe, whose influences were Western musical styles of blues, jazz, rock and electronic and electro-acoustic music. Against this backdrop, the impetus to improvise with musicians of different cultures led to the establishment of the networked ensemble, Ethernet Orchestra2. The ensemble emerged in 2008 out of a call for improvisers on various Internet music lists, and through word of mouth. It has subsequently developed into a group of expert musicians and improvisers from Australia, Malaysia, China, Mongolia, Iran, UK, France, Germany and the US. Performances have occurred online, streamed as radio broadcasts, and performed in physical spaces. The ensemble has provided opportunities to participate in discussions about the nuances of networked musical experience from different cultural perspectives during, and after teleimprovisatory workshops and performances. Topics have centered around questions of collaborative telematic musical interaction, signification and perception, spatial and temporal dislocation in limited or non-visual telematic systems, and the effects of social, environmental, and even circadian rhythms on players creativity. It emerged from the literature that while there was much necessary and innovative research devoted to the development of networked technologies, there was a gap in our understanding of the way in which musicians experienced tele-improvisatory interaction. The literature revealed the necessity for a way to evaluate the approaches and strategies developed by networked musicians to improvise across different musical cultures and traditions, which could in turn be used by others to extend their own improvisatory practices. Experience dictated that this required not only watching and listening to networked musicians performances but also asking them to reflect on their interactive experiences. It is in the development, and application of a multimodal analytical framework to case studies of networked improvisatory performance that the author will now demonstrate a contribution to new knowledge in the field of networked music making, as well as to the discipline of improvisation itself.

1.3 Significance of the Research The evolution of networked audio technologies has created unprecedented opportunities for musicians to improvise with instrumentalists from diverse cultures and musical

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For more information on performances and events http://eartrumpet.org/research.html#ethernetorchestra

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traditions, beyond the scope that could be imagined with analogue technologies and colocated collaboration. As increasing network speeds reduce latency to imperceptible levels, the field of NMP and in particular tele-improvisation will be shaped by new methodologies that respond to the unique musical and cognitive challenges of geographically dispersed, dislocated interaction (i.e. without gestural cues and communicative modes of co-located presence). For the remote improviser, the approaches and strategies with which they attempt to overcome these issues are critical to developing new knowledge in this area. While the literature documents a range of improvisatory performance practices within the field networked music performance, there are no specific studies of the ways in which musicians of different cultures interact in intercultural tele-improvisation. In order to evaluate intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction, consideration needs to be given not only to the actions and inter-actions of cross-cultural musicians, but also how they experience that interaction. While it is network technology that provides these experiences, a social semiotic approach is needed to understand the social and experiential nature of human experience in telematic interaction. This thesis presents findings from three case studies of expert musicians of different cultures interacting from dispersed locations in the telematic music system eJamming. This is pursued through the development of a multimodal analytical framework for mapping instances of musical interaction with the reflective verbal experiences, and instrumental gestures3 of participating networked musicians. The research design employs qualitative techniques to derive a theory of interaction between selected musicians of different cultures. As a first step, the research directs the principal analysis through an Englishspeaking focus musician who participates in each of the three case studies. The analysis augments his experiences with those of Persian, Malaysian, Mongolian, German and French musicians to establish a model that can then be applied to other cultures and types of collaborative telematic interaction, such as those found in game design, business and education. It also addresses the musical challenge of analysing inter-cultural improvisation rather than merely mono-cultural musical exchange, which requires less exploration and familiarisation.

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Instrumental gestures are specific gestures involved in the direct production of sound as opposed to posture or gestures that result from playing an instrument. This is explained further in section 3.7.

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1.4 Thesis Structure Chapter 2 (Literature Review) begins with a review of telematic music systems (interfaces that facilitate synchronous Internet based musical interaction) and concurrent practices of tele-improvisation in networked music performance (NMP). The review highlights the technological agenda that has driven the majority of telematics research, revealing a gap in our knowledge of the qualitative experiences of networked musicians interacting across cultural and musical traditions. It describes the epistemological orientation of the enquiry, as well as the qualitative characteristics of the tele-improvisatory experience. In chapter 3 (Methodology) the theoretical perspective, design, and methods of the research are outlined. It illustrates how a blend of MDA (multimodal discourse analysis), social semiotics and cognitive linguistics is best suited to capturing the significant and experiential characteristics of tele-improvisation. This informs the multimodal data collection methods, such as audiovisual recordings of improvised performances and transcripts of reflective video cued recall (VCR). Chapter 4 (Analysis) applies the framework to the case study data; examining signification in musical interaction, gesture, and perception in the experiences of musicians of different cultures interacting from geographically dispersed locations. This multimodal analysis includes the examination of audiovisual excerpts of case study tele-improvisatory performances accompanied by a descriptive analysis identifying dialogical interaction in musical discourses. Chapter 5 (Evaluation) considers the key findings of the analysis in evaluating the musical and cognitive strategies that musicians develop to interact in dislocated and unfamiliar musical terrain. It assesses the role of gesture in the physical production of sound, and the signification of embodied meaning in dialogical improvisatory interaction. Chapter 6 (Conclusion) considers the implications of the findings and demonstrates how the key research questions were addressed. It also outlines the theoretical contributions to tele-musical and ethno-musicological research while suggesting how the framework might be applied across different studies and developed in future work.

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CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter surveys practices and research in the field of networked music performance (NMP), with a focus on tele-improvisation. It foregrounds the ways in which musicians and technologists have adapted and developed technology for creative purposes, and how these approaches have shaped much of the scholarly knowledge in the field. In doing so, it illustrates a gap in our understanding of the social, and experiential characteristics of networked musical interaction, and the creative and cognitive challenges that musicians of different cultures experience in the non-visual, spatially and temporally dislocated domain of tele-improvisation. Chapter 4 will address this gap. The chapter begins by examining the evolution of network technology in tandem with the creative practices that have helped shape the systems and approaches that networked musicians have developed. The focus here is on the creative and technological innovations of the musician as technologist, adapting and developing network technology and projects in line with their access to, and maturation of, the Internet and World Wide Web. This serves to highlight the technological framework that has shaped much NMP research, and the need for a greater understanding of the conceptual and experiential perspectives of telematic music making. The role of sound in analogue and digital distance communication is

considered,

from

instrumental

signaling

to

contemporary

electronic

tele-

communications, highlighting the role of experiential qualities for creating meaning in sound. This acts as a conceptual backdrop to the research, and draws together epistemological and phenomenological considerations for understanding tele-presence and the nature of perception and experience with interconnected theories of listening. The final section of this chapter examines improvisation as a discipline, and its role within NMP practices. It describes the ways in which improvisation provides a medium for new modes of cross-cultural telematic interaction, and as well as the implications for interculturalism, and appropriation in the production of musical hybrids. It argues that unprecedented opportunities for intercultural collaboration are enabled by networked technologies that create the impetus for the contribution of this thesis.

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2.2 Developments in Networked Music Developments in networked music date back to the pre-Internet period of the 1950s, and as Weinberg argues they are closely related to advances in technology during that period (Weinberg 2002). In one of several historical studies of network technology and related musical projects (Barbosa 2003; Föllmer 2005; Mills 2010; Renaud, Carôt & Rebelo 2007; Weinberg 2002, 2005), Weinberg lists four major innovations of Interconnected Musical Networks (IMN). These are “analog electronics, the personal computer, the Internet and alternate controllers as principal enablers for the various approaches taken for interdependent musical connectivity” (Weinberg 2002, p. 24). To this, the author would add the World Wide Web, which has arguably provided further interconnectivity between networked musicians and artists. However it is the opportunities to examine and learn how musicians of different cultures interact in intercultural tele-improvisation that guides the questions posed in this thesis.

2.2.1 Origins of Networked Music Performance Considered one of the earliest networked music performances, John Cage’s Imaginary Landscape no. 4 (1951) was an indeterminate composition for twelve transistor radios, performed by twenty four performers who were given instructions to manipulate the frequency, volume and tone-colour of each transistor set. The levels of interactivity were limited but as Renaud, et al. suggest, “the desire to investigate the possibilities of crossinfluence in networked instruments is evident in the piece” (Renaud, Carôt & Rebelo 2007, p. 1). This was also apparent in the interactions between the performers who were each responsible for a performative action such as changing the frequency while the other changed the volume, or tone colour (bass or treble). Known for his hostility to the concept of improvisation (Feisst 2009), Cage strictly scored each level of this interaction, and as Weinberg suggests, it was the “interdependent interactions between the players and the network of radio stations that provided unknown and dynamic musical content” (Weinberg 2002a, p. 351).

2.2.2 Computer Networks It was not until the late 1970s with the availability of the first commercial personal “microcomputer” the KIM-1, (Keyboard Input Monitor), that realistic networked 10

electronic music was achieved. One of the first groups to pioneer this computer-networked music was the League of Automatic Composers at the Centre for Contemporary Music (CCM) at Mills College, Oakland, California. Musician technologists Jim Horton, John Bischoff and Tim Perkis began hacking and building circuitry, while experimenting with programming the machines’ 6502 language. This culminated in linking their KIM-1 machines together in one of the first networked computer performances at Mills College in 1977 (Fig.1). The influence of the technology was key to their musical and performative approach as Tim Perkis and John Bischoff remember, “we approached the computer network as one large, interactive musical instrument made up of independently programmed automatic music machines” (Perkis & Bischoff 2007). Due to their primary interest in circuitry assemblage and computer programming, the content of their performances were generative rather than improvisational. As John Bischoff and Chris Brown write, "League members generally adapted solo compositions for use within the band. These solos were developed independently by each composer and were typically based on algorithmic schemes of one kind or another” (Brown & Bischoff 2002). For the 1977 Mills College performance (Fig.1), "Gold interacted with his artificial language program while Horton ran an early algorithmic piece based on the theories of 18th century mathematician, Leonhard Euler" (Brown & Bischoff 2002).

Fig. 1 The League of Automatic Music Composers: Tim Perkis, Jim Horton, and John Bischoff, photo by Peter Abramowitsch.

While improvisation was not a priority for the group, the first computer networked performance had been achieved. They would continue exploring networked computer 11

music, which over the next decade would lead to an expanded ensemble known as the Hub, so named for the interface they developed for simplifying the networking of multiple machines and interfaces together for live performances.

2.2.3 Dislocated Networked Music Performance In 1987, the Hub, which now included the additional members Scott Gresham-Lancaster, Phil Stone and Mark Trayle performed in the first dislocated networked concert between two separate venues via a modem over a telephone line, in the now well-known networked event, the Clock Tower concert4, New York. Nick Collins, and Phil Niblock curated the event, and interestingly these were also their most improvised performances. Recognising the need for a different methodology for performing from different locations, Chris Brown noted: Three of the pieces [...] were designed as network pieces, that would use the modem network to create the acoustically divorced, but informationally joined sextet. Then three other pieces would be independently performed, that could take full advantage of the improvisational predilections and local interactivity of each ensemble (Brown & Bischoff 2002).

This semi-improvisational approach was one that they would pursue in future performances using the then new MIDI (Musical Instrument Device Interface) protocol. Developing their performances further, they then began including acoustic musicians to provide live data feeds for real-time manipulation. In 1997 this culminated in "Points of Presence," a tri-location Internet performance, linking musicians at Mills College, Oakland, The Californian Institute for Arts, Valencia and Arizona State University. With two members of the Hub at each of the three locations, data was sent via the Internet to manipulate software and the algorithmic programs of the Hub laptop-to-laptop network at each end. However, differences between various computers operating systems, CPUs and network speeds had a deleterious effect on the performance, which as Duckworth (2005) states, “The full network functioned for only about ten minutes, and most of the performance, particularly in Arizona, was spent describing to the audience what they should have been experiencing” (Duckworth 2005, p. 64). A breaking point between ambition and technology had finally been reached, and despite this possibly hastening the demise of the Hub, their achievements would set a benchmark for future networked collaborations and performances. It also illustrates the ways in which their practices were being shaped by both the developments and limitations of network Audio- Visual documentation of the Clock Tower performance http://crossfade.walkerart.org/brownbischoff/hub_texts/hub_clocktower_f.html 4

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technology, which in turn was informing their approaches and methodology. With such a large group of participants, it would have been interesting to ask them to reflect on their experience of performing from different locations for the first time, and how they then perceived their musical interaction when dislocated from their collaborators.

2.2.4 Wide Area Network Music Performance The modem and telephone line continued to facilitate new combinations of tele-musical collaboration, and augmenting this with a strong emphasis on improvisatory performance of acoustic as well as electronic instruments, was composer and performer Pauline Oliveros. In November 1991, working with colleague Joe Catalano, a six-city video telephone transmission was organised, connecting the cities of Oakland, CA to Kingston, NY, and New York to Houston, TX, Texas to San Diego, CA, and finally Los Angeles, CA to Oakland CA. Inviting musicians in each city to participate in a twenty-minute broadcast in celebration of Oliveros’ forty years of composing, the event culminated in a six-city wide area network performance. The experience of improvising via video telephone required certain skills of the performers, as Oliveros remembers, “Since the telephone line would grab the loudest signal the improvisation was based on sensitivity to give and take” (Oliveros et al. 2009). Again it was technology shaping the musicians’ approaches but her awareness of the affect of network conditions on the interactive sensitivity required of performers, is key to the experiential qualities of networked interaction explored in this research. While the musicians participating in the studies presented in this thesis did not have to negotiate the acoustics of a telephone receiver, or large latency (network delay), it is nevertheless questions of signification, perception and the interactive telematic experience are the most pertinent. Having celebrated her 80th birthday in a special three-day event at Cornell Electroacoustic Music Centre in 2012, Oliveros continues to be at the forefront of developments in network performance over evolving technology and network architecture. Her contributions to the development of networked theory and listening practices will also be revisited in the coming sections.

2.3 Telematics and the Internet As has been argued, the development of networked music systems, practices and methodology are closely tied to technological advances of the period from which they 13

emerge. From the first exchange of a single text message between two computers at Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at University of California (UCLA), and Stanford University in 1969, awareness of the opportunities and the social and cultural impacts that computers and tele-communication networks could provide for society began to manifest. In Europe, the networking of human communication via computers and telecommunications systems became known as “telematics,” a term coined by French researchers Simon Nora and Alain Minc in their controversial report, L'informatisation de la Societe (Nora & Minc 1978).

5

Concerned with the implications of networked

communication for French society and the wider world, the report was commissioned by the then French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing to “investigate the ramifications of computer and information technology for social and political life” (Lefebvre 2009, p. 136). This anticipation of how telematics would shape the future of communication, in and between global societies echoed in Daniel Bell’s introduction to the MIT 1981 English translation, which he argues "expresses a new reality, an innovation that has the possibility of transforming society in the way that railroads and electricity did in the nineteenth century" (Nora & Minc 1981, p. vii). In this remark he is reflecting on the impact of telematics on global commerce, and also the implications for future international social and cultural interaction. Nora and Minc had not only entered a new word in the lexicon of telecommunications but also reflected on the considerable political, social and cultural impacts that would ultimately derive from these advancements. Thirty years on, it is the opportunities for new meetings and collaborations between global cultures and traditions provided by contemporary network technology that is central to the motivation for this research.

2.4 The World Wide Web A decade later than Nora and Mincs’ report, British computer scientist Tim Berners Lee proposed the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), at CERN (The European Organization for Nuclear Research), which in 1990 would begin a process of layering the Internet with hypertext documents of links that we know of as the World Wide Web. This further transformed telecommunications by linking information from a central server, and now many servers, to individual computers (clients). For technologists and musicians this provided a platform to develop multi-user database sound environments as websites from 5

L'informatisation de la Societe (La Documentation Francaise, 1978 was translated and published as The Computerization of Society by MIT press in 1981.

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which they could synchronously trigger and manipulate audio remotely, from multiple locations. The opportunities that this provided were transformative, not only for musicians but for wider society, which over the next decade would create the impetus for user-generatedcontent, or what Castells refers to as “mass self-communication” (Castells 2009, p. 55). The results are what we now see as the ubiquity of social media and the ability for individuals to generate content through language, sound and images. This also led to the Internet becoming a medium for artistic performance in itself, which had begun as far back as 1982 with Bob Adrian’s telematic event “World in 24 Hours” at the Austrian Electronic Arts festival, Ars Electronica. In his own contribution to the event, telematic artist and theorist Roy Ascott created the first “planetary throw of the I Ching,” in which he arranged networked players to throw coins to move through the books hexagrams (Ascott 2003). This work made a major contribution to the field of telematic art, and Ascott has continued a practice-based6 research approach with a focuss on the telematic perception, which will be returned to in the following chapters. The new topography of the web also led to innovative collaborative-networked music works such as "Brain Opera" (Machover 1996) and “Cathedral” (Duckworth & Farrell 1997). Both projects were designed as interactive multi-user environments accessed through a project website. Reflecting a growing desire to “give listeners an active role in the creative process” (Duckworth & Farrel 1997), both projects called for audience participation in the manipulation of musical and sonic fragments, in virtual and physical performance spaces. Machover, Duckworth and Farrell had created works of composed web architectures in which the “active role” played by listeners was more collaborative interaction than improvisation. This is not to say that instrumental improvisation was excluded from either project’s ethos. The Cathedral band would often include audience manipulation of the site’s “virtual instruments” (Pitch Web) and pre-composed “rhythm beds” as material to improvise with in their live online, or venue performances. Fearing that the “Web” music of Cathedral could be perceived as exclusive, Duckworth was also keen to be as inclusive as possible when it came to the musical ability or culture of the participants. To this effect, 6

Practice based research refers to a research process that is primarily based around making an artefact as opposed to practice-led in which “new understandings about practice” is the principal aim (Candy 2006, see Candy 2011, p. 35).

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online participants could play Pitch Web as a real-time synthesizer, or by “typing” in words or phrases in any language and having the instrument [...] convert them into musical sounds” (Duckworth 2005, p. 94). By its nature, this often produced eclectic musical results reflecting the abilities of the participant and/or the improvised response of the Cathedral band. This democratisation of musical interaction has its roots in the philosophy of earlier improvisatory groups “AMM” 7 and the Scratch Orchestra, and highlights the creative advantages of integrating contributions by “musical innocents” to dynamic improvisation (Cardew 1971). Of course two years later Web 2.0 would ultimately consolidate this notion of “participatory culture” (Jenkins 2006), which would begin a process of “enabling a reconfiguration of the relations and organization of music culture” (Beer 2008, p. 224). The boundaries of what could be achieved through the Internet as an artistic medium were also to prove crucial to the success of these works. As William Duckworth noted of this period in the mid 1990s, "the two fundamental factors hindering real-time, online collaboration on the Internet were limited bandwidth and lack of speed. All sound files, with the exception of MIDI files [...] could take a considerable time to upload and download" (Duckworth 2005, p. 67). Fortunately bandwidth and network speeds were developing at such a pace that this was not to impact significantly on works like “Brain Opera” or “Cathedral”, however it would still be some years before musicians could stream quality live audio of their playing in real time.

2.4.1 Multi-user Networked Music Systems and Projects In 2000 the German composer Georg Hajdu premiered his networked performance environment Quintet.net. Like his predecessors the Hub, Machover, Duckworth and Farrell, it was the desire to create an environment in which to perform music that was the driving force. Quintet.net attempted to replicate many of the features of a co-located musical scenario in which a group or quintet of musicians could both rehearse and perform with an “intimate contact between the conductor and the musicians” while also being accessible to an online audience (Hajdu 2005, p. 25). One of its innovations was in transforming streamed audio into MIDI with which “a pitch tracker integrated into the program provides for the recognition of the pitches and their transformation into corresponding MIDI messages” (Hajdu 2005, p. 25). It was also one of the first platforms 7

The abbreviation of AMM has never been made public. As group member Keith Rowe was quoted as saying, “The letters AMM stand for something, but as you probably know it's a secret!” (Warburton 2001).

16

to include a real-time musical notation component (Fig.2) with which networked musicians could discuss and alter fragments of a composition. As ex-Hub member Chris Brown commented, "Sharing a notation space really broke new ground for this kind of music" (Brown nd, in Hajdu 2005, p. 25).

Fig. 2 Quintet.net interface notation window, image by Georg Hajdu.

Brown had a good working knowledge of Quintet.net, being one of five networked laptop performers to collaborate on “Mind Trip,” which was Hajdu’s first major performance with the platform in October 2000. The work was split into five sections of improvised granular sounds alongside an electronic narrator reading a futuristic story of a terrestrial civilization attempting to “get in touch with some extra-solar neighbors” (Hajdu 2000). As with all network platforms of this period, latency was a considerable issue for performers, who had to adapt their playing styles to large feedback delays. As previously discussed, this does begin to shape the approaches that musicians develop to interact with one another, and Hajdu echoes the thoughts of the previously cited practitioners in this regard when he stated “the Internet thus gives birth to its own aesthetic” (Hajdu 2005, p. 27). Of significance to the perspective of this research was the ability for the online audience to evaluate the performance through a function that allowed them to fill out a questionnaire 17

to comment on “desired sounds, playing modes and formal development” (Hajdu 2005, p. 25). This could be done at any point during the performance with the implication of the audience being able to interact with the performers’ playing decisions. As Hajdu explains, it was about attempting to replicate a performance atmosphere in “an analogy to what performers often perceive as "vibrations" in a concert hall” (Hajdu 2005, p. 25). This was certainly a pioneering concept, but it is also his metaphor of the perception of sound qualities as vibrations felt by the audience, and by implication the other performers, which is also pertinent to the theoretical underpinnings of this thesis.

2.5 Multichannel Telematic Sound In 2000, streaming “high quality music and sound over IP” was the research goal of Chris Chafe and his colleagues at Stanford University’s Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA) (Chafe et al. 2000, p. 1). IP (Internet Protocol) is a system of information exchange between two or more computers over the Internet. In 1998, the team at CCRMA began researching the development of an interface to stream high quality sound over the Internet. This started as an attempt to measure network delay from one location to another, and led to the development of SoundWIRE, “a utility which provides an intuitive way of evaluating transaction delay and delay constancy” (Chafe et al. 2000, p. 1) between two locations. The intention was to develop the ability to send and record bidirectional and uni-direction sound over distance. Further experiments led to local area network (LAN) and wide area network (WAN) tests using the quality of service (QoS) network operation where institutions such as universities can administer routers to provide priority to designated traffic. The first WAN experiment between McGill University, California and New York University occurred in September 26, 1999, however “the signal was delayed a number of seconds by data buffering and compression processing (Dolby AC3 compression was used)” (Chafe et al. 2000, p. 1). Further experiments were initiated in October 2000 using high-speed research network Internet2 sending two channel data bidirectionally between CCRMA and facilities at Cisco, North Carolina, and at Internet2 headquarters in New York (approx. 9000km. round trip), where they recorded a round trip time (RTT) of 75ms. As Chafe noted at the time: Mics and headphones were connected together and compared to a telephone connection also open between the same rooms. We felt the network RTT was nearly as good as the telephone’s and conversation seemed comfortable. The audio quality was, of course, much better (Chafe et al. 2000, p. 1).

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A major step in the development of high quality audio streaming had taken place that would eventually lead to a platform capable of streaming uncompressed multichannel sound.

2.5.1 JackTrip In 2001, the group’s research led to the development of the multi-channel network audio interface JackTrip, designed by Juan-Pablo Cáceres and Chris Chafe. Using the user datagram protocol (UDP),8 JackTrip operates by sending “uncompressed audio (avoiding the latency introduced by compression encode/decode algorithms) through high-speed links like Internet2” (Cáceres & Chafe 2009, p. 177). This has generated ongoing research with JackTrip that has included collaborative performances and research projects using the high-speed networks such as Internet2, GÉANT in Europe and ARNET in Australia. Notable project collaborations have featured musicians Alain Renaud, Pedro Rebelo and Franziska Schroeder at the Sonic Arts Research Centre (SARC), Queen’s University, Belfast; Pauline Oliveros, Jonas Braasch, Doug van Nort and Sarah Weaver at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York; Ken Fields, Peeking, China, and now Calgary University, Canada, Eldad Tsabary, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada; Ian Whalley at Waikato University, New Zealand; Ivan Zavada, University of Sydney, along with individual musicians bassist Mark Dresser, pianist Myra Melford and trombonist Stuart Dempster. The author also has experience in using JackTrip, most recently in performances at Zero Space Conference, University of Virginia 18-19th February 2013 (Burtner et al. 2013). Of particular interest to the enquiry in this thesis was the 2008 “Pacific Rim of Wire” concert between Stanford’s SoundWIRE group, and Peeking University in Beijing, China. Jointly directed by Juan-Pablo Cáceres and Chris Chafe at Stanford and Ken Fields on the Beijing side, the performance was one of the first major networked cross-cultural collaborations that featured musicians and technologists from both universities working together. The Chinese ensemble performed with traditional Chinese instruments along with the Stanford New Ensemble’s traditional Western instruments, which also included the Stanford Laptop Orchestra (SLOrk). Among the many musical and technical issues under consideration were “the use of incompatible networking address protocols to the 8

Part of the Internet Protocol suite (IP) as a transport layer that provides fast transmission of data but does not use handshaking (setting up of parameters between two addresses) before hand, which can lead to it being less reliable than TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).

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synchronization of performers, human and computer, across a 6000 mile span of network“ (Cáceres et al. 2008, p. 61). The featured composition performed was a classic in the minimalist canon; Terrey Riley’s In C (1964). Synchronising two acoustic ensembles and a laptop orchestra required a large amount of both technical and interactive considerations, as Cáceres et al note: The technical and musical demands of the “Pacific Rim of Wire” collaboration required the initiation of new types of network connectivity, the development of software to deal with next-generation Internet backbones, the implementation of musical strategies to deal with network-induced acoustical delays, and the organization of network-based metronomic systems with which a laptop orchestra synchronizes its performance with an ensemble of acoustic instruments (Cáceres et al, 2008, p.1).

This would have been a feat in any co-located performance scenario but faced with a RTT delay of 220 ms ensemble players faced significant difficulties in synchronising with each other, as well as requiring considerable concentration. In that sense, the choice of In C as a work to perform was interesting because it relies, as do many minimalist works do, on tight repetition of harmonic, or melodic cells in rhythmic phrases. For Cáceres et al., the solution was to provide a metronomic pulse for both ensembles through the technique of “feedback lock” (Cáceres et al. 2008, p.64). This is a pulse transmitted to both performance locations, with its rate based on the current dynamic signal path delay between Stanford and Beijing. A musician in one location sets, and adjusts a pulse (click track) that was not broadcast to the ensemble, or audience. The pulse is “based on the round-trip network feedback,” the time it takes a sound to return to its point of departure, which provided “a tight rhythmic alignment between both locations” (Cáceres et al, 2008, p. 64). Visual streaming of performers from each venue also provided additional opportunities for group coordination, and this was achieved through using the audio-visual software VLC displaying “the in-put stream from the digital video camera [...] transcoded using the MPEG4 codec and streamed as UDP packets” (Cáceres et al, 2008, p. 62). However the audio and the visual stream were not streamed together due to their different latencies. This was actually of lesser importance to musical interaction than one might think. Cáceres et al. (2008) found that networked musicians don’t generally look at video streaming when they perform but suggest that it “serves primarily the purpose of providing an experience for the audience” (Cáceres et al, 2008, p. 63). In this sense, rather than it being an essential component of networked interaction, visual streaming functions as a “material anchor” (Hutchins 2005) for bridging conceptual networked perception with embodied located experience. The need for NMP to imitate a co-located concert environment with visual 20

streaming of participants versus a reduced, or non-visual scenario is frequently discussed by network practitioners and theorists and will be discussed further in section 2.9.1. As a large-scale cross-cultural networked musical collaboration, the “Pacific Rim of Wire” performance was a major accomplishment. The research it generated made a significant contribution to the technical knowledge in staging a performance of this nature as Cáceres et al. 2008 ARTECH paper on the performance demonstrates. While not in the remit of their study, questions of how the musicians perceived their interaction during the rehearsals and performance, as well as the personal musical and cognitive strategies that they developed to interact across distance, cultures and musical traditions would have contributed to the approach taken in this research project.

2.6 Latency and Ensemble Accuracy Another area of research that the CCRMA SoundWIRE group instigated is the effect of network latency on ensemble accuracy in performance. As has been noted in the previous sections, latency is a significant issue for network musicians and these studies have provided an understanding of the direct effect that it has on the perception and accuracy of ensemble interaction. A number of studies (Chafe & Gurevich 2004; Chafe et al. 2004; Chafe et al. 2000) have found that varying levels of delay had the affect of either speeding up, or slowing down the performance of a rhythmic task. Through observing participants handclapping simple rhythmic patterns together when monitoring their sound through variable levels of delay, Chafe and Gurevich (2004) noted that there was a beneficial delay, in which short delay amounts have the best tempo stability” and that “very low delay [...] produced tempo acceleration“ in the performers time keeping (Chafe et al. 2004, p. 1). Most revealing was their finding of an “ensemble accuracy sweet spot” (Chafe et al. 2004, p. 4) of 11.5ms (milliseconds or 1/1000ths of a second), which was most likely to provide timing accuracy between participants. They reported that delays shorter than this “74% of the performances sped up. At delays of 14ms and above, 85% slowed down” with no correlation with starting tempo (Chafe et al. 2004, p. 4). Latency is an issue for both co-located and networked musicians (Bartlette et al. 2006), and it is interesting to note that a certain amount of latency, can actually help, rather than hinder ensemble accuracy in performance, whether online, or in a concert hall. However, consideration also needs to be given to our actual ability to perceive latency, or temporal

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order threshold (TOT). 9 In their studies of auditory perception of temporal order in humans, Szymaszek, Szelag, and Sliwowska (2006) state that human beings can only report the temporal order (TO) of two auditory stimuli “when they are separated by a gap of approximate 30ms” (Szymaszek, Szelag & Sliwowska 2006, p. 190). With this in mind it is interesting that variations at such low imperceptible levels such as 11ms will still have an affect on our ability to accurately perform rhythmic patterns. The selected CCRMA projects reviewed here highlight a broad spectrum of scholarly enquiry that has had a significant impact on telematic music and sound research. CCRMA have an extensive list of research publications in the areas of Software Design and Implementations, Network Performance and Musical Systems, Network Delay Studies, and Internet Acoustics and Physical Models (CCRMA 2010). The development of JackTrip has provided a platform not only for their own considerable research outputs, but also for many other researchers and practitioners. Noting a commitment to freeware and open access in their publishing, JackTrip is free to download and use, and it can run on Linux and OSX operating systems over public DSL networks. While it is reasonably easy to install and operate, it does require basic knowledge of network architecture and configurations that other commercial interfaces have hidden. In possible recognition of this, Cáceres and Chafe produced “Jam Link” (Chafe 2011, p. 2) a portable “plug in and play” unit, that operates as stand alone hardware, and plugs into any network connection.

2.7 Choice of Interface While there were many reasons for using JackTrip in this research, it was decided that the a priori technological knowledge required to install and run the software could deter musicians who otherwise fulfil the case study criteria. The research design was concerned with situating itself within reach of expert musicians from different social and cultural backgrounds who improvise as part of their practice but do not necessarily have specialised knowledge, or access to, state of art studio and network technology, or high-speed institutional networks. For these reasons, it was decided that the interface eJamming would provide a robust and easy to use interface that would run efficiently on a range of public broadband networks. 9

Minimum temporal gap required by human beings to hear and identify the difference between two audio stimulus.

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2.7.1 eJamming The eJamming platform (Fig.3) (Gluckman, Redman & Kantor 2007) is a subscriptionbased, multi-user network interface provided as a software download. It uses peer2peer architecture and user datagram packet sending (UDP). This means that the RTT is fast but subject to packet loss, which is overcome through the use of compression algorithms to maintain a constant audio signal. Network speeds for all tele-communications are subject to deterioration through a number of factors such as web traffic congestion, or nodes/router configuration, or malfunctioning, which can vary on a second-to-second basis. However, latency can be reduced in the eJamming interface preferences by increasing the buffer size, lowering the sample rate, and using an Ethernet connection, thereby reducing noise and latency by as much as 40-45ms (Gluckman 2014). Average latency or ping times in eJamming are between 15-25ms within a city/major metropolitan area, 2540ms within a state or European/South American country, 35-50ms across a continentspanning country (US, Canada, Russia, China, Australia) and 75-120ms across expanses of ocean (Japan to US West Coast, US East Coast to Europe, Europe to Australia) (Gluckman 2014). This means that the actual audio experiences for musicians are tantamount to playing in a small room providing a very real-time experience for the participants. While the audio transmission is still subject to micro-variations in the sound qualities (clicks and pops), as has been discussed, this can be considered an aesthetic parameter of the medium.

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Fig. 3 Screenshot shows the multiplayer session window in eJamming interface.

The eJaming platform transmits at CD Quality, (44.1 kHz, 16 kbt) over WAN (Wide Area Network) connectivity and also has a database structure where musicians can search for collaborators according to preferences in nationalities, instruments, abilities and musical styles, as well as develop online associations with players they meet in open seat sessions.

2.7.2 NINJAM While the choice of eJamming as the chosen network technology has been outlined, there were other network music systems considered. Most notably, NINJAM, a multi-user interface developed by Brennan Underwood and Cockos Incorporated in 2004. Developing the client server model further, "NINJAM uses OGG Vorbis audio compression to compress audio, then streams it to a NINJAM server, which can then stream it to the other people in your jam" (Cockos 2004). NINJAM provides a free software download DAW (Digital Audio Workstation), and NINJAM client for Windows and OSX. Running in tandem to the computers soundcard, the DAW software, known as “Reaper” facilitates the use of VST (Virtual Studio Technology) and MIDI hardware with the NINJAM client. It also allows musicians to import previous sessions for editing or remixing. The interface (Fig. 4) appears on screen as a console with parameters such as channel transmission, mute, solo, master volume controls and metronome, which synchronize collaborators to a “measured latency.” Musicians select and perform to a chosen BPM 24

(beats per minute tempo), allowing the software to measure the latency or "ping," (the amount of time a packet of data takes to reach its receiver) between players, locking them into synchronisation with one another.

Fig. 4 Screenshot illustrates the multiplayer session window of the NINJAM interface.

NINJAM uses network latency and extends it in metronomic measures to create synchronization between players. “Just as the interval finishes recording, it begins playing on everyone else's client, [...] So, when you play through an interval, you're playing along with the previous interval of everybody else, and they're playing along with your previous interval (Cockos 2004). This mechanism of measured latency allows musicians to create a performance continuum, which is easy to adapt and integrate into their playing. As veteran network musician, and ex-British-indie-band Cranes guitarist, Mark Francombe, notes of his many improvisations in NINJAM, “Latency is quite an interesting aspect of the NINJAM experience, as people take time to react to what you are playing. If you set a measure of eight bars to one hundred and eighty BPM and start playing, your collaborators will hear you eight bars later. Eight bars later than that, you will hear them, and they appear to be playing with what you are playing now. In reality they are hearing what you were playing sixteen bars ago” (Mills 2010, p. 189). In this scenario improvisers are always improvising in a synchronised past that is perceived as a real-time experience. Cockos were one of the original Internet companies to develop a network music interface as software, and the platform continues to facilitate interesting improvisatory collaborations, in which the author has participated. There is an active online forum for musicians to post mixes and comments about their improvisatory experiences that has 25

revealed some interesting perspectives and reflections, contributing much to the formulation, and design of this research project.

2.8 Summary The literature reviewed to this point, illustrates a chronological development of network technology and performance practices relevant to the orientation of this research project. It focusses on live synchronous networked sound, delimiting itself from a number of other telematic technologies and approaches. These include client sever database file mixing, networked MIDI, Internet broadcasting, telematic art projects, LAN systems and virtual reality (VR) environments such as Second Life.10 This is not to say that these systems and platforms have not influenced the design of the research project; the author has published peer-reviewed articles featuring cross-platform performances and case study analyses (Mills 2010, 2011). However, it demonstrates the ways in which evolving telematic systems have been shaped by the practices of musicians and available network infrastructure. Outside of the perceptual effects of latency on player accuracy, the social and phenomenological interactive experiences of networked musicians have yet to be fully explored. Whalley (2011) also identifies a requirement to examine networked interaction from more than just merely a technological or compositional perspective, suggesting a need to “include communicative issues such as the phenomenology of sound making, music/sound as a means to explore real/virtual space, and social interaction in music making” (Whalley 2011, p. 6). These are some of the issues addressed in this thesis, which examines signification and meaning in networked improvisatory interaction, as well as the social, experiential and perceptual characteristics of intercultural musical collaboration. These are core concerns, addressing the research questions of how musicians of different cultures negotiate the teleimprovisatory experience, and what musical and cognitive approaches and strategies they develop while doing so. The following literature review surveys telematic and networked interaction research, as well as key philosophical theories of perception and experience. Practices of improvisation and collective intercultural interaction are described, and the review proposes ways in which criteria from these theories can be incorporated into a newly developed framework for analysing and evaluating tele-improvisation. This draws together ideas from the fields 10

Second Life is an example of an online virtual environment of user created content and real-time interaction and collaboration. The interface supports established Internet media protocols.

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of social semiotics, phenomenology, and cognitive linguistics to demonstrate the necessity of an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the unique characteristics of the telematic musical experience. It is argued that a multimodal analytical framework is best suited to analysing teleimprovisatory discourses (music, gesture and reflective experience) and the ways in which musicians of different cultures perceive their interaction. It begins by considering the nuances of signification in sound across distance, and the ways in which we can conceptualise the communication of embodied meaning in telematic sound and music.

2.9 Musical and Distance Communication Human beings have a well-documented history of communicating through music and sound over distance, and it is in bringing these strands together that gives this thesis takes its conceptual starting point. While there are many examples to draw on, the work of musicologists and anthropologists such as Bruno Nettl, (Nettl 1956), Frank Seifart (Seifart & Meyer 2010) and Julien Meyer (Meyer, Dentel & Seifart 2012) provide an overview of the ways in which the prosodic features of pitched rhythmic sound have, and are still, used in distance communication through drum languages such as those of the Northwestern Amazon Bora people (Seifart & Meyer 2010) and instrumental signaling, or tone languages, in Melanesia, and Central and West Africa. In a recent study of the Bora Manguaré of the Amazon, Meyer, et al. (2012) examined the relationships between drummed beat patterns and speech patterns “in which the relationship between the signifier (the drummed signal) and what is signified (the speech utterance) is not purely symbolic like in codes, but based on a relation of physical similarity combining abridgment11 and acoustic iconicity” (Meyer, Dentel & Seifart 2012, p. 1). They found that the length of durations between beats equated to the phoneme clusters associated with the length of longer or shorter vowels in the language. This can be equated to what van Leeuwen describes as “experiential meaning potential” – our knowledge of what it is we do when we produce the pattern with our voice or bodies (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 46 original in italics). Similarly, in referring to “abridgment” and “acoustic iconicity,” Meyer et al. described the qualities of a sound as having significant likeness, and association (social and cultural) to the sign (object, person) of its production (Stern, 1957; Sebeok & Umiker-Sebeok 1976). While this form of analog 11

Stern categorises abridgment as occurring when, “each transmitted sign exhibits significant resemblance to a corresponding sound of the base message. Abridging systems employ sounds as signs” (Stern 1957, p. 487).

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tele-communication is traveling through particles of air rather than fibre optic cable, it is this notion of the signification of meaning through a relationship of “physical similarity” to the production of the utterance that provides a useful analogy to the conceptual basis of this research.

2.9.1 Telematic Presence Integral to the experience of networked musical interaction is telematic presence, and the characteristics and degree to which one experiences existential qualities of engagement with the virtual presence of others in what Roy Ascott describes as “corporeal materiality at a distance” (Ascott 1990, p. 246). The experience of presence in NMP is primarily enabled by embodied meaning in experiential qualities of sound rather than visual streaming of collaborators. However, consideration needs to be given to theories surrounding visual streaming, and the extent to which visual signifiers, and the perceived fidelity of virtual environments are necessary to create an experience of telematic presence. As a field of research this also encompasses related disciplines such as User Experience (UX), Human Computer Interaction (HCI), Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC), and Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW). However there are wide variations of perspectives related to the types of presence that a particular medium attempts to create. A key theoretical perspective among all of these disciplines is “social presence” (Short, Williams & Christie 1976), in which interactive presence is experienced by the “degree of salience of the other person in the interaction and the consequent salience of interpersonal relationships” (Short, Williams & Christie 1976, p. 65). The emphasis here is on the perceived real-ness of the personal encounter as a characteristic of the medium (interface, platform) itself. In this light, “the capacity of the medium to transmit information about facial expression, direction of gaze, posture, dress, nonverbal cues all contribute to the degree of social presence of a communications medium” (Gunawarddena & Zittle 1997, p. 9). While these characteristics enhance the sense of presence and interaction in teleconferencing business and educational settings, applied to tele-improvised music they are less important, or become subsumed within in the activity of the musical sound performance itself. In this sense, collaborative engagement in NMP has interactive characteristics that are unique to it, and not necessarily applicable to other teleconferencing activities. Visual representations of networked musicians may aid basic cues 28

such as beginning a piece, tempo changes, and endings but contribute very little to presence in on going tele-improvisatory interaction, where attention is focussed on the interpretation of sound rather than visual representations of the performers. In this regard, the author agrees with Schroeder and Rebelo that live visual streaming of collaborators only allows musicians to look at each other through the network, and “fails to address the intricacies of performative interaction which are rooted in interpretation rather than communication, in the fluid rather than the representational” (Schroeder & Rebelo 2009, p. 6 authors emphasis). In other words, the significance of presence is perceived in the interpretation of actions in sound, rather than communicated through facial expressions, or gestures in a video stream. While it seems natural for networked musicians to attempt to create performance scenarios in which collaborators can be viewed performing live from dispersed locations, as Schroeder and Rebelo argue this still “places the body at the outside, as an onlooker” and “misrepresents crucial performative aspects in music-making” (Schroeder & Rebelo 2009, p. 6), dislocating visual presence from sound source, and sound production. This is an important point that recognises the inherent differences between experiencing presence in NMP as embodied in the interaction, and other forms of collaboration in smart tele-conferencing environments aided by visual representation (irrespective of detail) of information on a screen. There are further analogies here to theories of presence in VR, and game design research, in which the focus is on creating presence through immersive virtual and audiovisual environments with actions modelled on avatars and real world spaces. Indeed presence, or total absorption in game interaction is described as “immersion” (Davies 2004). It is Coleridge’s “willing suspension of disbelief,” and forgetting the physical world. Presence in this context is not about interpreting the embodied visual signifiers of your collaborators but attempting to induce a “subjective emotion-like state of being actually, physically and deeply involved in the gaming activity” (Schrader & Bastiaens 2012, p. 775). It is about suspending a sense of disbelief by transporting the participant from a real world to an immersive virtual environment where “time disappears and external situations that interfere with performance do not distract” (Schrader & Bastiaens 2012, p. 775). The effect of temporal distortion in this scenario shares many similarities to what is described in cognitive psychology as “flow state” (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi 1988), a subjective experience of “merging of action and awareness”, “loss of reflective self-consciousness”

and

“distortion

of 29

temporal

experience”

(Nakamura

&

Csikszentmihalyi 2002, p. 90). The difference is, being “in flow”, is not necessarily caused by experiencing a hyper-real environment (although this can aid it), but rather where a subject’s skill level “is a good fit” (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi 1988, p. 56) with the required task. It is just as likely to occur in playing tennis, music, or painting. Applied to tele-improvisation, networked musicians’ audiovisual experience will be that of their immediate room, and the sound of their dispersed collaborators monitored from either headphones or loudspeakers. Their experience of presence is in the action of the improvisation, rather than the environment in which it takes place, which is not in any one location but distributed between multiple sites. Where the challenges of this activity meet the players’ skill levels, flow will be experienced. The difference is that “flow” results from actions, while “immersion” is the result of engagement with an environment on a diegetic level (McMahan 2003). It could be argued that an interactive game player’s experience of presence is actually a result of flow that is only enhanced through immersion. In this sense, diegetic immersion is not the intention of telematic music systems design, but rather to facilitate a high-level engagement with sound, which becomes the medium in which presence is felt. Visual streaming can be used to enhance communication but it is the experiential meaning potential within parameters of sound such as volume, tempo, timbre, duration that provide a sense of presence that stems from the actions of networked musicians.

2.10 Pragmatic Empiricism The emphasis on embodiment and experiential meaning in qualities of sound also reflect the epistemological orientation of this research. Taking its cues from the American pragmatist tradition, particularly that of John Dewey, Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, this thesis proposes an empirical understanding of meaning, structured by physical interaction with the environment or work in which interaction takes place. During his 1931 lectures on aesthetics, Dewey argues, that an understanding of meaning in art is achieved by aligning our perception with the experience of the artist in the “relations between undergoing and doing” (Dewey 1979, p. 44). Applied to signification and meaning in the dislocated digital realm of tele-improvisation, networked musicians’ perceptions and interpretations of their collaborative interaction are structured by their experience of “undergoing and doing” in their own actions of practice. A point that shares many similarities with van Leeuwen’s perspective of experiential meaning, and similarly as Dewey 30

points out, “an experience has pattern and structure, because it is not just doing and undergoing in alternation, but consists of them in relationship” (Dewey 1979, p. 44). In other words, signification is entwined with cognition in an ongoing process of action that reveals itself in the perception of the networked musician. This is crucial not only to understanding the ways in which musicians’ express themselves in tele-improvisatory interaction but also how they verbalise their experience of that interaction.

2.10.1 The Body-Mind in Perception and Experience As this thesis has argued, an effective approach to examining perception and experience in tele-improvisatory interaction is achieved by a multimodal analysis that enables the capture of nuances of both the actions and verbalised experiences of networked musicians. Experience is viewed as embodied in the physical world “in all its modes as a variegated complex of physico-chemical interactions” (Dewey 1928, p. 9). This is in contrast to a dualist understanding of the world that is shaped by thought processes remote from lived experience, where reason is viewed as being independent of bodily experience. This Rationalist epistemological perspective emerged in the thinking of Seventeenth Century dualist philosophers such as René Descartes, Robert Locke, Gottfried Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza, and arguably still permeates contemporary thinking today. As Johnson states, “Mind/body split is so deeply embedded in our philosophical and religious traditions, in our shared conceptual systems, and in our language that it can be seen an inescapable fact about human nature” (Johnson 2008, p. 2). It undoubtedly continues to underscore many of our ways of viewing the world, particularly in the Enlightenment thinking of the natural sciences. However, its more fundamentalist position has been eroded over time by phenomenological interrogations of the perceived relationship between subject and object in experience and consciousness. This is particularly apparent in the thinking of existential phenomenologists philosophers such as Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault. It is possibly most clearly seen in the writing of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, who as Lanigan suggests, used phenomenology as a method “to incorporate the facts of science in the realm of man’s life world or Lebenswelt. By his careful scrutiny of perception and the conditions for perception, he conceived of a theory of signs or semiology that is applicable to man’s existential presence” (Lanigan 1991, p. 16). In other words, signification and meaning are not detached from lived experience and separate from us, but apparent through our experiential understanding of what it is to 31

be a part of that meaning making process. On this view, perception in telematic interaction is grounded in our physical interaction and experience of the world.

2.10.2 Phenomenology and Perception In his now famous treatise The Phenomenology of Perception (1945), Merleau-Ponty proposed that while our bodies are our way of experiencing the world, “they are not, in the first instance, objects of experience for us, but rather our very means of experiencing; and what we experience is not our bodies but rather something other which they afford us access to and intend” (Crossley 2001, p. 12). Bodily experience isn’t a discoverable object of knowledge that can be tested and affirmed, as Descartes would have it but the very materiality of knowledge itself. As Merleau-Ponty himself described it: In the present and in perception, my being and my consciousness are at one, not that my being is reducible to the knowledge I have of it that it is clearly set out before me – on the contrary perception is opaque, for it brings into play, beneath what I know, my sensory fields which are my primitive alliance with the world (Merleau-Ponty 2005, p. 424).

The auditory sense is just one of many in Merleau-Ponty’s sensory fields but it is in his thoughts on sound that he describes the relationship of alterity in the relationship to the auditory (musical experience), and the perception of sound as physiological phenomena. This also applies to touch and the haptic relationship with a performers instrument. Alterity is defined here by Merleau-Ponty’s perspective of “an interdependence of self and other that involves these categories overlapping and entwining with each other, without ever being reduced to each other” (Reynolds 2004, p. 134). As Merleau-Ponty argued: There is an objective sound that resonates outside of me in the musical instrument, an atmospheric sound that is between the object and my body, as sound that vibrates in me “as if I had become a flute or a clock,” and finally a last stage where the sonorous element disappears and becomes a highly precise experience of a modification of my entire body (Merleau-Ponty 2005, p. 236).

The perception of instrumental sound or voice resonating within and outside of the body, will be a familiar experience to most musicians and vocalists, and speaks across cultures to the embodied nature of musical experience. Arguably it is also when this “body-mind” atonement conjoins that musical expression is most fluid. For the networked musician this interdependence of self and other, is also embedded in an intercorporeal experience of negotiating multiple geographical, cultural, social and temporal sites of “otherness” in their own, and the distributed environments of their collaborators. They inhabit an embodied interplay of sound and cognitive processes in a constant state of active negotiation between 32

interactive expression, and response entwined with the networked environment. This is a perspective that is also shared by contemporary scholars of phenomenology who argue that by its nature intercorporeality is a shared and salient aspect of experience, as Gail Weiss writes, “To describe embodiment as intercorporeality is to emphasize that the experience of being embodied is never a private affair, but is always already mediated by our continual interactions with other human and nonhuman bodies” (Weiss 1999, p. 5). Significant to intercorporeal experience in tele-improvisation is that it occurs not only between musicians’ “bodies” but also within distributed environments and “nonhuman bodies,” instruments, technology and acoustic spaces. As will be identified in the analysis, distributed spaces, events (and the emotions that arise within them) impact on the distributed cognition of musicians, and need to be considered in understanding these relationships. As Neumark et al. argue, “alterity has a spatial dimension […] Sound, is defined by and defining of the space in which it resonates. The spaces of alterity include the bodily and social space of affect” (Neumark, Gibson & van Leeuwen 2010, p. xix). This notion of “bodily and social space of affect” carried through experiential meaning in sound demonstrates the ways in which “aspects of our bodily experience give rise to our conceptualization and reasoning” (Johnson 2008, p. ix) through continual interaction with our material and social environments. This perspective has shaped the theoretical underpinnings of the research in focussing attention on the experience of action (collaborative musical improvisation), as a discourse of social practice where “experiential meaning potential” is the result of “our ability to turn action into knowledge, to extend our practical experience metaphorically, and to grasp similar extensions made by others” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 140 cf. Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Integral to this notion is the centrality of the human body in understanding and being able to reason about our experiences and actions through schematic patterns of bodily movement (Johnson 1987). This perspective underpins the analytical framework developed in this research and is elaborated further in Chapter 3, Methodology.

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2.11 Objectivism Dissenting from this non-propositional view of embodied meaning, some may take an Objectivist 12 position, in which “meaning is an abstract relation between symbolic representations (either words or mental representations) and objective reality” (Johnson 1987, p. xxii). They might also quarrel with the idea that we can reach an understanding of what the world is really like without removing ourselves from being part of the object of study. The author takes the position that this can never really be achieved, arguing as Sapir (1929) that a human beings description of objective reality is “very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society” (Whorf 1941, p. 75). While the Sapir-Whorf theory is a familiar, and often cited disputation of Objectivism’s positivist analytical approach, it is nonetheless difficult to conceive of meaning communicated through language not being mediated through the social and cultural perspective of both the speaker and interpreter. This is a crucial consideration for this research, which examines tele-improvisatory interaction in tandem to networked crosscultural musicians’ verbal accounts. These verbal reflections will be indelibly stamped with the social and cultural perspectives of the speaker. This research therefore takes an interpretivist approach, antithetical to claims of a “value free, detached observation seeking to identify universal features of humanhood, society and history that offer explanation and hence control and predictability” (Crotty 1998, p. 67). While it is acknowledged that the study of tele-improvised music and experience fits comfortably within a humanities framework, the epistemological choices deliberately distance themselves from an Objectivist orientation that as Johnson argues is deeply rooted in Western philosophic and cultural traditions and “elaborated in highly sophisticated ways by philosophers, linguists, psychologists, and computer scientists generally” (Johnson 1987, p. x). This resonates with the author’s own experience of working within a field that has a strong HCI and UX orientation in which there is an inclination to focus on the ways in which people use affordances when interacting with technology that often neglects a more in depth study of technologically mediated human to human interaction.

12

Objectivism refers to a theory that evolved during the 1950s from the ideas of the Russian American philosopher and writer Ayn Rand.

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2.11.1 Embodied Structures of Imagination and Reason When Merleau-Ponty talks about “objective sound” he is not talking about a sound already present in the environment waiting for him to discover it, but one that he must carefully construct and sculpt. This requires a detailed attention to characteristics such as the placement of hands, or fingers in holding an instrument, and the physical motion, or breath required to produce a tone with the desired timbre, intonation, volume and density. Like the design and construction of the instrument he is playing, the musician must imagine the sound he wishes to create through his knowledge of what it takes to produce that sound by striking, strumming, or blowing into it. Whether this is crafting the small tube of a piccolo, or pursing his lips and moderating his wind-flow to achieve the high pitches that it can produce, the outcome, however tuneful or dissonant, is the result of human imagination and reason structured by physical experience. Cognitive musicologist Arnie Cox describes this as mimetic motor imagery (MMT), which is, “The ability to imagine performing an action is informed by experiences of actually performing that action, and the more experience one has performing a specific action, the more vivid and accurate the imagination is likely to be” (Cox, 2011, p. 6). This echoes the previous discussion on embodiment and intercorporeality but as Cox elaborates further, “Music becomes internalized into the bodies and minds of listeners” and that what is new in this idea is “the breadth of empirical evidence, the details of how these mimetic representations are generated, and the connections to higher-level meaning” (Cox 2011, p. 1). The implications for the analysis of tele-improvisation is that we can build a picture of the ways in which musicians’ embodied experiences, including those of co-located music performance, structure their perception of interaction in networked music performance. Likewise, their perception of networked interaction is structured by their own physical experiences when interpreting the actions of their collaborators. Referring to the pragmatist origins of these ideas, as William James argues, “Our own bodily position, attitude, condition, is one of the things of which some awareness, however inattentive, invariably accompanies the knowledge of whatever else we do” (James 1890/2007, p. 241). The connection of physical experience to sound may render this fairly self-evident to many musicians and sound artists, but as Johnson (1987) argues there is blindness to the centrality of human imagination amidst the rationality of the Western philosophical and cultural tradition. It is in emphasising these points that this research seeks to demonstrate

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how an analysis and evaluation of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction can only be achieved by understanding the structures and embodied nature of imagination and reason.

2.12 Toward a Theory of Telematic Collaboration A feature of NMP is that our understanding of telematic collaboration is sometimes clouded by the technical and conceptual parameters in which it takes place. Performances can involve an array of instrumental, technical and network configurations drawing together musicians with little, or no understanding of the distributed environments in which the performance is occurring. These are important considerations to the study of collaboration in tele-communications that span a range of disciplines including education, media arts and business, theatre, poetry, and music. As previously mentioned, much work has already been achieved in HCI, CMC, and CSCW from research in developing systems and methodologies to improve our understanding of dispersed interaction and group collaboration, particularly in telematic arts, education and the workplace. However, many of the inherent theoretical perspectives of these approaches such as Symbolic Interactionism, Activity Theory and Distributed Cognition are not well suited to understanding the experiential and embodied characteristics of the physical production and interpretation of sound. This is partly due to the emphasis on “design” (Halverson 2002) and production tools in “groupware” (Morten et al. 2002), which like much HCI research is slanted toward the study of interaction as part of a design process rather than the central topic of enquiry. For many of the same reasons, Hodge and Kress delimit mainstream semiotics from social semiotics as it “stresses system and product, rather than speakers and writers or other participants in semiotic activity as connected and interacting in a variety of ways in concrete social contexts” (Hodge & Kress 1995, p. 1). It is the emphasis on “functions and social uses of semiotic systems,” that makes social semiotics a natural theoretical perspective for this research. It is a perspective that can account for the nuances of meaning making in the social actions and diverse cultural contexts embedded in distributed, improvised tele-musical collaboration. It also provides a basis for an understanding of networked musical perception that is able to draw on principles from the related discipline of cognitive linguistics, enabling the analysis of improvised musical expression, as well as the reflective verbalised experiences of networked musicians.

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As far as is known, this may be one of the first multimodal studies of intercultural teleimprovisation that incorporates a musical analysis along side the experiential perspectives of participating musicians. While it focusses specifically on tele-improvised musical interaction, the analytical framework is potentially applicable across a range of in telecollaborative fields and interactive media such as in education, business and the arts.

2.13 Interaction in Networked Music Performance Among the first scholars to begin developing a theoretical understanding of interaction in NMP were media sound artist Golo Föllmer (Föllmer 2002, 2005) and composer and technologist Gill Weinberg (Weinberg 2002, 2003, 2005). With different approaches both Föllmer and Weinberg pursued distinct research objectives that form a major part of NMP research. Examining social and aesthetic structures in networked interaction, Föllmer conducted a rigorous survey of what he terms Net music, which he primarily approached through his interest in sonic art and sound in installation. Weinberg’s interest is that of a composer and technologist developing applications through a framework he describes as Interconnected Musical Networks (IMN). Both IMN and Net music focus on the role of the network (both located and telematic) in collaborative musical and sonic interaction. For Weinberg, this is used as a basis for designing “live performance systems that allow players to influence, share, and shape each other’s music in real-time” (Weinberg 2003, p. 4). Unlike many of the technological systems research covered already, Weinberg grounds his ideas in the collaborative theories of music cognition, HCI and education. He also employs metaphors of governmental and social organisation (centralisation and decentralisation) to demonstrate the ways in which the topology of systems facilitates hierarchical levels of collaborative creativity. These theoretical ideas were then used to inform design strategies for the non-telematic hand held interactive devices known as “Squeezables”, “Musical Fireflies” and “BeatBugs.” Experimental case studies of novices and children provided data in the form of participant observation and loosely structured discussions about their experience of using the devices. However, these are interpreted in a very literal manner without an analytical framework for deciphering users’ subjective experiences beyond what is verbally reported. While this may be appropriate for studying interaction as part of a technical design process, it risks missing the nuances of user perception and experience required for a phenomenological study of interaction as proposed in this thesis. This thesis 37

attempts to move beyond literalistic HCI and UX interpretation, to “thick” descriptions (Geertz 1973) of reflective experience provided by multimodal discourse analysis as elaborated further in Chapter 3. In 2005, Weinberg applied his theories of IMN specifically to telematic collaboration, in which he identified four “approaches for online networks” (Weinberg 2005, p. 26) describing them as follows: Server Approach: This approach “uses the network merely as a means to send musical data to disconnected participants and does not take advantage of the opportunity to interconnect and communicate among players” (Weinberg 2005, p. 26). While he cites examples of projects that do not allow interactivity between players, in a 2010 survey the author identified server systems such as VisitorsStudio that do, (see Mills 2010). Bridge Approach: The intention of this approach is to connect distanced players so that they can play and improvise as if they were in the same space. As Weinberg suggests, “Unlike the server approach, musical collaboration can occur in such networks because participants can listen and respond to each other while playing” (Weinberg 2005, p. 26). While the bridge approach best describes the model developed in this research, Weinberg asserts, “the role of the network in this approach is not to enhance and enrich collaboration but to provide a technical solution for imitating traditional group collaboration” (Weinberg 2005, p. 27). This approach does not consider the opportunities for collaborations between musicians of different cultures who would otherwise not have met, as well as the pedagogical enrichment of their practices as demonstrated in this thesis. Shaper Approach: Described as the “networks central system” this approach “takes a more active musical role by algorithmically generating musical materials and allowing participants to collaboratively modify and shape these materials” (Weinberg 2005, p. 27). This is the approach that Weinberg takes in developing his own systems. Construction Kit Approach: Offering a higher level of interactivity among participants, this approach offers skilled musicians the opportunity to “contribute their music to multipleuser composition sessions, manipulate and shape their own and other players’ music, and take part in a collective creation” (Weinberg 2005, p. 28). Outlining these approaches, Weinberg begins to identify the ways in which they contribute to the music and sound produced through their application to interaction in individual

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networked music projects. This helps to shape the emphasis in his work, in which there is a desire for musicians to be able to manipulate each other’s sound. In contrast, Föllmer focusses on what he describes as the problematics of space, presence and machine in Net music, from which he develops a model of interaction based on a number of creative projects that wrestle with these notions.

In his discussion of

“electronic, aesthetic and social factors in Net music,” Föllmer discusses twelve types of Net music projects and performs an “inductive extraction of three criteria describing a three-dimensional space of characteristics” (Föllmer 2005, p. 188). Föllmer’s Criteria are: 1. ‘interplay with network characteristics,’ which describes the extent to which structural characteristics of electronic networks shape the resulting music; 2. ‘interactivity/openness,’ which relates to the degree of interactivity offered to the listener, i.e. the extent to which a type of net music is open to activities by whoever wants to use it; and 3. ‘complexity/flexibility,’ which defines the degree of musically effective complexity and variability. In this approach, Föllmer draws together important insights into the ways in which production and interactivity in telematic music (and sound) are dependent on the structural characteristics of particular network architecture, and the possibilities for direct audience and listener engagement. From these three dimensions, he delimits five areas that he describes

as

“clusters”

through

their

inherent

properties

of

interplay,

interactivity/openness and complexity/flexibility. These points are elaborated eloquently through the projects he surveys, and the inferences that he draws from them. It also underlines the argument advanced in this thesis that it is technology and network infrastructure that has shaped the performative and scholarly enquiry of telematic music and sound research. However, despite the intimated investigation of the aesthetic and social factors in Net music, they appear to receive little detailed consideration. Such an examination might have included the ways in which musicians and audiences experience dislocated interaction, signification in sound, negotiating unfamiliar musical styles, and the semantics of diverse musical languages, cultures, and traditions. These are pertinent issues for which the analytical framework in this thesis is designed.

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Föllmer’s model of interaction in Net music, particularly in regard to “the problematics of space,” and his proposition that “spatial factors are essentially irrelevant for the structural relations inside the Internet” (Föllmer 2005, p. 185) stands apart from the proposition in this thesis. While he is applying his theory to the evaluation of network architectures and related creative projects, it suggests a Cartesian view of networked space underpins his analytical perspective, detached from human agency and embodied experience. He further dismisses spatial dimensions as “nothing but metaphors meant to help cognition do the shift from our well-known three-dimensional world into the electronic world of indefinite dimensionality inside the computer and the Internet” (Föllmer 2005, p. 185). This thesis argues that our understanding of networked space is integral to musicians’ experience, i.e. far from being a peripheral characteristic. Metaphor structures networked perception by drawing on physical experiences of located space, providing a way to understand this experience and hence draw meaning from it. Defining interactive relationships within this extended physical space of NMP, more recent research has focused on organi sational models of understanding telematic interaction. Rebelo proposes using “concepts from dramaturgy” as a framework for understanding “relationships between artists, audiences and media,” and the ways in which this can inform approaches to collaboration, authorship and presence (Rebelo 2009, pp. 387-393). This practice-based approach develops a set of coordinating principals in multi-nodal networked performance see “Disparate Bodies” (Rebelo 2007). Developing a Darwinian ‘Evolutionary’ perspective for understanding performative interaction in networked improvisatory laptop and electroacoustic ensembles, Tsabary (2014) suggests natural selection as a way of comprehending “the multilayered relationships between innovation, integrative problem solution, collaboration, improvisation, emerging technologies, and new artistic practices” (Tsabary, forthcoming). All of the perspectives highlighted here are grounded in the study of creative social practices, as are the systems developed by them. These practices are discursive and only become apparent in action, and articulated in one or more semiotic modes (Kress & van Leeuwen 2001).

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2.14 Theories of Cyberspace, Networked Space and Musical Space The concept of Cyberspace began its life as science fiction in William Gibson’s 1984 book Neuromancer (Gibson 1984), and it has since become a catch-all phrase for online “place-and space-based entailments” (Cohen 2007, p. 211). Definitions of networked space/place concepts have important implications for the theoretical and epistemological consistency of telematic research, as they inevitably shape approaches to the analysis and evaluation of data. As highlighted in section 2.9.1, conceptions of “social presence” and “immersion” in Virtual Reality (VR) and 3D game environments are enhanced by hyper-real threedimensional audiovisual spaces that are designed to create an objective experience of lifelike virtual places. This is where epistemological assumptions underlying definitions of networked, or cyberspace arise. In particular, what Davies (2004) critically refers to as the implicit Cartesian dualism that permeates contemporary VR and games design techniques and thinking: 3D computer graphic techniques, as commonly used in VR environments, tend to rely on 3D Euclidian geometric models, Renaissance perspective and the xyz coordinates of Cartesian space, all applied in a never-ending quest for visual realism. The resulting aesthetic/sensibility (what I call the "hard-edged-objects-in-empty-space" syndrome) reflects a dualist, objectifying interpretation of the world (Davies 2004, p. 70).

While Davies’ perspective may be reflected in the design of many VR, and first-personshooter (FPS) game environments, the implications for the study of tele-improvisatory interaction, and the conceptual space in which this occurs requires further consideration. There are also obvious differences in the types of networked interactive environments, e.g. network music systems are for the most part not virtual 3D audiovisual environments, and it is the physical manipulation of familiar musical instruments rather than joystick, pointers, or gloves that are vehicles for interaction. However, herein lies the dichotomy for a Cartesian conception of virtual space, and any interaction within it, as it still requires a consideration of the embodied nature of interacting with material objects in located space. VR participants or Gamers will use a keyboard, joystick, or Wii Remote controller to move directionally upwards or downward, to enter a building, or jump from objects. Likewise, networked musicians produce and respond to musical sound through the embodied and physical manipulation of their instrument as a natural extension of their body. There is always something pulling us back to meaning as experienced rather than just cognitively observed. It is difficult to divorce the body from the mind while it is actively engaged in 41

conscious physical manipulation of an object. As Cohen suggests, “cyberspace is not, and never could be, the kingdom of mind: minds are attached to bodies, and bodies exist in the space of the world” (Cohen 2007, p. 218). Whether one wishes to conceptualise a “networked space” as Cohen does, or a “cyberplace” of “meeting points between parties in cyberspace” (Whalley 2012, p. 5), the author argues that it is the result of social practices, of “doing and undergoing” to borrow from Dewey again, and not something known through detached observation, but rather mediated through an experiential space of action. As Cohen (2007) argues: The cyberspace metaphor does not refer to abstract, Cartesian space, but instead expresses an experienced spatiality mediated by embodied human cognition. Cyberspace in this sense is relative, mutable, and constituted via the intersections among practice, conceptualizations, and representation (Cohen 2007, p. 210).

As a professor of law, Julie Cohen is exploring definitions of networked space for the implications that they have on the legal jurisdictions governing authorship and copyright. While these issues are also of concern for networked musicians, they are not considered within the limitations of this thesis. Instead the author seeks to use Cohen’s example to outline a definition of networked space as an extended physical space of action, e.g. the activity of improvisation, mediated by the body. Viewed from this perspective, the role of the body could be viewed as Schroeder and Rebelo argues, as a “disturbant,” “an interrupter of the network” (Schroeder & Rebelo 2009, p. 1). In this light, the phenomenological and experiential characteristics of networked interaction are rooted in an embodied space “as both extension and evolution of everyday spatial practice - as a space neither separate from real space nor simply a continuation of it” (Cohen 2007, pp. 212-3). It is the “evolution of everyday spatial practice” that is key here, for conceptions of networked space are themselves the result of networked social practices. The implication is that there is no ‘one’ cyberspace but many, and these are embedded with the practices, cultures and ideologies of the lived space of networked musicians. It is the convolving of geographically displaced musical practices and cultural traditions that define networked spaces and the intercultural interaction that can occur within them. While teleimprovisatory collaboration requires us to adapt to temporal and experiential dislocation, we are still “embodied, situated beings, who comprehend even disembodied communications through the filter of embodied, situated experience” (Cohen 2007, pp. 212-3). This further illustrates William James’ previous notion that perception of our bodies structure the “knowledge of whatever else we do” (James 1890/2007, p. 241), with 42

important implications for the ways in which one seeks to draw meaning from networked improvisatory interaction, as well as the processes of analysing that meaning.

2.14.1 Cybernetics and Cybersemiotics The spontaneous and self-generating “autopoeitic” (Maturana & Varela 1980) nature of tele-improvised music, circulating through networked nodes, intercepted and processed by networked musicians, shares much in common with the theoretical perspectives of second order cybernetics (von Foester 1979), biosemiotics (Rothschild 1994) and the more recent field of cybersemiotics (Brier 2008). Each proposes systems of interaction, signification and cognition that result in analytical frameworks that attempt to bridge the natural and social sciences, technology and philosophy. Hence, each field is trans-disciplinary and shares constructivist perspectives of meaning that contribute to theories of cognition and signification in distinct ways. This section will examine these perspectives in relation to the social semiotic approach taken in this thesis. Second-order cybernetics delimits itself from its first iteration, by maintaining that the observer is always part of the system under examination where “the observer is circularly (and intimately) involved with/connected to the observed” (Glanville 2002, p. 2). This has much in common with the social semiotic perspective taken in this research by which interpretation is viewed as a semiotic action, placing the researcher within the social practices under investigation, as referred to in section 3.2.1. In a field linked more specifically to the principles of semiotics, biosemiotics examines signification of living systems at a biological level, holding that "Sign processes penetrate the entire body of an organism” [...]. Signification is the fundamental property of living systems that can be taken as a definition of life” (Sharov 1998, p. 404). Importantly, as Sharov (1999) points out, biosemiotics is viewed from the basis of biology and semiotics rather than simply as a branch of semiotics (Sharov 1999). It holds that all living organisms are comprised of semiotic systems and that “semiosis is not a side effect, but the fundamental process of life” (Barbieri 2006, see Gálik 2013, p. 860). This distinction is useful in that it can be viewed as sharing the social and functional characteristics of social semiotics, as the “interrelations of semiotic systems in social practice” (Hodge & Kress 1995, p. 1). Cybersemiotics is a relatively young and transdisciplinary perspective that sits at the intersection of cybernetics and biosemiotics. As Brier states, cybersemiotics integrates 43

“third person knowledge from the exact sciences […] with first person knowledge described as the qualities of feeling in humanities and second person intersubjective knowledge of the partly linguistic communicative interactions, on which the social and cultural aspects of reality are based” (Brier 2013, p. 220). It distances itself from the cybernetic view advanced by John von Neumann (1945) that human cognition is automated process of self replication or “cellular automata” devoid of human agency, which as Jones (2005) argues “fails to recognize the crucial role of an embodied observer's capacity for semiosis in any computational process” (Jones 2005, p. 7). This is an important point to consider when developing an understanding of an activity such as teleimprovisation, which is rooted in systems of social practices among living organisms engaging in semiosis via a technologically mediated networked environment. Cybernetics also does not consider computational interaction between machines as the result of the social actions of the human beings that constructed them. In this case, cellular automata follow human-made rules. While each of these perspectives can contribute to an analytical understanding of teleimprovisatory interaction, they do this through the lens of their particular discipline. An important characteristic of multimodal analysis is the requirement to examine data from a non-discipline specific perspective. With the support of a large body of analytical work behind it in linguistics, music and the arts, the author argues that social semiotics and MDA provide the best means for analysing the music, gestures and verbal reflections of networked musicians in the context of the thesis studies, as outlined further in Chapter 3.

2.15 Listening Hearing is the principal perceptual sense in networked music making, and its role in the dislocated and opaque realm of tele-improvisatory interaction deserves particular attention. Theories delimiting hearing as the perception of sound, and listening as the conscious production of meaning have a long scholarly history from Socrates to Freud and Lacan (Roth 2012). As Roland Barthes famously argued, “hearing is a physiological phenomenon; listening is a psychological act” (Barthes 1985, p. 245). While this distinction has been made in numerous guises, it is Nancy (2007) who distinguishes a yet more subtle difference by arguing that hearing is still to consciously comprehend, and understand, but the processing of meaning from listening has a more active quality.

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To hear a siren, a bird, or a drum is already each time to understand at least the rough outline of a situation, a context, if not a text, to listen is to be straining toward a possible meaning, and consequently one that is not immediately accessible (Nancy 2007, p. 6).

This is an important consideration for tele-improvisers, who must not only hear, perceive, and experience musical interaction but must then go on to actively create meaning from it. This process of semiosis is reflected in what the pragmatist semiotician Charles Peirce described as the triadic relations of signs, which develops Ferdinand de Saussure’s ‘signifier’ and ‘signified’ to include “interpretation of the thought as sign” - a third tier of signification (Peirce 1991, p. 7 original in italics). In Peirce’s statement below, it is the interpretation of meaning through the experiential qualities of listening that underscores the perspective taken here. A pitch of a tone depends upon the rapidity of the succession of the vibrations, which reach the ear. Each of those vibrations produces an impulse upon the ear […] and we know experientially, that it is perceived […]. These impressions must exist previously to any tone; hence the sensation of pitch is determined by previous cognitions. Nevertheless, this would never have been discovered by the mere contemplation of that feeling (Peirce 1991, p. 39).

There is large body of both quantitative and qualitative research and theory on related topics of listening, such as frequency perception and relationships to cognition and emotion, (Chafe et al. 2004; Juslin & Laukka 2003; Juslin & Trimmers 2010; Sloboda 2005) phenomenological perception, (Chion 1994; Ihde 2007; Nancy 2007; Purdy 1986; Schaeffer 1966, 1967; Schafer 1994) and meditational (Cascone 2012; Oliveros 2005). The selected examples are a non-exhaustive group of authors, whose work has influenced the theoretical approaches to understanding the relationships of listening to perception and meaning making in tele-improvisation addressed in this thesis.

2.15.1 Dualist and Non-Dualist Divides Intrinsic to human perception and meaning making in social and cultural life, theories of listening have often split along dualist and non-dualist divides. Indeed, as Purdy argues, much empirical research has "insisted upon, and continues to insist upon, quantifiable constructs and variables" that "deals with speaking and expression rather than reception," (Purdy 1986, p. 1). In this research, it is proposed that listening as a perceptual sense, is shaped by “embodied patterns of experience” (Johnson 1987, p. 14) resulting from the social and cultural environment of its perceiver, where the listener’s “personal history transforms raw sensation into an awareness that has meaning” (Blesser & Salter 2007, p. 13). In other words, signification that occurs from listening is experiential, and understood through “learned codes of recognition” that are “culturally ratified” between groups within 45

a community (Cumming 2000, p. 17). While musicians from different cultures will have a range of diverse musical literacies, they nevertheless share communal understandings of experiential meaning that result from the basic physics of sound. On this very fundamental level, musicians engage in a form of auditory mimesis (Cox 2001) in which they recall patterns of experience in the perception of sound such as the excitement, or deflation, elicited by a rising or falling pitch contour. As Cox argues “part of how we comprehend music is by way of a kind of physical empathy that involves imagining making the sounds we are listening to” (Cox 2001, p. 1). This is again to recall Dewey’s notion of aesthetic meaning by aligning our perception with the experience of the artist in the “relations between undergoing and doing” (Dewey 1979, p. 44).

2.15.2 Listening and Interpretation Sound does not operate on a single level but comprises characteristic patterns of amplitude, timbre, duration or directionality and similarly, we perceive it in a multileveled way. For example, how we interpret proximity in sound provides us with meaning about the source of that sound and the relationships it represents to us. Just as visual “sizes of frame” infer relations “expressed by distances derived from our everyday experience, from the distances we keep from different kinds of people, places and things in everyday life” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 12), likewise, network musicians perceive these characteristic patterns of sound to express and interpret meaning. This will be explained in further detail in section 3.6.3. This notion of meaning-making is echoed in the oft quoted statement by the founder of “ambient music,” British electronic music producer Brian Eno that music should be “able to accommodate many levels of listening attention without enforcing one in particular: it must be as ignorable as it is interesting’’ (Eno 1996, p. 296). In the liner notes of his album Ambient 4: On Land (1982), he elucidates this perspective further by recalling a trip to Ghana: What I sometimes found myself doing […] was sitting out on a patio in the evenings with the microphone placed to pick up the widest possible catchment of ambient sounds from all directions, and listening to the result on headphones. The effect of this simple technique was to cluster all the disparate sounds into one aural frame; they became music. Listening this way, I realized I had been moving towards a music that had this feeling” (Eno 1982).

His approach is also reminiscent of the way that composer and network musician Pauline Oliveros describes as “inclusive listening”, in which “many places at once are treated as one rather than many” (LaBelle 2006, p. 158). As part of her “Deep Listening” theories, she argues that this requires a degree of training, not of the ear, but of the “brain body” 46

(Oliveros 2005). Oliveros is not referring to a dualist notion of sound perceived as outside of the body but the ongoing process of an embodied listening wherein “the brain/body knows far more than our mind can process immediately” (Oliveros 2005, p. 18). In his book “Background Noise: Perspectives on Sound Art,” Brandon LaBelle interprets this as “assembling narrative out of disparate elements, lending significance to the relational and associative connections found between the many” (LaBelle 2006, p. 159). Concrete examples of “associative connections” in networked musical interaction are present in the “psychophysical dimensions of music,” which Balkwill and Thompson defines as “any property of sound that can be perceived independent of musical experience, knowledge or enculturation” (Balkwill & Thompson 1999, p. 44). These are the experiential parameters of sound such as tempo, rhythmic & melodic complexity and timbre that have found to be interpreted as signifiers of emotion across cultures. It is the embodied qualities in sound that trigger this experiential meaning potential, as Cox argues, “whether listening to speech, or poetry, or sung melody, or instrumental melody, we are in each case listening to humanmade sounds and recognizing human physical behavior” (Cox 2001, p. 200). While these theories of listening and perception have been derived outside the domain of intercultural tele-improvisation, they nonetheless provide a useful platform for understanding crosscultural interpretation of music and sound in which “hearing is a way of touching at a distance” (Schafer 1994, p. 11).

2.16 Listening Theories As has been touched upon, philosophers and musicians have grappled with the theoretical distinctions between hearing and listening, perception, consciousness, and meaning in a large body of research that spans a number of fields such as acoustic ecology, phenomenology, cognitive sciences, psychology, music, ethnomusicology. A survey of the literature relevant to listening practices in the fields of music and philosophy reveal three key approaches. These are now critically appraised and their application to listening in NMP considered.

2.16.1 Reduced Listening Reduced listening emerged from the research that Pierre Schaeffer (pioneer of Musique concrète), developed through the period from 1952 to his 'Treatise on Musical Objects' (Traité des objects musicaux) in 1966 (Schaeffer 1966). It proposes a conscious delimiting of source 47

from sound that “focuses on the traits of the sound itself, independent of its cause and of its meaning” (Chion 1994, p. 29). It is a selective listening that isolates the sound from its environment, and requires the removal of habitual references in listening, allowing us to “clarify many phenomena implicit in our perception (Landy et al. 2001). It is a form of phenomenological reduction, or as Edmund Husserl describes, epoché, the removing or “bracketing” of all that the subject knows about phenomena from its immediate perception (Husserl 1999, p. 331). When applied to the act of listening, it is “stripping the perception of sound of everything that is not "it itself" in order to hear only the sound, in its materiality, its substance, its perceivable dimensions” (Landy et al. 2001). While reduced listening is an interesting exercise in phenomenological reduction, it develops a perspective that moves away from an embodied understanding of meaning as “directly experienced” (Merleau-Ponty 2005, p. viii). We cannot separate an understanding of meaning from the environment in which it is perceived, and the social and cultural attunement of the perceiver. In many ways, Schaeffer was an accidental phenomenologist, for it was his engineering background and practice that led him to deconstructing sound and developing theory in the way that he did. As he later said, “For years, we often did phenomenology without knowing it, which is much better than talking about phenomenology without practicing it” (Schaeffer 1966, p. 262). This perspective sums up Shaeffer’s practice-led and practice based approach. However, for the networked improviser there is also little to gain from reduced listening when attempting to communicate through sound that is already devoid of the visual signifiers of presence.

2.16.2 Causal and Semantic Listening Causal and semantic listening are developments of theoretical listening practices developed by Michel Chion (1994), an experimental composer, scholar and assistant to Pierre Schaeffer at the research group Groupe de Recherches Musicales between 1971-1976. While Chion includes reduced listening in his approach to methodologies of cinematic sound design, he also outlines two additional modes of listening: Causal listening is a multilevelled conscious awareness of sound “in order to gather information about its cause (or source)” (Chion 1994, p. 26). When the cause of a sound is visible it provides supplementary information about it, however when its source is hidden information is “identified by some knowledge or logical prognostication” (Chion 1994, p. 48

26). It is a reflective practice, requiring the listener to interpret gradations of sound, drawing meaning not only from the source but also its relation to other sounds. Networked improvisers distinguish the actions and information about their collaborators through parameters such as the articulation, duration and timbral qualities of a sound. Semantic listening on the other hand functions in a more complex way and can be combined with causal listening. Semantic listening takes its cue from semantics in terms of “referring to a code or language to interpret a message” (Chion 1994, p. 28). It is a mode of listening that listens to sound “not strictly for its acoustical properties but as part of an entire system of oppositions and differences” (Chion 1994, p. 28). In semantic listening, the listener focusses on patterns of sound rather than how they are produced. It is listening to the contour of a melody rather than the way it is being played or the instrument playing it. It is by drawing attention to established theories of listening that an understanding of the ways in which musicians are able to interpret meaning in tele-improvisatory interaction can be considered. It is argued that networked musicians employ a mix of causal and semantic listening, actively searching for relationships of context and presence to provide indicators of meaning. Whether it is the signification of intimacy from extraneous breath sounds of a trumpet played close to a microphone, or the forceful power derived from an over-driven distorted guitar, to strip away these experiential aspects is to make the sound ineffable in the minds of the networked musician. In other words, it is precisely the embodied qualities and patterns in sound that provide indicators of meaning in tele-improvised interaction.

2.17 Time Consciousness: Retention and Protention Having described the phenomenological characteristics of relevant modes of listening, Husserl (1928) provides further theoretical grounds for ways of thinking about perception and consciousness. In his opus, Phenomenology of Internal Time Consciousness, he provides his view of our ability to understand the world through our perception of temporal events or “time consciousness” (Husserl 1964, p. 124). While a full explication of the text is not the remit of this review, its relevance to listening and perception is linked to what Husserl describes as “Retention” and “Protention” (Husserl 1964, p. 34). These are stages of consciousness that provide us with the ability to perceive events that have just occurred (retention) and to consciously relate, to what is to come (protention). The three stages revolve around what he describes as “primal impression”, or the moment of the “concrete act” (Zahavi 2003, p. 83). Husserl stresses that this is conceived as a perception of the 49

present, and should not be confused with memory, or anticipation, as “pretention and the protention are not past or future in respect to the primal impression, but ‘simultaneous’ with it” (Zahavi 2003, p. 84). The ambiguity in this notion has often been critiqued and begs the question of whether pretention and protention are part of a consciousness of memory and expectation, or non-perceptive thinking process that engages in a perceived present as Jacques Derrida (1973) argues, “The presence of the perceived present can appear as such only inasmuch as it is continuously compounded with a nonpresence and nonperception, with primary memory and expectation (retention and protention)” (Derrida 1973, p. 64). Applied to listening, perception, and consciousness in improvisation, the question then becomes how we account for the differences between conscious memory (that can draw on melodies and rhythms previously conceived), and what is perceived in the interactive present, irrespective of what is retained from the past. To help answer this, Lasse Thoresen argues that it is conceivable that there is an “immediate perception” of musical form that is “time-collapsible” and “capable of being wrapped up into a simple ‘summary’ remaining in the aural memory of the listener” (Thoresen 2012, p. 10). It is a hybrid experience of immediate perception and memory as Thoresen argues: The memory to which we are referring is not simply the ‘retention’ implied in the immediate perception of single time segments. It is on the other hand not the kind of memory that we use when trying to remember something and bring it before ourselves as a mental image separate from the sensation of the physical present. It is a memory that has preserved some of the properties of the retention, but has extended this to longer temporal distances. Thus, it is not a memory that is perceived as memory, but is more like a horizon, only staying in the background of the unfolding musical experience and colouring it, and orienting our present listening (Thoresen 2012, p. 10 authors emphasis).

Thoresen’s proposition of a perception of musical form that is neither present consciousness of immediate temporal events, or long term memory is in keeping with the authors experience of the ways in which interaction in improvisation is conceived, “the improviser is […] aware of the potentiality of the structures at every moment” (Breyer, Ehmer & Pfänder 2011, p. 187). However, it is Thoresen’s metaphorical concept of a “horizon” that colours an “unfolding musical experience” that contributes to defining the phenomenological, and metaphorically enabled nature of the improvisatory experience. According to Lakoff and Johnson (Johnson 1987, 1991, 2008; Lakoff & Johnson 1980, 1999) metaphor in this context is not the visual image of a horizon but rather the border of the contained space in which the musical experience takes place. As Johnson (1987) argues “Imagination is a schematizing activity for ordering representations in time. […]. The key point in all 50

of this is the temporal character of imagination as the chief means for establishing order in our experience” (Johnson 1987, p. 153 original in italics). It is therefore argued that it is imagination that structures our perception of retention and protention in Husserl’s tripartite framework of primal impression. This also has parallels in what Edwin Gordon describes as the “specious present” in which “we become aware of the present only after it has evaporated in imaginary time” (Gordon 2001, p. 4).

2.18 Audiation Gordon’s notion of “specious present” refers to the way in which he views a musician’s perception of sound that is no longer physically present. Akin to Thoresen’s notion of an “aural memory of the listener,” Gordon describes his theory of audiation: Audiation takes place when we hear and understand in our minds music that we have just heard performed or have heard performed sometime in the past. When we merely recognize or imitate what we have heard, or memorize what we intend to perform, we live in the past. In audiation, the past lives in us (Gordon 1999, p. 42).

Gordon developed the theory of audiation as a pedagogical framework for the teaching of music, however there are some striking parallels with processes that tele-improvisers engage in. Indeed, improvisation plays a key role in three of the eight types of audiation that Gordon has identified, of which number six is most relevant to this study as outlined: 6. Creating and improvising unfamiliar music while performing or in silence 7. Creating and improvising unfamiliar music while reading 8. Creating and improvising unfamiliar music while writing (Gordon 2001, p. 11). Gordon’s description of category six-type audiation is most similar to the ways in which musicians improvise “unfamiliar music” in the case studies of this thesis. Musicians begin a process of audiating from unfamiliar patterns (just heard) that subsequently form the basis of “sequentially organizing […] additional patterns” (Gordon 2001, p. 13). Audiating is the ability to imagine sound or music without it being physically present, or ever having been present. It is achieved through pattern recognition that combined with a context (metre of a rhythm, or tonality of a melody), allows musicians to audiate, or mentally hear and anticipate the pattern that will follow, based on what has just been heard in the split second afterwards. As Gordon states, “Audiation is to music what thought is to language” (Gordon 2001, p. 3), i.e. a sense of imaginary anticipation. As this process develops, the

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improviser begins determining patterns in sound such as pitch range, durations, harmony and rhythmic cycles in which to respond. While Gordon is referring to audiation in co-located improvisation, it is equally relevant to tele-improvisation and it is discussed here for the ways in which it contributes to theories of perception and cognition outlined in the previous section. It is a natural process of consciousness and musicians need not be aware of the theory to engage in its practice. However, the author argues (based on a long-standing improvisatory practice), that thinking processes such as reduced listening, protention and retention, or audiation, do not occur through the systematic observation of objective patterns of sound but rather emerge from the action of (listening, performing, or improvising) music itself. As Johnson (2007) argues, it is the structure of these embodied patterns of sound in music that is analogous to the “felt patterns of the flow of human experience” (Johnson 2008, p. 238). For teleimprovisers, it is these embodied patterns of sound, with analogues to human experience that schematically structure musicians’ perception of improvisatory interaction.

2.19 Improvisation As described, telematic music systems facilitate many forms of networked music performance, however the spontaneous, communicative characteristics of improvisation make it a natural medium for the initiation of collaborations between cross-cultural networked musicians. There are, of course, many forms of improvisation, and this section will now unpack some of their characteristics to help outline the approaches that networked musicians take in the case studies presented in the thesis, as well as representing the wider field of improvisation in NMP. The social and dialogical nature of improvisation with analogues to verbal communication, also make it ideally suited for analysing signification and meaning making in networked musical interaction. Metaphors between language and music are “extremely common in many musical periods and cultures” (Monson 1996, p. 81), and this is the basis of a large body of existing research of co-located musical practices, and theory. As will be expounded in Chapter 3, metaphor also plays a significant role in structuring our whole “conceptual system” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 3), and can reveal much about the ways in which networked musicians think and interact in tele-improvisation. Equally wide-ranging research as for co-located improvisation does not exist for intercultural tele-improvisation, which, as far as the author is aware, has not been the 52

subject of any dedicated and comprehensive analysis. This thesis addresses this gap through the development of a multimodal analytical framework that examines the musical, social, and cognitive aspects of tele-improvisatory interaction, providing the basis for an evaluation of the approaches and strategies that musicians of different cultures develop to interact in the dislocated and musically unfamiliar realm of tele-improvisation.

This

framework is outlined in chapters 3, 4 and 5 and establishes a foundation for understanding the social and phenomenological characteristics of intercultural teleimprovisation. The following section now examines theories and practices of co-located intercultural and non-intercultural improvisation relevant to the emerging discipline of tele-improvisation. While it gives a brief description of specific forms, it does not intend to contribute to the already vast literature on genres and styles of co-located improvisation, other than the ways in which specific theories have shaped the analytical approaches adopted in this research. It begins by outlining the origins of free improvisation as a form that most accurately resembles the approaches taken by networked musicians in this thesis. It will describe how tele-improvisation can adapt a free improvisatory framework for the unique conditions of networked music making that takes into account the specificities of intercultural engagement.

2.19.1 Free Improvisation The origins of free improvisation can be traced back to the free music and free jazz movements of the late 1950s and 1960s in the United States and Europe. Free jazz emerged from a growing dissatisfaction with the stylistic conventions of bebop, and the overly orchestrated formality of modal jazz. American musicians such as Cecil Taylor, Albert Ayler and Ornette Coleman desired a re-ordering of a musical texture that maintained a melodic supremacy over rhythm and bass, in favour of a music that rejected textural hierarchy altogether. This concept was best encapsulated in Ornette Coleman’s theory of “harmolodics,” which he loosely defined as music in which, “harmony, melody, speed, rhythm, time and phrases all have equal position in the results that come from the placing and spacing of ideas” (Radano 1993, p. 109). In many ways harmelodics is more of a philosophy than a theory, as Coleman argues, “You can think harmolodically. You can write fiction and poetry in harmolodic. Harmolodic allows a person to use a multiplicity of elements to express more than one direction at a time” (see Murphy 2004, p. 144). This 53

desire for a non-hierarchical structure and avoidance of a tonal centre also inspired the Twelve-Tone method of German serialist composers Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg forty years prior, and it could be argued that both serialism and harmolodics reflected the social and cultural undercurrents of their times. Webern is also thought to have been an influence on renowned British free improviser Derek Bailey, inspiring his early compositions, Pieces for Guitar 1966-7 (Bailey 2002; Ratlife 2005). On the other side of the Atlantic, British musicians guitarist Keith Rowe, saxophonist Lou Gare and drummer Eddie Prévost formed AMM,13 a free improvisatory ensemble that later member Cornelius Cardew remembers performed “a very pure form of improvisation operating without any formal system or limitation” (Cardew 1971). While Rowe, Gare and Prévost had jazz backgrounds, their music also included non-tonal sound created through extended instrumental techniques and sonorous objects such as “glass, metal, wood […] and a variety of gadgets from drumsticks to battery-operated cocktail mixers” (Cardew 1971). This “non-idiomatic” (Bailey 1992) improvisatory music rejected stylistic form, repetition, textural hierarchy and virtuosity, and philosophically considered music as a creative practice rather than musical form. This notion would continue through the work of improvisers such as Derek Bailey, saxophonist Evan Parker, Terry Riley in Britain and Anthony Braxton, Pauline Oliveros, George Lewis and John Zorn in the United States. In his own treatise on the subject, Derek Bailey argues that free improvisation should not be considered a kind of music, “it is a kind of music making" (Bailey 1981 cf. Munthe 1992, p. 13). This idea typified approaches to both performance and recording of performances, which were viewed as somewhat of a misrepresentation for its inability capture the essence of the activity of improvisation. As Bailey again argues: The technical illusions practised in recording (‘live’ or studio) are inimical to the constantly changing balances and roles, which operate within most free improvisation. Recording devices such as reduction, ‘presence’, compression limiting, filtering and stereo picture, usually serve only to fillet out or disturb quite important elements (Bailey 1992, p. 103).

This raises specific concerns for this research in being able to highlight the essential elements of momentary improvisatory interaction in the case studies presented. To address this challenge, raw field mixed audio-visual recordings of the musicians’ performances were used for analysis. No further production or processing was applied. While it could be argued that the recordings might still lack reference to the essence, or “in-person momentary thing” (Ronnie Scott n.d, see Bailey 1992, p. 103), the unique conditions of

13

AMM were founded in 1965.

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tele-improvisation mean that the distributed essences of the “living work” (Berliner 1994, p. 492) can only be experienced by the musicians in an acousmatic format (where the source of the sound is never present, or never all simultaneously in one place), which must therefore also suffice for the analysis. This is arguably less of a ‘misrepresentation’ than recorded ‘in-situ’ co-located live performance in which there is an audience interaction and collective experience.

2.19.2 Tele-Improvisation Tele-improvisation can potentially include a wide range of cultural styles and genres. Low levels of latency enable networked musicians to interact with near comparable levels of accuracy to that of their co-located colleagues. The caveat being that they must attune to being dislocated from their collaborators, and this requires perceptual and cognitive adjustments. Unless performed to a located audience, for the musicians this is an immersive experience as the result of audio monitoring with headphones, or an enclosed studio environment. This experience provides an intensity and focus that Myra Melford suggests is much like performing in a recording studio, allowing musicians to focus on smaller details of sound and space (Melford n.d, see Mclean 2011). This same sentiment was also encapsulated in a post-performance discussion statement made by one of the thesis case study musician tanbur player Peyman Sayyadi: When you play with someone else in a room, and you feel another one around you, some parts of your mind are engaged with that relation with other parts rather than music, so when the other musicians are not in the room you are more released, and that makes me more comfortable. That is what is so interesting to me and why I like this type of improvisation (Sayaadi, 2011).

Sayyadi articulates a perspective that will be familiar to network musicians, revealing the unique qualities of the tele-improvisatory experience. In this view, the dislocated telematic experience can provide opportunities for a greater interactive focus within the sound space itself, undistracted by co-located corporeal engagement with other musicians. That is not to say that it is better or preferable to the creative exchange and intimacy of face-to-face improvisatory interaction, only that it is a unique feature of it.

2.19.3 Tele-Improvisatory Idioms Tele-improvisatory idioms range between freely improvised electroacoustic music and sonic art, to traditional genres of blues, jazz and rock, including a small cross section of intercultural music. Styles of tele-improvisation broadly reflect the type of networks used. 55

Freely improvised electroacoustic music and sonic art is dominated by the Academies with skilled musicians and sonic artists using JackTrip on high-speed networks that often also include multichannel spatialisation of sound. In fact, many of the musicians highlighted in section 2.5.1 describing JackTrip, perform in ongoing tele-improvisatory projects between universities in the United States, Canada, Europe, China, and Australasia. A notable example that draws many of these musicians together was the 2012 “Hug the World” 14 telematic jam session organised by Eldad Tsabary at Concordia University Montreal. This ambitious six-hour performance featured musicians in 50 international locations including the United States, Canada, Argentina, Chile, UK, Italy, Germany, Sweden, Greece, China, Australia, and New Zealand (Tsabary 2012). The technical and creative logistics of this initiative required substantial skill and sensitivities from both a facilitation perspective and from the performers themselves. As Tsabary recalls, the improvisation was “free and chaotic but handled with patience and intelligence (adapting quickly to novel situations and solving problems effectively in real time)” (Tsabary 2014). Problem solving and adapting quickly to novel situations is a skill that many improvisers have and demonstrates as Schön argues, that “knowing is in our action” (Schön 1995). This is what underpins the embodied nature of interaction in tele-improvisatory performance, as well as methodologies that emerge from its practice. It must be remembered that the majority of network improvisers only have access to public broadband networks, and it is telematic systems such as eJamming, and NINJAM that are most often used. There are also musicians who just use the network “as is” through mixing live Internet broadcast streams, e.g. as those in the electro-music.com15 community. With a few exceptions, improvisatory styles reflect more traditional approaches and range between blues, rock and jazz formats. In contrast to the academic practices mentioned above, the emphasis is on improvising as a leisure activity that encompasses both expert and amateur musicians. Online forums 16 play a major role in archiving 17 and critiquing the music produced, as well as technical and social aspects of tele-improvisation. Despite unparalleled opportunities for musicians of different cultures to meet and play with others with whom they would not otherwise have the opportunity to, intercultural tele-improvisation is 14

Audio excerpts of Hug the World performance available at http://grooveshark.com/#!/album/Hug+The+World+2012/7848955 15 electro-music.com regularly stream performances through their radio station, which can be accessed at http://electro-music.com/radio 16 NINJAM Forum can be accessed at http://forum.cockos.com 17 Archive of NINJAM tele-improvisations can be accessed at https://archive.org/details/ninjam

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noticeably underrepresented in the literature. This further underlines the motivation for this research, which since 2008 has been the dedicated to exploring intercultural teleimprovisation through the project ensemble, Ethernet Orchestra as described in section 1.2. Tele-improvisation is also increasingly being featured in undergraduate and postgraduate Masters and Doctoral research programs. In collaboration with staff and students from the Bachelor of Music network ensemble unit at Edith Cowan University (ECU), the author co-organised two seasons of tele-improvised performances with music degree students at UTS and the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT). Curated by ECU lecturer Dr Malcolm Riddoch, students from each institution developed an improvised sound work that was performed live at the Velvet Lounge in Perth as part of the Sound Spectrum festival.18 It provided the students with the opportunity to learn specific technical, creative and collaborative skills with other students they would not have had the opportunity to meet. While the Sound Spectrum events were extra curricular activities for these students, there are a number of international degree and Masters or PhD programs that feature telematic music making as specific modules.

2.19.4 Non-Idiomatic Versus Multi-Idiomatic Approaches The diversity of improvisatory traditions that musicians of different cultures bring to a telematic jam session necessitates an improvisatory approach that can accommodate a varied palette of music and sound. Like co-located free improvisation, it commences without prescribed structures or idioms, yet paradoxically encompasses many styles of instrumental styles found in a wide range of cultural traditions of music. A distinction can be drawn here between this form of telematic free improvisatory music, involving multiidiomatic approaches to harmonic construction, rhythmic cycles or melody, and Western traditions of free improvisation, in which a conscious and proactive negation of all structure, repetition and form is enacted. This is in part due to the necessity of an inclusive approach in meetings between networked musicians who are not yet cognisant of each other’s cultural and musical traditions, and because, unlike free improvisation, there is no compendium of literature about specific approaches to intercultural tele-improvisation. 18

Audio-visual documentation of Sound Spectrum performances can be accessed at http://ethernetorchestra.netpraxis.net/info/?page_id=415

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This thesis contributes to new knowledge in this area, motivated by the pedagogical opportunities for musicians to collectively develop their practices through learning new modalities of expression that occur in different cultural idioms. In other words, it is the characteristics of cultural idioms and styles that contribute to this experience and skill development. This is not to say that free improvisation is an aesthetic that always deviates from the inclusion of formal structures and styles. The author has also performed in many co-located free improvisatory contexts, where approaches do not strictly adhere to a nonidiomatic paradigm. As Matthew Samson argues, “it is inevitable that references to, and occurrences of, more idiomatic, familiar, and/or repetitive material be viewed with a variety of attitudes and aesthetic concerns” (Samson 1997, p. 51). It could also be argued that conscious negation of non-idiomatic approaches in free improvisation become idiomatic, and can fall prey to the very strictures that they try to avoid. For the cross-cultural tele-improviser, idioms of their own musical traditions provide the means by which to interact with their fellow networked collaborators, and the characteristics of free improvisation are no different here. Indeed as Hamilton (2007) argues, “an improviser’s individuality resides in, among other things, their creative development of favourite stylistic or structural devices, without which they risk incoherence and non-communication” (Hamilton 2007, p. 212). Like free improvisation, specific musical devices become part of the construction kit for tele-improvisation, in which “Particular idioms are no longer viewed as prerequisites for the music-making, but rather as tools, which in every moment may be used or not used” (Munthe 1992). This also applies to expression and response in intercultural musical discourses, and the ways in which instrumental hierarchies are perceived in dialogical interaction. Therefore, what emerges is a freely improvised style of networked music that blends the necessary characteristics of diverse improvisatory traditions and cultural approaches.

2.19.5 Improvisatory Interaction It is necessary here to highlight differing perspectives on the nature of interaction in improvisation, and the distinctions between different genres and their capability to facilitate what Prévost describes as an “inter-active dialogical relationship between performers” (see Cox & Warner 2004, p. 249). The author agrees with Berliner that improvisation of any form achieves most depth when musicians are listening and responding in a dialogical and “collective interplay” (Berliner 1994, p. 386). For musicians motivated by the opportunities 58

to further their practice learning from musical cultures they would otherwise not have had the chance to interact with, this intersubjective engagement through reciprocity is crucial. As Berliner argues: Collective interplay can lead players beyond the bounds of their initial plans and even to cause them to invent new musical forms that subsequently serve as vehicles for the group’s improvisations […]. It is this dynamic reciprocity that characterizes improvisation as both an individual and collective music making process (Berliner 1994, p. 386).

It is this collective music making process, or as Sawyer describes it “collaborative emergence” (Sawyer 2000) that provides the structure or ‘vehicle’ for the interaction. The ways in which a particular improvisation is constructed will also indicate the behaviors and the possible directions of the interaction that players take. It is also a process that allows musicians to learn from one another though the construction of dialogical interaction with others. This emphasis on collective interplay and dialogical interaction in improvisation is not lauded and shared by all improvisers. Gary Peters decries what he views as a tyranny of “the (universally celebrated) role of dialogue and empathy within improvisatory practice,” which he views as antithetical to the combativeness and competitiveness of the improvisatory condition. Peters proposes that the fundamental relationship should be “understood to be between improviser and improvisation, not between improviser and improviser” (Peters 2009, p. 3). He argues that a successful improvisation is not one of a consensual goal of collective communication but rather where collaborative consensus is destroyed through the “destruction” of the work and “not short-circuited by the finished artwork or by any spurious community promoting an ideology of oneness” (Peters 2009, p. 51). Peters rightfully emphasises the importance of the process, and action rather than object focus in free improvisatory interaction, however achieving this through a competitive rather than collaborative approach is a nihilistic outlook not shared by the author. Situating his ideas in a mostly Kantian view of reason, Peters adopts Kant’s perspective of a disembodied a priori cognition of “will” that overrides our physical senses. In this light we are essentially just “rational egos - transcedent sources of judgments, spontaneous free acts, and universally binding moral imperatives” (Johnson 2008, p. 7), which as Johnson rightfully states, reflects a very dualistic ontology. Peters also ignores the fact that dialogical improvisatory interaction has emerged out of the social practices of improvisation, rather than the conspiratorial anarchist agenda that he intimates. It is from groups of musicians themselves communicating and evaluating their 59

work together that provide the basis of knowledge in the field. Summarising Gadamer’s critique of Kant and his notion of the "irremediable individuality of aesthetic judgment,” Cumming (2000) argues that this is “a falsely construed subjectivism, which fails to note the formation of even an aesthetic mind within a community of practitioners, where the criteria for judgment are formed" (Cumming 2000, p. 293). While Peters argues from a philosophical rather than practice-based position, he does describe his thesis as a model, although, as Lussier (2009) points out he uses few analytical examples and “discarding a few instances of improvisation because they are not “free” enough does not grant them all the weight that they deserve” (Lussier 2011, p. 2). In his own thesis on the subject of Derek Bailey and the Story of Free Improvisation (2004), Ben Watson argues similarly against the notion of a transcendent ego as a convenient ideology for collectives, “the problem is that, in a highly competitive scene, it’s invariably humbug” (Watson, 2004, p. 220). He is no kinder when it comes to the inclusion of “ethnic sonorities” and intercultural improvisation, as evident in his lampooning of Jason Stanyek’s writing on Evan Parker’s Synergetics Project, which he describes as a “whole-world moralism beloved of post modern liberals” (Watson 2004, p. 249). It is tempting to poke fun at such hyperbole, and one can only imagine the steely glances as the winner takes the stand in Peters’ and Watson’s rationalist post-performance world. However, such polemic does serve to illustrate the polarisation of approaches between practitioners and theorists of free improvisation. To be fair, Peters does attempt to caveat his obsession with competition as dependent on “on the understanding of the improvisational project and the place and nature of subjectivity within that project” (Peters 2009, p. 52). However, this comes very much as an after thought in his philosophy of improvisation. Applied to a tele-improvisational project, the above perspectives would not contribute to a constructive environment for networked musicians to perform. The liminal experience of dislocated, tele-improvisatory interaction has unique cognitive demands. Interacting without visual signifiers, or having physically met your collaborators means that networked musicians rely precisely on the dialogical nature of their interaction to create a sense of presence and fluidity within the improvisation. In this context, collective interaction is often the result of tentative first steps with a concern for the shared musical space. This is an emergent characteristic of the improvisation in this thesis’ case studies, and also reflects the author’s own experience of tele-improvisation. 60

2.19.6 Cultures and Idioms of Improvisation This section describes idioms of improvisation reflected in the cultures of the musicians participating in the thesis case studies. It should be pointed out that the cultural selection of case study musicians in this research was based on the author’s engagement with both local, and networked musical communities rather than through a theoretical selection process. While there was a conscious decision to include a diverse range of musical cultures, it was informed by the authors’ knowledge of the communities he is a part of, which also provides a reflexive understanding of both co-located and telematic musical contexts under study. Improvisation occurs in varying degrees across most global cultures, as Nettl (1974) argues, it is “one of the few universals of music in which all cultures share in one way or other" (Nettl 1974, p. 4). However free non-idiomatic improvisation can be viewed as a unique characteristic of Western freely improvised music. As Sawyer notes, there is no ethnographic literature of such “unstructured group improvisation” in other cultures (Sawyer 1996, p. 296). From the earliest forms of musical extemporisation in the European Baroque basso continuo or cadenza, to the Persian maqam, and Indian raga, cultures of improvisation have for the most part been regarded as occurring between the performer and a pre-composed musical structure, rather than between performers themselves. Unlike Western free improvisation, most cultures of improvisation operate within an idiomatic structure, and not considered as separate from composed music. As Nooshin and Widess argue, in the case of Iranian classical music, “The concept of “improvisation” and associated terminology is relatively new, and has been heavily influenced by the arrival, from the early 20th century, of European ideas about composition as an activity separate from performance” (Nooshin & Widdess 2006, p. 2). In Persian classical music, improvisation relies on the musician learning an extensive cannon of material known as the radif, which are a catalogue of several hundred pieces or gusheh, organised by mode into twelve dastgah, which are a type of melodic configuration. These are memorised by the musician and used as the starting point for musical performance. There can also be wide performative variations on a radif, which will vary from gusheh to gusheh and could be classed as closer to the “interpretation of a pre-composed piece; in others the musician is much freer in performance” (Nooshin & Widdess 2006, p. 2). In this sense, it can be considered a

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form of “composition in performance rather than improvisation” (Nooshin & Widdess 2006, p. 2). In both Indian Hindustani (North) and Carnatic (South) classical music, there are no specific theoretical texts on improvisation but, like Persian music, they can be viewed as occurring “in the narrow limitations of a strict discipline” of composed musical form (Sorrell & Narayan 1980, p. 2). The master musician must be highly cognate with the intricacies and subtle differences of the raga and taal they are playing, which might be one of several hundred, although as Sorrell and Narayan point out, “only fifty are commonly heard” (Sorrell & Narayan 1980, p. 2). Like the Persian dastgah, the raga is based on a melody type, or structure of ascending and descending notes or swara that contain possibilities for extemporisation. The taal or rhythm cycle has specific beat sequences that are segmentally divided, so that the musician can remember where they are in a sequence in the same way we can remember temporal positions in a melody. As musicologist Bonnie Wade describes, it is a “theoretical framework that undergirds rhythmic and melodic play […] it may hardly be discernable, happening in a hundred minds or being counted out discreetly by each person in the audience with small movements of fingers or hands” (Wade 1983, p. 90). For the Indian tabla player and percussionist, rhythmic cycles are learnt through a form of solfège known as bol, which is the process of attaching a particular sound to a rhythmic stroke. Like solfège, the bol system provides the musician with a framework to audiate a rhythmic stroke, and its place in a rhythm cycle. As with the aforementioned drum languages and instrumental signalling, the linguistic association of the bol and its significance in sound is central to the mnemonic Indian system. As Sorrell and Narayan again argue: The word bol comes from the verb ‘to speak’ and the linguistic associations don’t stop there. Each bol has its spoken equivalent, which is not unusual since we find this association with drum sound with spoken syllable in various degrees of sophistication all over India as well as extensively in Asia, Africa and even Europe (Sorrell & Narayan 1980, p. 41).

Whether it is the euphonic recitation of bol, or vocalised solfège that provides a schema for understanding and relating sequences of sound, underlying this is the nature of an embodied perception where vocalisations and physical actions structure experiential meaning. The physical action of improvisation requires breathing, gestures, and holding of an instrument, which for both the musician and audience are embodied in the sound. This is particularly evident in the raga, which relies heavily on embodied qualities in sound to 62

elicit emotions. As O.C Gangoly writes, “A raga is more than its physical form…its body. It has a soul, which comes to dwell and inhabit the body. In the language of Indian poetics this soul, this principal is known as the rasa, or flavour, its sentiment, its impassioned feeling” (Bailey 1992, p. 5).

2.19.7 Significance in Cultures of Improvisation Gangoly describes the raga in Indian Classical music as a deeply embodied music linking significant qualities of sound to emotional qualities or rasa in musical form. This is significant for musicians and audiences alike, as Cumming argues from a Peircean perspective, "the material qualities of the sound are the sign vehicle, by which it comes to represent (to be a "representamen" or "sign"). The vocal grain it achieves is its "object," what it stands for” (Cumming 2000, p. 29). These qualities are also evidenced in the raga ragini, which according to the fifteenth century text, Sangita-darpana (Mirror on Music) are a series of six male ragas, which are associated with five female ragini and designed to “evoke a mood such as eroticism, heroism, tranquility, devotion, or loneliness […] each raga or ragini usually also suggests a particular time of day or night, while a few recall a season” (Dehejia 2009, p. 168). The most common inspiration for the raga, however, comes from mysticism and religious belief. For instance, Dehejia (2009) points out the Hindu god Krishna is frequently portrayed as evoking the male ragas Hindol and Megha (Dehejia 2009, p. 193). While no specific theories of improvisation are known in Mongolian music, musicians and vocalists do extemporise from the structures of songs based on poetic narratives of folkloric myths and legends. One such form of musical narrative is the Ülger of southern Mongolia, which is performed in “alliterative verse” (Pegg 2001, p. 58) where stressed syllables aid in the construction of poetic meaning. The well-known singer and performer Pajai (1902-1962) was known for his improvisatory skill, and “would often replace several verses with new ones” As Pegg points out: This skill is still to be found in southern regions of Mongolia among Ülger performers, who also use the dörvon chihtei huur, to accompany musical tales or legends […] These tales are highly dramatized, as in dialogue songs, with the performer taking all the parts, indicating age and gender by changing the timbre of his voice, pace, and demeanor, as necessary, and using the four-stringed fiddle to express the action of the tale (Pegg 2001, p. 58).

While this form of extemporisation is based on folkloric stories, it is syncretic to the narrative rather than a particular mode, or melody type as in the raga and dastgah. Likewise 63

the musical accompaniment is designed to underscore the narrative with specific harmony, rhythm and timbre to signify the stories and emotions of the plot and characters of the tales. This also follows through into characteristics of the instruments, and the gestures that musicians use to play them. In the case of the morin khuur (Mongolian horse fiddle),19 an ornamental figure of a horse carved into the neck of the instrument personifies animistic qualities, conceptually depicting the motion of a horse in the movement in the music. Likewise Mongolian over-tone throat singing has several mythological origins, which can also relate to the topology of geographical areas. Levin (2006) found differences in styles of overtone singing between Western and Southern regions of Mongolia that relate to local legends and flora and environmental features of those areas: The legendary figure of Bazarad […] was inspired to throat-sing by the sound of the wind whistling through bamboo on the shore of lake Har-Us. But […] father south beyond the border of Mongolia, in what is now the Xinjiang Uyghur autonomous region of China […] flows a river called Eev or Eevi, and it was the sound of its waters tumbling in reverberant waterfall that first inspired humans to throat-sing (Levin 2006, p. 72).

Geographical and environmental influences on styles of throat singing demonstrate the ways in which human practices are shaped by the environment from which they emerge. It is also the result of a musicians’ interactive relationship with her surroundings that shape the expression of culture in the music, and the metaphors used to conceptualise that meaning. In turn these create powerful conceptual schemas for musicians to extemporise upon within the myths and legends of a musical repertoire. While it is unlikely that networked musicians will be familiar with each other’s deities, or the folkloric legends that have inspired particular melody groups or rhythms, it is the significance in qualities of sound such as duration, tempo, and timbre that create experiential meaning. In other words, the literal meaning of a legend or story may not be understood, but the contour of an improvised melody, or the tempo of a rhythm plays a significant role in the interpretation and responses between networked musicians. These characteristics are also intrinsic to co-located improvisation, and as George E Lewis (1993) argues play a vital role in the delivery of experiential meaning: Improvisation is about […] interaction and behavior as carriers for meaning. On this view, notes, timbres, melodies, durations, and the like are not ends in themselves. Embedded in them is a more complex, indirect, powerful signal that we must train ourselves to detect (Lewis 1993). 19

Played in study IV of the thesis case studies.

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This is the craft of the experienced improviser in face-to-face interaction, which it is argued becomes even more relevant to the tele-improviser when interacting remotely through the non-visual networked interface.

2.20 Intercultural Music, Cross-Culturalism and Appropriation As underlined, network technology provides unprecedented opportunities for crosscultural musicians to meet and interact in intercultural tele-improvisation. Terms such as cross-cultural and intercultural engagement are used frequently throughout this thesis. Following are the definitions in the manner in which they are used. This thesis refers to “intercultural” tele-improvisation, as distinct from “cross-cultural” and “multi-cultural” approaches. In this instance, interculturalism refers to collaboration that is based on an embodied interaction between musicians of different cultures, which following Stanyek, “might be better labeled as intercorporeal” (Stanyek 2004, p. 38). This also builds on the interpretation of intercorporeality made by Weiss (1999) in the perception of alterity as referred to in (Section 2.10.2). However, the essence is that of an embodied interplay of difference, rather than an adaption or borrowing of musical material between musicians of different cultures. While it could be perceived as an oxymoron to talk about embodied perception in the dislocated realm of telematic music making, it needs to be viewed as a distributed intercorporeality in which collaboratively shared ideas shape the teleimprovisatory experience through sound rather physical, visual presence. It is not dissimilar to a recording studio scenario in which musician’s experience dislocation, separated by booths to avoid acoustic leakage, but still share an intercorporeal experience through musical engagement. Referring to Weiss, it is to “emphasize the experience of interactions with other human and non human bodies” (Weiss 1999, p. 5). Although Stanyek and Weiss refer to intercorporeality in the context of co-located space, it is about an embodied interaction between people and their culture, rather than a “cross-cultural borrowing where the primary interaction is with disembodied pieces of information” (Stanyek 2004, p. 38). Stanyek also argues that it is important not to view interculturalism in music “as a monolithic practice but rather one that is highly situated, variable and adaptable” (Stanyek 2004, p. 2). Applied to intercultural tele-improvisation, this acknowledges the variations between musicians’ temperaments, cultures and the distributed environments in which the interaction takes place. It is the embodied sense of

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intercorporeality that is crucial to the significance of sound in improvised dialogues, where qualities of sound provide experiential meaning across the cultural spectrum. Cross-cultural music is as Stanyek describes a musical practice where musicians consciously draw on, borrow, or appropriate others’ material. While this can be consensual, it does bring into focus ethical dimensions of power relations and discourses surrounding the exchange vs. exploitation of cultural property. The author is aware that, despite the intercultural perspective taken within this thesis, the studies could still be perceived as a Western cultural appropriation of “other” merely by engaging the musicians in the first place. As van Binsbergen (2003) argues, “intercultural knowledge production” is a risky business, which by its nature is a reflection of the hegemonic structure of the modern world: Taken literally and to its extreme implications, the anthropological method for the production of intercultural knowledge balances between the Scylla of dehumanising objectification of the community studies (destruction of the other, for example by etic imposition of alien North Atlantic analytical models producing merely a spurious illusion of local knowledge) (van Binsbergen 2003, p. 22).

This research does not seek to impose an alien analytical model but rather to develop a practice-led approach that can be applied to the analysis of intercultural discourses. Emic and etic approaches are viewed as not necessarily in conflict but “can stimulate each other's progress” (Morris et al. 1999). An understanding of intercultural musical interaction needs to be based on complementarity and the interplay of social and cultural identities or as Stanyek argues a “taxonomy of difference” (Stanyek 2004, p. 157). Engagement occurs through shared discourses of embodiment in music and sound. This notion that “we are in the other and the other is in us” (Aubert 2007, p. 53) challenges pervasive notions of the 'exotic' as always being 'other' and open to misrepresentation. Musically, dialogical exchange usually involves modification and personalisation of ideas, not mere mimesis. The implication for tele-improvisation is that there is not necessarily an ethical gulf to be bridged before productive intercultural exchange can take place. Collaboration, as Taylor suggests, has become an important trope to signify how Western and non-Western musicians work together (Taylor 2007, p. 12). It should also be noted that networked musicians do not necessarily interact in teleimprovisation from within the borders their native culture. In fact, all but two of the musicians in these studies, performed from places other than their country of origin. As the analysis reveals, this can be seen to at least influence the ways in which they interpret, if not respond to tele-improvisatory interaction, through the experiences they have had in their 66

adopted countries. It would be exaggerating to describe any of the participating musicians as part of a diaspora in the countries that they are domiciled, and to look for any effect or influence is not within the remit of this thesis. Suffice to say that this can be considered part of what Stanyek describes as the situated, variable, and adaptable characteristics of intercultural music making in that no one group of networked musicians will exhibit the same similarities in their playing or interacting with other cultures. What can be claimed is that networked music making is a burgeoning site of intercultural collaboration that will inevitably impact the field of ethnomusicology and anthropology, as well as influence the development of networked music performance practices.

2.21 Analysing Interaction Analysing interaction in intercultural tele-improvisation is one of the key features of this thesis, however the lack of published research in this area means that existing options for comparative and critical review are limited to studies of co-located improvisation only. Firstly, a representative but non-exhaustive group of authors and analytical categories of co-located improvisation broadly occurs in the areas of creativity (Berliner 1994; Nachmanovitch 1990; Sawyer 2000, 2006), psychology (Monson 1996; Samson 1997; Sarath 1996) semiotics (Nattiez 1990; Samson 1997; Sawyer 1996; Tarasti 1994; van Leeuwen 1999), ethnomusicology (Blacking 1974; Lomax 1968; Merriam 1964; Monson 1994; Nettl 1956; Whalley 2005) and philosophy (Bailey 1992; Iyer 2004; Lewis 2001; Oliveros 2008; Peters 2009; Stanyek 2004). As a way of delimiting the main boundaries of enquiry, these fields are slightly artificial and, as can be observed, authors also contribute to work in more than one field. It should also be noted that issues of cognition and perception are also considered by most of these authors in the light of their individual perspectives. In the attempt to situate the approaches in this research among similar studies of improvisatory interaction (albeit with co-located musicians), a brief consideration of theoretical perspectives and methodology from two previous studies will now be given. Musical Meaning: The Case for Musical Semanalysis by Matthew Samson In 1994, Matthew Samson undertook a qualitative investigation of meaning making in free improvisation (in its stricter sense) with a framework that blended post-structuralist

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theories of semiotics, phenomonelogy and Kristeva’s psychoanalytic theory.20 Conducting four improvisatory case studies with two musicians, he reviewed field mixed recordings, and transcripts of the musicians’ verbalised reflections from each session as the central data for analysis. Examining relationships between the personal, interpersonal and musical content, Samson developed a model of relational categories (Fig. 5) of interaction. This formed the basis of an examination of identity formation in the music as articulated interaction between the musicians. The analysis is achieved by examining the reflective transcripts, which are interpreted by combining the “dialectical processes apparent in the experience […] with processes identified by psychoanalysis in the formation of identity” (Samson 1997, p. i).

Model of Relational Categories

Fig. 5 Matthew Samson’s Model of Relational Categories (Samson 1997, p. 138).

The model illustrates Samson’s findings based on a descriptive musical analysis and the verbal reflective experiences of the musicians’ interaction. Through analysing the studies and reflective transcripts, Samson claims to “pinpoint the site of ontological meaning” through the transformations that take place in what he describes as “dialectical interplay” 20

Based on the work of Julia Kristeva from the late 1970s and early 1980s.

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(Samson 1997, p. 159) in a process of improvisatory interaction between the two musicians. He illustrates the relationships in the dynamics of the musical interaction, as subject to the musicians’ psychological perspectives (as reflectively expressed), as being the source of musical meaning. The experience of encountering and 'being in' (as an active agent) processes, which fuse and make distinct differing (often 'opposed') qualities of experience, productive aspects, mental states, attitudes, world-views, etc., is the source of such musical meaning. This is based on, firstly, the identifiable relational dynamics of the event and secondly, the nature of their interactions. Samson’s approach of blending psychoanalytic theory and phenomenology to elicit musical meaning constituted by aspects such as mental states, attitudes world views is intriguing, and uncovers some interesting observations. His stated analytical rationale is based on “approaching the musical object first and foremost as experientially constituted, rather than as an objective structural entity” (Samson 1997, 1) however it appears that he views musical meaning as first and foremost emerging from the mind rather than through the body. This is also indicative in the position he gives the mind in the hierarchy of relational categories. While Samson documents physical states, such as the musicians breathing or holding of instruments, he draws no comparisons to how gestures like this might be affecting the sound or music and hence related meaning. Rather, he concentrates on the dialogical interplay of emotional psychological perspectives and musical interaction. This thesis, argues that it is the embodied experience of sound in improvisatory interaction that trigger musical meaning in the minds of musicians and audiences. It is the primacy of the body in this interaction that informs the mind of significant qualities in the music. This is achieved through characteristics such as melody and rhythm, which are manipulated by parameters of interaction e.g. tempo, volume, articulation, and timbre. In his examination of the expression of interculturalism in American diasporic music, Jason Stanyek (2004) also examines emergent identity in improvisation, proposing that interculturalism can be viewed through “taxonomies of difference” that musicians “use to articulate intercorporeal relationships across various kinds of socially-constructed identities” (Stanyek 2004, p. xvi). Basing his hypothesis on three case studies, he investigates interculturalism in the Asian, African and Brazilian American communities through what he describes as a theoretical constellation of “articulation, interculturalism, improvisation, diaspora” (Stanyek 2004, p. 2 original in italics). This is achieved through the theoretical model of “dialogical interplay” referred to earlier. Developed by George E. 69

Lewis, dialogical interplay is used as an interdisciplinary framework that “brings ideas developed from improvised music into an expanded intellectual and social context” (see Stanyek 2004, p. 25). This is further underscored by a focus on embodiment, and the role of the body in shaping interaction. In this, Stanyek also draws on Lakoff and Johnson’s embodied cognition thesis, and the anthropology of John Blacking. He asserts that interculturalism is expressed as a practice through the shared, physical proximal space of face-to-face presence “in which the history laden body is the prime signifier” (Stanyek 2004, p. xvi). Through case study examples, such as the collaboration between the African American bebop trumpeter Dizzie Gillespie and Cuban composer Chano Pozo during the 1940s, Stanyek proposes that it is the dialogical nature of improvisation that not only acts as a “means of generating sonic structures but also as a constitutive tactic in the creation of spaces for intercultural communication” (Stanyek 2004, p. 36). In this specific example, parallels are drawn between the heterogeneity of African musics and the multiplicity of approaches allowed to prosper within the collaboration. Stanyek argues, that while Gillespie and Pozo’s shared Pan-African heritages did not eradicate other cultural differences, the inherent heterogeneity of African culture as expressed in musical form, allowed for a collaboration that provided space for particular manifestations of African cultural differences that are evident in the Pan-African world. Through the framework of dialogical interplay, Stanyek uncovers the ways in which interculturalism is expressed through embodied social engagement and musical form in intercorporeal improvisatory encounters. His emphasis on listening and the pedagogical nature of this exchange also shares many of the features inherent in the perspectives taken in this research. Indeed, Lewis,’ and Stanyek’s ideas have been influential in the development of this project as is evident in the emphasis on significance in sound and intercultural and embodied interaction. However, Stanyek’s focus on the immediacy of located physical presence also requires addressing when applied to the study of the telematic interaction. He clarifies his belief that proximate physical interaction “should not be seen as having a more fundamental relationship to empathy, obligation or responsibility” and that the way that they “manifest themselves in live situations warrants other modes of analysis” (Stanyek 2004, p. 6). It is for this reason that the multimodal analytical framework developed in this thesis attempts to bridge the phenomenon of distance in telematic improvisatory interaction. For instance mapping networked musicians’ 70

gestures with the distributed perception of causation in sound. It is significant qualities of embodiment in sound that trigger responses in geographically displaced interaction. While Stanyek’s enquiry analyses literature as data, this thesis focusses on the actions of practice inherent in processes of live improvisatory interaction. To return to Dewey, this practiceled approach ensures that the analysis is grounded in an understanding of the “relations between undergoing and doing” that is therefore able to capture networked musicians’ perception and thought processes.

2.22 Conclusion This chapter provided an overview of the key historical, and technological developments of networked musical performance, and the conditions in which tele-improvisation emerged. It has illustrated the ways in which telematic music research has been driven by a technological agenda to adapt technology for creative purposes, revealing a gap in knowledge of the experiential, cognitive, and phenomenological components of the networked musical interaction itself. Situating the research in an epistemological tradition of Pragmatism, it explained that this has informed the blend of social semiotics and cognitive linguistic theoretical perspectives that have shaped the development of the framework, and the resulting analysis and evaluation. It discussed the qualitative areas of networked musical interaction, and the importance of integrating knowledge concerned with perception and presence in telematic systems, games, and virtual environments. This includes modes of listening, audiation and dialogical engagement in improvisation in the development of the analytical framework that is presented in the research project. Revisiting the introductory questions of how musicians of different cultures interact in teleimprovisation, and the approaches and strategies that they develop to negotiate this experience, this review provides a comprehensive backdrop of research fields that need to be considered in achieving an understanding of arguments pursued in the thesis.

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CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This thesis develops an interdisciplinary, practice-led model for the analysis of musical interaction in intercultural tele-improvisation, and to develop a qualitative understanding of the cognitive experiences21 of expert musicians interacting in experientially dislocated and sometimes unfamiliar, musical terrain. The previous chapter examined key theories and practices of networked music performance, identifying a gap in our knowledge of the social and experiential characteristics of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction. It highlighted musical, social and phenomenological aspects of tele-improvisatory engagement that inform the choice of the theoretical and analytical methodology employed in this research. The main objectives are to: •

Develop a framework for the analysis of musical interaction in intercultural teleimprovisation

•

Examine signification in improvised musical dialogues and the interpretation and exchange of musical motifs (melody, harmony, tonality, rhythm and timbre)

•

Evaluate the interactive musical and cognitive approaches and strategies that musicians develop to collaborate in tele-improvisation

This chapter outlines the research design and implementation of three case studies in which expert cross-cultural musicians were recorded and observed improvising from geographically dispersed locations in the telematic music system eJamming. It describes the theoretical and epistemological orientation of the research and justifies the blending of a social semiotic perspective, multimodal discourse analysis (MDA) with ideas from the related field of cognitive linguistics. MDA is used to analyse music, sound and gesture in improvised musical interaction, while the cognitive experiences of musicians are examined through a model of “conceptual metaphor theory” as based on the work of cognitive linguists Mark Johnson and George Lakoff (Johnson 1987, 2008; Lakoff & Johnson 1980), and the late cognitive musicologist, Steve Larson (Larson 2012). While this will be described in further detail, the analytical value of this methodology provides a holistic 21

Cognitive experience is defined here from Johnson (2008) as a pragmatist perspective where “cognition is action, rather than mental mirroring of an external reality. […] a response strategy that involves both nonconscious processes and occasional conscious processes that apply some measure of forethought in order to solve some practical, real-world problem” (Johnson 2008, p. 120).

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understanding of the musicians’ cognitive experiences, including their conceptual approaches to, and interpretation of, improvised musical dialogues, instrumental gestures (manipulation of instruments, technology) as well as insights into their distributed perception. While there is no intention to suggest a universal mapping of metaphors across cultures, the studies do cross-reference instances where they occur in the musicians’ reflective experiences. This blend of theory and analytical methodology also informs the selection of data collection methods such as audio-visual recording, participant observation and reflective video cue recall (VCR)22 (Omodei & McLennan 1994; Raingruber 2003). The over-arching research questions are: •

What are the ways in which networked musicians of different cultures interact in teleimprovisation?

•

How do networked musicians of different cultures perceive signification and meaning in tele-improvisatory interaction?

•

What are the musical and cognitive approaches and strategies that networked musicians of different cultures develop to interact in tele-improvisation?

The questions that will be considered in this chapter are: • • •

What is the most effective way to study interaction between geographically dispersed musicians? How should the cognitive experiences of networked musicians be analysed ? Which methods should be used to evaluate data in order to gain an understanding of the relationship between musical interaction and musicians’ distributed perception?

3.1 Research Paradigm Before outlining the research framework and methods in detail, it is necessary to examine the overall paradigm in which the research is based. For Guba and Lincoln (1994), a research paradigm “represents a world view that defines, for its holder, the nature of the “world”, the individuals place in it, and the range of possible relationships to that world and it’s parts” (Guba & Lincoln 1994, p. 107). Integral to understanding this “range of possible relationships” is the researcher’s epistemological and ontological position

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Musicians view and listen to a video recording of their performance, pausing the video at points to verbalise their experience as they recall their interaction.

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underpinning the applied methodologies. Crotty (1998) argues, that a researcher’s ontological assumptions, inform the choice of research design: Justification of our choice and particular use of methodology and methods is something that reaches into the assumptions about reality that we bring to our work. To ask about these assumptions is to ask about our theoretical perspective (Crotty 1998, p. 2).

It is the ontological notion of “assumptions about reality” that spurs the researcher to question their own understanding of the nature of knowledge and meaning, “providing a context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria” (Crotty 1998, pp. 2-3). Interestingly, Crotty does not delimit ontology from epistemology, suggesting that they sit along side each other and “tend to merge together,” “for each theoretical framework embodies a certain way of understanding what is (ontology), as well as a certain way of understanding what it means to know (epistemology)” (Crotty 1998, p. 10). Guba and Lincoln also challenge traditional distinctions between ontology and epistemology, arguing that they are “inextricably intertwined” (Guba & Lincoln 1994, p. 110). This is not to say that these authors ignore ontological issues, rather that they are dealt with in tandem to epistemological issues as they arise. With this in mind that this research adopts these philosophical perspectives and argues as Johnson (1991), “reality is what we experience in our knowing interactions” (Johnson 1991, p. 8) and that epistemology and ontology are not only inextricably intertwined, they are of each other, as two sides of the same coin. It is this fusion of perspectives that frames the approach taken in this thesis, and forms the foundation of the research process, making salient, experiential meaning potentials (van Leeuwen 1999) in dispersed intercultural improvisatory interaction. Crotty suggests that the foundation of the research process is made up of four basic elements, - methods, methodology, theoretical perspective and epistemology, and that “we need to spell out carefully what we mean by each of them” (Crotty 1998, p. 2). This is particularly critical for this multimodal research, which converges social semiotics, cognitive linguistic, and musical methodologies, all of which have their respective data collection and analytical methods. To outline the choices taken therefore, the research adapts Crotty’s terms (Crotty 1998, p. 3) as follows: • Methods: the techniques or procedures used to gather and analyse data related to some research question or hypothesis.

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• Methodology: the strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the choice and use of particular methods and linking the choice and use of methods to the desired outcomes. • Theoretical Perspective: the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus providing a context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria. • Epistemology: the theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical perspective and thereby in the methodology Crotty’s definitions illustrate the approach taken in this research, and as described (Fig. 6), the connections between the four basic elements require interdisciplinary approaches (blended interpretivist framework is in italic). Constructionism → Interpretivism (Social semiotics / Cognitive linguistics) → MDA → Case study research

Fig. 6 Research approach adapting Crotty’s four elements of epistemology, theoretical perspective, methodology and methods (Crotty 1998, p. 5).

3.1.1 Constructing Intercultural Tele-improvisation Improvisation is the most ephemeral of all musical forms. Its spontaneous creation is a complex interaction of collaborative human interaction rooted in social and cultural behavioral contexts. Similarly, tele-improvisation is constructed across dispersed social and cultural domains, where context and human agency is extended between dislocated, networked physical environments. This emergent mixed-reality23 experience is at the center of networked musicians’ perceptions, shaping not only the construction of musical interaction but also the intercultural experience itself. Following Papert (1993) it is the “spontaneous learning of people in interaction with their environment” that produces knowledge through personal experience (Papert 1993, p. 156). This underpins the

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Defined by Paul Milgram and Fumio Kishino in 1994, mixed-reality refers to the merging of physical and virtual realities that are augmented with real and virtual objects that co-exist and operate in real-time (Milgram & Kishino 1994).

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epistemic commitment to constructionism as the basis for the blend of interpretivist perspectives taken in this thesis. Crotty defines constructionism as “the view that all knowledge, and therefore all meaningful reality as such, is contingent upon human practices, being constructed in and out of interaction between human beings and their world, and developed and transmitted within an essentially social context” (Crotty 1998, p. 42). This has important implications for the grounding of this research, as tele-improvisation is an inherently social practice of creative human (geographically dispersed) interaction. It occurs in multiple socially and culturally dislocated environments and without the visual communication of presence in collocated settings. As mentioned in Chapter 2, this position contrasts to an objectivist view that holds that “things exist as meaningful entities independently of consciousness and experience, that they have truth and meaning residing in them as objects” (Crotty 1998, p. 5). This is informed by a positivist perspective where “value-free, detached observation, seek to identify universal features of human-hood, society and history and hence control and predictability” (Crotty 1998, p. 67). While this may be applicable to research in the natural sciences, tele-improvisation is the act of constructing dispersed social interaction where a musician’s social and cultural perspectives will be indelibly etched into her musical expression and interpretation. In other words, how an improvisation between musicians of different cultures is interpreted, is influenced by the social and cultural contexts in which it is performed from, and experienced in. It cannot exist before it is produced, nor can these qualitative experiences be objectively measured. As Crotty argues, the interpretivist approach “looks for culturally derived and historically situated interpretations of the social life-world” (Crotty 1998, p. 67 original in italics) and informs the analytical choices taken in this research. Foregrounding rationality and reasoning from a non-propositional interactive experience such as tele-improvisation is very much at odds with an objectivist portrayal of a world that “consists of objects that have properties and stand in relationships independent of human understanding”(Johnson 1987, p. x). It is only through analysing the ways in which musicians spontaneously construct their interaction can we begin to understand the inherent social and phenomenological qualities of the tele-improvisatory experience itself.

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3.2 Research Approach The approach taken in this research blends a multimodal social semiotic perspective with ideas from cognitive linguistics and cognitive musicology. As related fields they all share an emphasis on the experiential basis of meaning as knowledge based on patterns of physical experience, and as van Leeuwen (2008) argues is “ultimately grounded in practice” (van Leeuwen 2008, p. vii). In other words the ways in which concrete experiences metaphorically shape our understanding of more abstract domains such as human emotion, music and art. Mark Johnson (1991) draws similar parallels to the primacy of experience to knowledge and reason as “grounded in patterns of bodily experience” (Johnson 1991, p. 3), which cognitive musicologist Steve Larson claims, “also reflects our (physically grounded and culturally shaped) values” (Larson 2012, p. 150 original in italics). These principals are essential to the analysis of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction, which are “important in creating understanding between different cultures, because it suggests that at least some cultural differences can be bridged by tracing the metaphors back to their experiential basis” (van Leeuwen 2005, p. 34). This research combines the above perspectives, specifically employing van Leeuwen’s (1999) methodology for analysing signification in melody, harmony and rhythm in improvised interaction, and Lakoff and Johnson (1980; 1999) and Johnson (1987; 1991; 2008) metaphorically based “Image Schematic” framework, for the analysis of networked musicians’ verbalised reflective experiences. While this will be outlined in the following sections, this concern with experiential meaning and social practice is also the lens through which the musicians’ gestures are examined, as described in section 3.7. The three case studies in this thesis demonstrate what happened when selected crosscultural musicians improvised from dispersed locations for forty minutes in the telematic music system eJamming. While it reflects the analytical findings of this particular group of expert improvisers, it also develops a comprehensive analytical framework with which further studies can be conducted. The boundaries in which this doctoral research was set deliberately framed itself around the social, significant and experiential characteristics teleimprovisatory interaction. As a multimodal study it evaluates meaning across disciplines rather than from any one field, and it makes no claim to any universal intercultural perspectives, reflecting only what occurred in these studies.

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3.2.1 Social Semiotics and Multimodal Discourse Analysis Social semiotics and multimodal discourse analysis (MDA) as applied in this research is an analytical perspective and methodology used to analyse the social and musical relationships in intercultural tele-improvisatory engagement. It focusses on the ways in which musicians situate themselves within the improvisation, how these relationships evolve over time and what this can reveal about their interaction. It does this by examining musical instance, gesture24 and reflective experience to draw links between musicians’ performances, their culture, perception and interpretation of tele-improvisatory interactive dialogues. As analytical theories, social semiotics and MDA emerged in the 1980s and 90s from a developing thesis among linguists such as Michael Halliday, Robert Hodge, Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen that “meaning is not only communicated through language but also through other semiotic modes” (Machin & Mayr 2012, p. 6). Drawing on theirs and others (Fairclough 1989; van Dijk 2001; Wodak 1997) earlier work in critical linguistics (CL), and then critical discourse analysis (CDA), they argue that facets of meaning such as ideology and power relationships lie in what is foregrounded or hidden in a particular text. MDA then sought to apply these principals to image, gesture and sound. Underpinning this approach was a move to redefine the earlier work of the linguist and “founding father of the discipline” Ferdinand de Saussure (Hodge & Kress 1995, p. 17). In his renowned “pairs of categories,” Saussure seeks to delimit langue (language) from parole (speech), the latter he saw as an “intrinsically unordered morass” and discarded it “as an impossible object for systematic study” (Hodge & Kress 1995, p. 16 original in italics). Interestingly it was 1920s Soviet era philosophers such as Mikhail Bakhtin, Valentin Voloshinov and Pavel Medvedev who began challenging the assumption that language could be viewed in isolation to the context in which it was spoken. According to Lehtonen (2000), Bakhtin saw language as “heteroglottic,” referring to the “simultaneous existence of languages of many different groups of people based on ethnicity, class, geography, sex and gender, age, occupation and so on” (Lehtonen 2000, p. 34 original in italics). Voloshinov also took Saussure to task on what he described as “abstract objectivism” which views language purely as a “system of phonetical, grammatical and lexical forms” (Lehtonen 2000, p. 35). While it could be argued that it was Saussure’s sole intention to just focus on

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Relates specifically to gestures involved in the direct production of sound as described in the following sections.

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lexicography, as Kress points out, on “a deeper level that concern betrays the same desire to stay with that which can be fixed and therefore known” (Hodge & Kress 1995, p. 17). It is the concern with “less fixed” modes of representation and the foregrounding of meaning as it occurs not only in language, but through images, sound and music that MDA focusses. It provides a valuable instrument for the analysis of practice-led networked improvisation where multimodal data (video, music and text) are viewed as “recontextualizations of social practices” (van Leeuwen 2008, p. 3), while also acknowledging “interpretation is also a semiotic action” (Kress & van Leeuwen 2001, p. 40). In this light, MDA not only foregrounds material and experiential qualities of different modes of discourse, but also interprets those modes of discourse. This is crucial for developing an understanding of social, musical and experiential interaction in networked improvisation that draws on different cultural perspectives, where the same interaction may have more than one interpretation. This also reaches into long running debates in musical aesthetics over whether musical meaning resides within the formal structure of music itself, or is the result of “symbolisms depicting actions, character and emotion” (Meyer 1956, p. 2). This research adopts van Leeuwen’s position that music and sound are dynamic, and represents the actions of people, not objects or things (van Leeuwen 1999). This is particularly relevant in improvisation where, as Berliner (1994) argues “the ideas that occur during a solo assume different forms of representation: sounds, physical gestures, visual displays, and verbalizations. Each potentially involves distinctive thought processes and distinctive qualities of mediation with the body” (Berliner 1994, p. 206). Viewed through a social semiotic framework (Fig.7), a multimodal analysis facilitates the examination of theses actions and practices of musicians through music, video and text, foregrounding the creative and cognitive components of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction.

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Music

stu Ge

ect ion

Multimodal Discourse

re

Re fl

Analysis

Social Semiotics Perspective

Experiential Meaning Fig. 7 Illustrates the interrelationship between multimodal discourse analysis and social semiotics in analysing and evaluating experiential meaning in tele-improvisation.

A multimodal social semiotic perspective views our social interactions within our environment as discourses of social practice, providing an analytical framework in which to interpret meaning from those interactions. This not only derives from their shared linguistic heritage but more importantly it underscores the position taken in this research that tele-improvisation is an embodied social practice structured by patterns of co-located physical experience. While it may appear contradictory to claim the experience of dislocated and dispersed telematic music making as embodied, our perception of characteristics such as musical motion in the meter or pulse in rhythm, or the intimacy in the timbre of a melody is embedded in the sound that we produce and perceive, despite physical separation. Examining multimodal discourses (music, gesture and text) demonstrates that each of these modes has something to tell us about the construction of meaning between geographically dispersed musicians of different cultures and musical traditions, and that “within a given social-cultural domain, the ‘same’ meanings can often be expressed in different semiotic modes”(Kress & van Leeuwen 2001, p. 1). The theoretical and methodological choices in this thesis reflect its epistemological orientation as previously outlined. In contrast to an objectivist approach, the analysis considers meaning as experienced, rather than being discovered as evident in the natural world. This is a necessary approach for the study of interaction in tele-improvisation, as it 81

is only through understanding how networked musicians’ perceive signification through interactive experience that we can begin to evaluate the approaches and strategies that they develop to interact together. Drawing on the work of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, experience is viewed as contained within patterns of physical experience, or Gesalten that structure perception. This shouldn’t be confused with Gestalt psychology, which as Flynn (2004) argues, Merleau-Ponty believed to be incorrect in as much as it succumbed to an objectivist paradigm in its analysis. “The Gestalt exists for a perceiving subject; it is not a part of the world as it is in itself. The stimulus does not unilaterally affect the organism in virtue of its absolute physical and chemical properties; it becomes a stimulus only insofar as the organism constitutes for itself a vital milieu, which it projects around itself” (Flynn, 2004 original in italics).

Here Merleau-Ponty argues that our behaviour is always in response to causal stimulus, which is “phenomenally experienced” (Flynn 2004 original in italics). For networked musicians, it is the experiential qualities of sound understood as patterns of physical experience that produce significance in their networked interaction, e.g., the tempo of a rhythm cycle, staccato or legato note articulation or intensity building density in musical texture. This notion is inspired by Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenological perspective of Gesalten based on patterns and structures as experienced, as well as its further application and development by Lakoff & Johnson, (1980) in their concept of experiential gestalts, “ways of organising experiences into structured wholes” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 81 original in italics). This research adapts Lakoff and Johnson’s perspective of the experiential gestalt, examining the role it plays in causation (change in the musical and sonic characteristics of a sound event) through direct manipulation of parameters of sound such as meter, articulation or timbre. This perspective delineates itself from empirical approaches by focussing on the perception of sound as the subjective construction of experience rather than a universal and testable hypothesis of psychoacoustic affect. Answering ahead criticisms of this position by acousticians that maintain perception of sound is due to objectively measured acoustic properties, it is argued that properties of sound are perceived as objects of experience rather than universal truths. These is a well-worn epistemic argument and Merleau-Ponty puts this most succinctly in his Phenomenology of Perception, where he distils this idea: The whole universe of science is built upon the world as directly experienced, and if we want to subject science itself to a rigorous scrutiny, and arrive at a precise assessment of its meaning and scope, we must begin by reawakening the basic experience of the world, of which science is the second-order expression (Merleau-Ponty 2005, p. ix).

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It is the experiential meaning potential of sound to produce signification for networked musicians through recognised patterns and structures of experience that informs the analytical approach taken in this research. Similar perspectives are also a feature of discourses in musical aesthetics, which broadly reflect dichotomies of whether signification resides in structures of form or expression.

3.2.2 Musical Aesthetics The foundations of musical aesthetics lie in Greek antiquity as a study of the mathematical dimensions of harmonic organisation and their purported affect on human reason or ethos (Cunningham & Reich 2010). By the Eighteenth Century this had evolved into an exploration of metaphysical relationships of perception and meaning in music. This is most clearly seen in the “Doctrine of Affections,” a belief held by Baroque era composers and theorists that “music is capable of arousing a variety of specific emotions within the listener” (Salamone 2009, p. 223). As the Nineteenth Century ushered in Romantic programmatic notions that music could evoke metaphors of feelings, places and things, musicologists continued to argue whether, and/or how this occurs, and from what perspectives. In his treatise “Emotion and Meaning in Music” (1956), musicologist Leonard B. Meyer reflects on so called “formalist” and “expressionist” perspectives, arguing that the formalist proposes that: Meaning of music lies in the perception and understanding of the musical relationships […] and that meaning in music is primarily intellectual, while the expressionist would argue that these same relationships are in some sense capable of exciting feelings and emotions in the listener (Meyer, 1956, p.3).

Suggesting that these perspectives are complimentary, rather than conflicting, he seeks to further categorise them as “absolutist” (the position he takes), and the latter “referential,” which he also acknowledges plays a role in the representation of meaning: Musical theory and practice of many different cultures in many different epochs indicates that music can and does have referential meaning […] in which tempi, pitches, and modes are linked to and express concepts, emotions and moral qualities (Meyer 1956, p. 2).

Viewed in the context of phenomenological experience as Merleau-Ponty argues, it is patterns and structures in tempi, pitches and modes that are experienced as Gesalten from which causation such as emotions and movement in music are born. However, Meyer’s dualistic approach belies a more fundamental problem with his analysis, which as Charles Keil argues occurs through his singular attention to musical form, which he then relates via “psychological principals to meaning and expression” (Keil 1966, p. 337). In what starts to 83

mirror the previous discussion of the move away from Sassurean “lexicography,” Keil rightly argues that you cannot base an analysis of meaning in music on “syntax and syntax alone,” rather, we must “consider the system or style in action, music as a creative act rather than an object, and remember that outside of the West musical traditions are almost exclusively performance traditions” (Keil 1966, p. 338). This is an important point to remember in the context of improvisation, which as discussed in Chapter 2 hinges on practice as process rather than as a product of musical form. The investigation of intercultural tele-improvisation, reveals that musicians’ integrate diverse improvisatory musical forms e.g., raga, dastgah, blues, or free improvisatory approaches, which are themselves products of social practices with unique formal or non-formal structures, stylistic ornamentation, harmonic grammar, and so on. In this sense, intercultural tele-improvisation is only beginning to define its own systems of practice through hitherto improbable meetings of cross-cultural musicians, collaborating online and developing new musical and interactive vocabularies. It is intended that this research contribute to an understanding of this evolving area of networked music performance. The thesis case studies demonstrate musicians interacting through a range of “social practice” laden forms, where musical modes and rhythms may be embedded with culture specific, social, ceremonial, or temporal meaning, e.g., ragas or dastgah that are traditionally played during certain occasions, religious ceremonies, or certain times of the day. One of the problems of analysing emergent cultural meaning in this context is that while modal, or rhythmic components might hold cultural significance for an individual musician, they become deconstructed and diffused in intercultural musical interaction, where any associated cultural meaning becomes obscured. While connoted meaning relies on inherent cultural knowledge by the perceiver, its implicit experiential meaning is derived from the intervallic, rhythmic or timbral qualities of sound that contain embodied (gestural) signifiers of “actions in practice,” e.g. high or low pitch, fast or slow tempos, rough or smooth timbre.

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Drawing on Charles Peirce’s triadic relation of signs,25 Coker describes this as “gestural meaning” in which: Musical meaning is an emergent implicitly present in a threefold relation between phases of social acts. The phases include aesthetic gesture by the musical organism, response of the listener, and the resultants of the act. The meaning of the musical gesture is the set of resultants, the adjustive behavior of the listener and the musical organism, which emerges in response to the stimulus of the gestures (Coker 1972, p. 23).

Coker is describing the ways in which gestures of sound production result in cognitive responses between performers and listeners of Western classical music. However, this is also applicable to intercultural tele-improvisation. It is adapted here for the specific task of understanding the ways in which cross-cultural musicians interpret and respond to cultural significances in sound when diffused through group interaction, leaving only the patterns of movement in sound, e.g. pitch intervals in the melody, or meter of the rhythm to create experiential meaning. From an Indian classical music perspective Leante (2013) supports this position that experiential meaning of gesture resides within qualities of sound: Musical sound is embodied through patterns of movement, and even listening (including remote listening to recordings, for example) involves experiencing this movement. Such embodiment of sound can be manifested through movement in performance, as well as in conversation, as people support the discussion of their experience of music through gesture and through imagery and metaphors; these images can be rich with extra musical details, and can reveal information on the meaning and emotions that people associate with music (Leante 2013, p. 145).

This is an important point to consider as networked musicians’ perceive their interaction and associated musical meaning remotely. In this scenario, “embodied patterns of sound” are the vehicle by which this is transferred without the visual signifiers of presence. This also informs the author’s long-held perspective that what is missing from previous debates in musical aesthetics is a comprehensive recognition of the “affective” force of sound, which as Coker argues, “involves the complete range of human behavior from the biological to the rational; it gives rise to both emotion and thought” (Coker 1972, p. 38). Further, our understanding and hence interpretation of meaning in music and sound is conceptually structured by patterns of embodiment, where melody, rhythm, pitch, tonality and timbre act as “semiotic resources” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 4) analogous to the physical vocalisation of speech acts. As van Leeuwen argues, “the dividing line between speech,

25

Refers to Peirce’s proposition of a three way relation in signification as “a triple connection of the sign, thing signified, cognition produced in the mind” (Peirce 1993, p. 245)

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music, and other sounds is very thin. Many of the same kinds of things can be done verbally, musically or by means of ‘noises’” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 92). For instance, embodied representation and meaning emerge in the intonation of speech patterns in melody because of “experiential meaning potential,” with a knowledge of what it is we do when we physically have to do to produce this kind of pattern with our voice: starting on a very low point, increasing vocal effort to raise the pitch slightly, then dropping it again to the low level, as if it is too heavy” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 94). As van Leeuwen points out, “how people (composers, musicians, professional interpreters, audiences) interpret and experience this pattern, their experiences are likely to be in the same broad area” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 94). They are common to human experience, and how fast or slow, soft or loud, constant or wavering we do this, contributes further to “our ability to turn action into knowledge, to extend our practical experience metaphorically, and to grasp similar extensions made by others” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 140). To emphasise the basic universality of this, Fonagy and Magdics (1972) found similar patterns in studies of melodic contours in English, Hungarian, German and French vocal and instrumental music studies in which they concluded, “if a certain emotion is expressed by similar melodic patterns in non-related languages, then intonation must not be considered arbitrary” (Fonagy & Magdics 1972, p. 292). The degree to which emotional expression (and experiential meaning in general) is perceived in a melody, rhythm or harmony is dependent on gradations of sound parameters such as tempo, volume, articulation, timbre, etc. which act as signs or cues for musicians and listeners alike. This has also been substantiated from a psychological sciences perspective in which “acoustic cues” act as communicators of “basic emotions” such as “happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and love/tenderness” (Juslin & Trimmers 2010, p. 462 original in italics). Using data from significant multi-author empirical studies, Juslin and Trimmers (2010) found that emotions are expressed through multiple acoustic cues, which “include tempo, sound level, timing, intonation, articulation, timbre, vibrato, tone attacks, tone decays, and pauses. Both the mean level of the cue and its variability throughout the performance may be important for the communicative process” (Juslin & Trimmers 2010, p. 462). They present multiple examples on an axis of positive and negative valence low and high activity: “sadness (authors emphasis) expressions are associated with slow mean tempo, low sound level, legato articulation, small articulation variability, slow tone attacks, and soft timbre, whereas happiness expressions are associated with fast tempo, high sound 86

level, staccato articulation, large articulation variability, fast tone attacks and bright timbre” (Juslin & Trimmers 2010, pp. 462-3). While the above examples are based on substantial quantitative research, from a qualitative perspective it is the culmination of a number of semiotic resources of which intonation, pitch, tempo and timbre collude to produce experiential meaning in the examples of the above vocal musical works. Applied to the tele-improvisatory interaction, it is the parameters of sound qualities in rhythm, melody, harmony and timbre that become the building blocks of meaning resulting from a “dialogical interplay” (Lewis 1996, see Stanyek 2004, p. 25) between collaborating cross-cultural musicians.

3.3 Representation, Expression and Meaning Having described the epistemological and methodological approaches to the design of this research, considerations for the analysis of representation, expression and meaning in intercultural tele-improvisation follow. Firstly, it is necessary to underline that the unique collaborations between musicians from diverse cultures made possible by network technology is a phenomenon that is constantly evolving and yet to be fully explored. Performances can involve an array of instrumental, technical and network configurations drawing together musicians with little or no ontological understanding of the distributed environments from which the other musicians are performing. Difficulty conceptualising and describing this scenario, and drawing theoretical or ethnographic meaning from it, is testament to the innate challenges of analysing the resulting musical interaction and the experiences of networked musicians. Yet it is a burgeoning ethno-musical phenomenon that is shaping new practices and improvisatory forms. It could also be argued that the analysis of any one musical, or interactive component in an intercultural improvisation would require it to be examined through multiple, culture specific theoretical frameworks. Satisfying specialists from each of these cultures would likely be as problematic as producing a coherent analysis from the mix of theoretical frameworks themselves. This is not to say that culture does not play a significant role in the analysis but it is treated as a context of situated practice rather than an immutable influence on interpretation and meaning. The research is therefore informed by the view that examining intercultural teleimprovisatory interaction requires a multimodal approach in which no discipline is 87

examined at the expense of another. As a first step, this thesis develops a framework for investigating the ways in which networked musicians of different cultures interact in teleimprovisation, and the ways in which this is shaped by their apprehension of significant qualities in music and sound. It focusses on salient examples of representation and interpretation in improvisatory musical interaction from data generated by music, text and video. It is only by examining interaction across these different modes of discourse that a larger picture of meaning can emerge. In this light, the author adheres to van Leeuwen’s notion that “As a semiotician you can’t be a specialist. You have to look at the whole semiotic landscape” (van Leeuwen 2010, see Lindstrand 2010, p. 86). The following section examines the basis of signification in melody, rhythm and harmony, and the ways in which this informs the analysis of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction. It blends traditional musical semiotics drawing on the theories of Wilson Coker (1972) with a social semiotic perspective based on ideas from Theo van Leeuwen (1999), and his classification of semiotic resources in speech, music and sound. Where it is applicable, this includes references to other studies by musicologists, semioticians, cognitive linguists and psychologists. A social semiotic perspective is useful in being able to analyse the external social and cultural factors of musical communication as well as the internal structures of embodied representation and meaning through experiential metaphor as previously described. This idea has its roots in the cognitive linguistic thesis of conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff & Johnson 1980; 1999; Johnson 1987; 1991; 2008), and the ways in which physical experiences shape image schematic patterns of perception, and this is used to analyse networked musicians reflective transcripts as elucidated further in section 3.5.

3.3.1 Melody Melody, like rhythm, is a dynamic component of musical signification. The melodic phrase (tone group) refers to the shape (contour) or trajectory of a melody in which melodic gestures26 sketch experiential meaning (Coker 1972, p. 19). It can be viewed as having an introductory figure, starting point, middle and end point.

This is conceived by

musicologist Boris Asaf’ev (1977) “as being formed by an initium, an initial impetus, a movere, the main move, and a terminus, a stabilizing end configuration along the lines, 26

Coker defines musical gesture as “making of sound or movement” (Coker, 1972, p. 19), which carries an attitude or “stimulus to adjustive behaviour” (Coker, 1972, p. 16) and this is a significant characteristic of melody.

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perhaps, of an ‘attack’, a ‘body’ and a ‘decay’ phase and with a strong emphasis on the ‘process’-like nature of musical sounds” (Asaf’ev 1977, see van Leeuwen 1999, p. 102). This metaphorical concept of a melody moving along a trajectory from point A to B, finishing on C is a focal point in the analysis for the ways in which musicians schematically perceive this interaction. Suffice to say, this is also applicable to rhythm, and harmony that as gestures or “phrasing acts”, are highly schematic in nature. Parameters such as texture, loudness, pitch, volume, timbre and duration within a melody, act as recurring patterns, “which in specific gestures become significant” (Coker 1972, p. 39) to the experiential meaning potential of a particular musical event. Coker delimits loudness from volume, which he describes in terms of “the measure of the chords bulk or the musical space occupied by the pitches. Thus, whatever the loudness of the tones may be, the volume of a chord is the area it covers or encompasses” (Coker 1972, p. 45). Prevalent in his synopsis, is the comprehension of these musical signifiers in terms of metaphorical spatial orientation that as Lakoff and Johnson (1980) argue, “arise from the fact that we have bodies of the sort we have and that they function as they do in our physical environment” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 14). From this perspective, the volume in the density of a chord, or the way that a pitch rise’s and falls is comprehensible to our physical experience of being in the world. Cooke also relates emotive meaning in melody to its contour arguing: Ascending melodies express “outgoing”, active emotions, descending melodies “incoming”, “passive” emotions, and arched melodies combine the two”. He argues that ascending melodies are more “active”, more “outgoing” and dynamic than descending melodies, and links this to the physiology of singing where ascending pitch requires an increase in vocal effort, descending pitch a decrease in effort (Cooke 1959, p. 133).

The degree of melodic signification is also dependent on other parameters such as range, articulation, and as just mentioned melodic contour. The intervals, in which a melody moves, whether it is in small steps or larger leaps, also carry experiential meaning potential in “what it is we do when we increase or decrease the pitch range” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 106). Van Leeuwen underpins this by referencing studies by Brazil et al. (1980) who argue “wide pitch range conveys “excitement,” “surprise,” “anger,” the narrow pitch range “boredom,” misery” (Brazil et al. 1980, see van Leeuwen 1999, p. 106). These feelings cannot be translated directly without taking other factors into account, such as rhythm, loudness, timbre (sound quality) and articulation, e.g. how much attack (staccato), or smooth transitioning (legato) the melody is played with. Van Leeuwen proposes that

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articulation can be classified as either disjunctive (staccato) or connective (legato) and experiential meaning again lies in our understanding of the effort it takes to perform them. Disjunctive sound production can come to stand for anything that includes the idea of a lively and energetic approach, or a bold and forceful attack […] connective sound production, by contrast, can come to stand for anything that includes the idea of a smoother, more relaxed or sensual approach (unless of course most other features point in a different direction) (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 110).

In addition, provenance has a significant effect on meaning derived from “our ideas about and attitudes toward the era, culture, social group or context with which we associate a certain way of using pitch range, level and/or melodic articulation” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 112). This is particularly poignant in the multiplicity of contexts and cultures in which networked intercultural improvisation takes place. However, what emerges is an understanding of the ways in which networked musicians can interpret these types of embodied representation and meaning in a performance scenario divorced from the significance of body language and presence, enabled in collocated settings.

3.3.2 Rhythm and Time Next to melody, rhythm is an integral component of tele-improvised music and sound, as well as being an intrinsic feature of many other art forms. Its inherent properties of movement also make it an experientially salient one, and this is discussed further in section 3.4.9 as an essential component of sonorous motion. As with the aforementioned directional characteristics of a melody moving from point A to B along a trajectory, rhythm also provides a temporal indicator along a path or structure, which Coker describes as recurrent phases of accumulation, impulsion, and relaxation” (Coker 1972, p. 50). He defines these successive phases as “arsis,” “stasis,” and “thesis”. The arsis phase is identified as the circumstances when the “energy of the music accumulates faster than it is expended,” illustrating “mounting tension” to an upcoming event of greater importance than itself. The thesis phase is when the “impulsion overwhelms the resistance and forces an emphatic release of pent up energy.” The stasis phase indicates a “loosening of tension and relaxation” (Coker 1972, p. 52). While Coker applies these terms to composed music, they are arguably intensified in improvisatory interaction, and it is this sense of a flow of energy and movement that provide the basis for its experiential meaning potential. For remote networked musicians’ unable to observe each other’s physical gestures, these experiential rhythmic phases are significant of the “concerted human action” (Iyer 2008, p. 279) of those performing them. They become a conduit for understanding embodied 90

representation and meaning in collaborative expression and exchange. As Hamilton (2007) argues “rhythm involves a gestalt or unity – a ‘feel’ or pattern – which generates involvement in the movement by performers and listener” (Hamilton 2007, p. 128). This is not to say that musicians are successfully able to just feel their way through complex rhythmic cycles, however the analysis examines the ways in which musicians perceive and negotiate these patterns without a-priory knowledge of rhythmic measure, or structure. An important analytical distinction to make here is that of rhythm and time. Whereas rhythm can be viewed as a “generic phenomenon,” (Coker 1972, p. 47) time focuses on the internal characteristics of rhythm as measured durations that are marked by a pulse or beat, described as a meter. It is the The American composer, Roger Sessions, argues that its origins lie in breathing cycles in which, “The sense of effort, preparation, suspense, which is the psychological equivalent of the up-beat, finds its prototype in the act of inhalation, and the sense of weight, release, and finality produced by the down-beat corresponds most intimately to the act of exhalation” (Sessions 1941, p. 105). Meter is also fundamental to patterns of speech where “pulse plays an important role in making (and receiving) meaning, because it carries the key information of each measure” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 39). The “stress” or “accent” that we that we give to syllables in speech helps to make them more prominent than the surrounding speech sounds by means of “increased loudness, pitch or duration, or some combination of some or all of these” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 39), and this is also paralleled in music. Musical time also carries symbolic, cultural and social meaning in much the same way as hierarchies or contours of melody in musical texture. Examples of this will be examined in the following section, however time is too intrinsic to rhythm to be separated from this discussion. Just as our perception of melodic contour is enabled via our experience of physical movement, so to our conception of time is structured by patterns of physical and temporal experience. This as a long history of social and cultural significance across cultures, such as morning or evening ragas in Indian Classical music, or the evocation of physical geographical locations in the Mongolian Long Song. In his studies of the African Venda people, ethno-musicologist John Blaking refers to the way in which the Venda construct “a special world of time […] to involve people in shared experiences within the framework of their cultural experience” (Blacking 1974, p. 48).

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Similarly, the conception of time in Western music embodies social and cultural significance, such as the invocation of divinity in unmetered plainchant of the middle ages, or the highly metronomic music of the Nineteenth Century echoing a machine like obsession with time as a fiscal value. Meaning is expressed in the experiential qualities inherent in the expression of social practices and cultural forms in sound e.g. the sense of spatiality and slow evolution of time in a drone, or the building tension in the impulsion of rhythm. In a contemporary context it is no surprise that the repetitive hard-edged percussive sound of electronic dance music known as ‘Detroit Techno’ emerged during the 1980s and 90s in the industrial manufacturing landscape of General Motors in Detroit, USA. The analysis of rhythm, meter and time in this study therefore investigates not only the intercultural blending of form and structure but examines this along side embodied social and cultural meaning of perceptions of time in rhythm. Time in improvised performance is a physical process where “rhythmic phrases provide frames for sound acts […] realized by a configuration of choices from all the sound resources available in the given context” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 97). A multimodal analysis aims to foreground these choices as discourses of practice in each new improvisatory context.

3.3.3 Harmony and Tonality Harmony is perhaps the most implicit of musical components. It also contributes to feelings of tension, relaxation, climax, incompleteness and finality in both musical composition and improvisation. While composers spend considerable time crafting harmonic expression, it is a much more tangential process in improvisation. This is not to say that improvisers do not use harmony for the same expressive purposes but it is generative rather than fixed. Harmonic structures in the scales and modes of improvisatory cultures and traditions, such as the raag, maquam, blues form the musical topographies that musicians must navigate. Along with culture-specific rhythmic cycles, this can present significant challenges to networked musicians improvising together for the first time. While a networked musicians’ knowledge of particular improvisatory harmonic forms is advantageous, it is the embodied qualities in sound that help them negotiate the interactive processes of tele-improvisation. Likewise, consonance and dissonance are perceived in combinations of sound that as Ortman argues (1927) are “largely independent of training” (Ortman, 1927, see Coker, 1972 p. 46). Ortman found in studies of Western musicians, 92

non-musicians, adults and children that they tend to group intervals into consonant (pleasant) and dissonant (unpleasant) sets, where “stability or tenseness is taken as a matter of degree” (Coker, 1972 p. 46). While we can forgive his subjective classifications of consonance and dissonance, it does indicate the experiential meaning potential residing in intervals of pitch when grouped together. Demonstrating this, Ortman creates a sliding scale of degrees of consonant and dissonance and their perceived relaxedness or tenseness. The scale from the most consonant or relaxed intervals to the most dissonant or tensed intervals would be: unison or octave, perfect fifth or perfect fourth, major third or minor sixth, minor third or major sixth; triton, minor seventh or major second, and major seventh or minor second (Ortman, 1927, p. 47, see Coker 1972, p. 46).

While these studies were with Western participants, there is a body of opinion that holds that dissonant intervals lead to “fluctuations in amplitude that sound unpleasant to human listeners across cultures” (Butler & Daston 1968, see Trehub, Hannon & Schachner 2010, p. 655). A differentiation must be made between the dissonance of an equal tempered minor second to that of a quartertone, or other microtonal intervals that will not be heard as dissonant in other cultural contexts. However, within the scenario of intercultural improvisation, musicians may perform with a combination of just intoned and equal tempered instruments where tuning disparities will result. In these instances musicians may compensate with instrumental gestures to attempt to bring them into tune and the techniques with which they approach this forms part of the analysis and evaluation of their interactive approaches and strategies. While tonal structures of a harmony will contribute to its degree of consonance or dissonance, its significance also lies in its mass, which Coker describes as “its aggregate of sounding qualities - the quantity of pitches, timbres and intensities - as well as durations, which as an aggregate may be a more or less unbroken expanse and which, accordingly, may offer greater or lesser resistance to change or motion” (Coker 1972, p. 45). What we have in Coker’s description is a categorisation of constituent parts that can individually effect change and movement within the greater whole. For instance moving an individual tone from the interval of a major 6th to a 7th will create tension, or remove the sforzando attack from the tritone chord, and its dissonance seems much less pronounced. Change the timbre of the instruments playing it from violins to flutes and it can go from sounding menacing to innocuous. These are again experiential elements of perception where as Davis (1951) found, “Auditory stimuli generally have inherent affective force, 93

they definitely activate emotional patterns of behavior, and decidedly activate the highest cerebral sorts of behavior” (Davis 1951, p. 1116-22, see Coker 1972, p. 39). As previously highlighted, the physics of sound and the perception of affect, underpin our embodied experience of musical signification, and how we draw meaning from it. This also emerges in the musicological analysis of a cadence, or a melody that does not return to the tonic chord (the tonal center of the music), in that it feels incomplete, as if there is more to come. There is no finality. However this is specific to Western interpretations of music, and as van Leeuwen points out, the use of the tonic to create closure in music “developed in the same period as central perspective in painting and had the same kind of unifying function” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 98). Across cultures tonal organisation reflects diverse social and cultural significance, and when blended in intercultural tele-improvisation provides unique opportunities to examine the role it plays in the interpretation of meaning. However it is the ways in which networked musicians interpret and respond to unfamiliar harmonic structures that provide insights into the strategies and approaches that they develop.

3.4 Parameters of Interaction Having described the signifying qualities of melody, harmony and rhythm, it is necessary to outline how parameters of interaction are used to analyse significance in these musical components, e.g., the ways in which timbre, musical texture (hierarchy) or tempo contribute to experiential meaning potential and causation in melodic, harmonic or rhythmic interaction. This begins with timbre and the ways in which qualities of sound can be viewed as embodying representation, and meaning in improvised exchanges.

3.4.1 Timbre Timbre (materiality of sound) deserves particular attention in the context of teleimprovisation, not only as a parameter of musical interaction but as a signifier, and semantic carrier of meaning. It has syntactical and lexical features specific to cultural context e.g. idiom of the instrument, musical, and performer training derivative from a body of traditional repertoire. It is also possible to use timbre as a signifier and semantic dimension of musical communication that is not dependent on, or bounded by an understanding of these culturally specific syntactical characteristics. Indeed it has also been 94

posited by Handel (1995) “subjective identification of timbre could involve the observer’s perception of the physical mechanisms and actions in the sound production” (see Traube, Depalle & Wanderley 2003, p. 42). The implication for participants in the non-visual telematic experience is that musicians can perceive the actions of their networked collaborators through the timbral aspects of their sound production (in the gestures used to produce sound), and this is confirmed in transcripts of their reported reflective experiences. Describing these qualities of sound however is a more difficult task and Traube’s (2004) inventory of timbral descriptors of classical guitar is a useful study in demonstrating the similarities of a wide range of adjectives between French and English musicians to describe the timbres they perceive. Her studies also draw out the relationships of particular instrumental gestures such as the physical plucking and strumming of the guitar in different places such as the neck or the bridge to the timbres they produce. According to Moisala “Music evokes both cognitive and corporeal meanings. Meanings of music evolve primarily through the process and texture (including quality and timbre) of music instead of the syntactical elements of music” (Moisala 1995, p. 12). Here again we have this repeating theme of looking at meaning past the structure of language to the “materiality of the body speaking its mother tongue” (Barthes 1977, p. 179). This analogy carries through into music and sound events, although as always in semiotics “the same signifier may be used at different levels” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 129). Consideration must also be given to the multifarious nature of timbre and the ways in which individual qualities of sound are interpreted by musicians, as well as what occurs when they are mixed and combined. This is also the case with integrating improvising electronic artists who perform combinations of electroacoustic sound, Musique concrète, synthesis and signal processing. For them, timbre is integral to the creation, and arguably the “medium is the message” (McLuhan 1964), in which timbre forms the primary material, as well as embedding itself symbiotically in the experiential meaning. In many non-Western cultures, especially in Asia and some Eastern European musical traditions, timbre is foregrounded over pitch, harmony and rhythm. Cultural meaning and expression is also carried through extraneous sound or non-pitched noise effects, as well as transformations of tone colour (e.g in Japanese biwa, shamisen and shakuhachi, Chinese pipa, Mongolian throat singing, Bulgarian harmonic singing, Tibetan chant). This occurrence in the thesis case studies is an important component of the analysis, which examines the ways in which timbre is used in interaction and the musicians’ reflections on it. 95

3.4.2 Aural Perspective Aural perspective is viewed as the distance between sounds and the meaning we attribute to what we hear as foreground, center, or background, and what that can tell us about “the distances we keep from different kinds of people, places and things” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 12). The analytical framework developed by this research adopts van Leeuwen’s taxonomy of aural perspective in interpreting musical relationships as they unfold. They are as follows: Figure: features as the most important sound, which is what the listener must identify with, and/or react to and/or react upon. Ground: treated as part of the listener’s social world but only in a minor and less involved way. We become familiar with it but only notice it when it is removed. Field: If a sound or group of sounds is positioned as Field, it is thereby treated as existing not in the listeners social world but in his or her physical world, e.g. we are to treat it as we would walking through a busy street or driving past a forest (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 23). The ways in which musicians place their sound within a given “sound frame” can be indicative of their intention, or interpretation of that moment or ongoing interaction, revealing much about the interactive relationships within the music and between each musician. This will also be fluid and may change depending on the combinations of instruments and sequences of musical expression and response.

3.4.3 Sequentiality and Simultaneity Examining how, and where musicians place themselves within an improvisational soundspace, can inform us about their creative intentions, and responses to other musicians’ contributions.

This too is dynamic, and changes as the interaction develops from

sequentiality (call and response) to simultaneity (layered playing). Again, the reference here is a focus on experiential meaning potential in patterns of speech, and its analogue in improvised interaction. The basic unit of this is what Halliday describes as an “adjacency pair,” in which the relationship between speakers can be analyzed. The initiator of a speech act can be viewed as having an advantage because of the finite, or ‘expected’ responses that can be given (Halliday 1985). As van Leeuwen argues, “the greater the segregation between the initiator’s move and the reactor’s move (for example the longer the pause between the 96

two), the greater the real or symbolic distance […] the greater the overlap between the two, the less real or symbolic distance between the participants” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 77). Applied to tele-improvisatory interaction, a musician initiating a melodic, rhythmic or harmonic phrase can be viewed as assuming this advantage in a leadership role in which others accompany or support her in much the same way as turn taking in conversation. As familiarity between the musicians develops, so too does the overlapping of interaction. It can tell us not only about the developing interactive relationships but how this is expressed in sound. In Chapter 2, the philosophical positions taken by theorists and musicians on the necessity or otherwise of collective and dialogical approaches to improvisation justified the model of “dialogical interplay” as being most relevant to this research. From this perspective, a musician initiating an interaction may not necessarily be firing the first salvo in a Nietzschean battle of supremacy (Peters 2009), but nevertheless the nature of the following exchanges will be couched around the initiated material, requiring the other musician/s to respond with a certain timbre, key or rhythmic structure. It is worth remembering that different cultures place different emphasis on turn taking in conversation, and any inherent social meaning that stems from this. For instance overlapping or simultaneity in Western conversation is dependent on the context in which it takes place. As van Leeuwen points out, “conversations between men and women or otherwise ‘different’ and/or unequal parties, or in adversarial conversations, which are about asserting yourself, as are many conversations between men, interruptions will be seen as rude or aggressive” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 68). However, in the context of a conversation between friends, simultaneity can be a sign of “enthusiastic involvement” rather than of rudeness, as “rapport talk” as opposed to “report talk” (Tannen 1992, p. 74). Feld found in studies of the Kaluli people of New Guinea, that “speakers interlock, overlap, and quickly alternate” and “what is heard as regular ‘interruption’ is not at all, but rather the collaborative and co-creative achievement of dulugu salan ‘lift up over speaking’ (Feld 1982, see van Leeuwen 1995, p. 71). This metaphorical conception of overlapping speech illustrates the pervasiveness of metaphor in structuring concepts of abstract domains such as the social practice of human conversation, and hence can be applied to the analysis of dialogical exchanges in tele-improvisatory interaction in a similar way. Indeed sequential and simultaneous musical interaction is mirrored in traditional music theory. Western musicology has two main forms that are based on call and response, e.g., 97

antiphony and the Seventeenth Century concerto grosso. Both of these forms “present or represent a sense of difference or opposition between two individual voices or between an individual voice and group of voices” (van Leeuwen 1995, p. 71). This also occurs to various degrees in different cultures of improvisation, such as the unmetered question and answer style of the Hindustani alaap, Persian Chàhàrmezrab, North African music and African American blues, New Orleans jazz, free jazz and particularly free improvisation, where a non-idiomatic commitment to form or structure necessitates a process of interactive familiarisation or “dialogical heurism” (Prévost 1995, p. 3). In teleimprovisation, call and response is often a building block of interaction, and simultaneity occurs as familiarity grows between musicians meeting for the first time. The analogue of conversation to improvisation is most clear when initiating musical statements are responded to in the form of “turn taking” between musicians, and as “rapport” builds, so does simultaneous interaction.

3.4.4 Interlocking The move from sequentiality to simultaneity does not always occur in a neat two-step fashion in either conversation or music, but may emerge from more disparate beginnings. In improvisation musicians often begin by playing independently from each other, focusing on the timbral qualities of their instruments or playing elongated tones, where a single melodic, or rhythmic motif is yet to be developed. This is described as interlocking where musicians are mindfully formulating notions of the tonalities and timbres of their collaborators instruments, without yet synchronously playing together. This can also occur during the hiatus of an improvisation where after a period of collective playing, the musicians’ interaction diffuses into contrapuntal lines, or they may even stop playing altogether. They are involved in the same musical activity without coordinating their playing into an organised whole. The musicologist Alan Lomax (1968) has coined the term for this as “Interlock,” in which “the effect may be one of integrated, contrapuntal unity or extreme heterogeneity and diffuseness” (Lomax 1968, p. 156). Lomax describes this in the context of an ongoing sound activity where “everyone is singing so independently in melodic, rhythmic, and/or, harmonic terms that it is impossible to ascribe a dominant role to any part” (Lomax 1968, p. 156). This is something that often occurs in teleimprovisation but rarely continues indefinitely as Lomax suggests is the case in the studies he has undertaken. The dislocated and non-visual telematic environment requires 98

musicians to forfeit the familiarising interaction that occurs in a collocated social space. Interlocking plays a role in the developing relationships between musicians and their musical interaction, and how long, or what form this takes is an essential marker of the creative and cognitive approaches that networked musicians employ.

3.4.5 Musical Texture While phases of interlocking, sequentiality and simultaneity in melodic, rhythmic improvised interaction can shine the light on emerging relationships in a networked jam session, it is also important to examine what type of simultaneous interaction is occurring. As previously discussed, a social semiotic approach to musicology focuses on experiential meaning potential of sound and emergent social relationships within musical discourses. The ways in which improvisers place themselves within hierarchies or layers of melody, harmony and rhythm as a means of creative expression can tell us about the developing musical relationships. Larson argues that hierarchy contributes to musical meaning “as something that our minds create when they group things into patterns” (Larson 2011, p. 51). Again this notion of recognising patterns in sound is useful to draw parallels between hierarchies in musical texture to broader cultural meaning. While Larson explores this from a cognitive perspective, the musicologist Alan Lomax has examined the links between structural hierarchies of vocal or instrumental music, and broader cultural meaning, which is most evident in cultures with traditions of communal singing. Singing is a specialized form of communication, akin to speech […] where the chief function of song is to mold the joint activities of some human community. It is to be expected, therefore, that the content of the sung communication should be social rather than individual, normative rather than particular (Lomax 1968, p. 3).

Illustrating the inherent nature of singing as a social practice, and by implication music making more generally, Lomax underscores the ways in which musical practices elicit broader cultural meaning of a particular group. This is useful in understanding the ways in which musicians interact in the joint activity of intercultural tele-improvisation, in that their individual cultural and musical traditions shape the evolving practice. In order to analyse the relationships between musical texture and socio-cultural meaning, van Leeuwen’s (1999) methodology blends traditional musicology and social semiotics where semantic meaning is underpinned by contexts of practice with reference to metaphors of action and experience. In other words representation and interpretation in networked musical interaction originate as shared metaphors of experience, generated from 99

sounds based on an understanding of what it is we do to physically produce them (van Leeuwen 1999). This concern with meaning as generated from an embodied, practicebased perspective has long been held by theorists of music, philosophy, semiotics and cognitive linguistics (Merleau-Ponty 1962; Coker 1972; Barthes 1977; Eco 1979; Husserl 1983; van Leeuwen 1999; Johnson 2008; Larson, 2012). The methodological approach taken in this research adapts the following categories of van Leeuwen’s framework for interaction as analytical categories for the evaluation of interaction in tele-improvisation. It should also be noted these categories and examples are only generalisable to the context in which they are applied.

3.4.6 Social Heterogeneity Social heterogeneity is based on the musicological term ‘polyphony,’ e.g. to denote musical interaction of two or more voices, where neither is more important than the other, and either entwine, or are played against each other in counterpoint. This also has a rhythmic counterpart in polyrhythmic music, where different rhythms are played against each other in tandem. This results in what van Leeuwen argues is a musical pluralism where: There being no sense of individuality as something in opposition to or irreconcilable with society, […] thus polyphony expresses the same kind of social values as polyrhythmicality, but now in respect of the melody, the musical “speech act” […] where different people say their own thing, yet fit together in a harmonious (or occasionally disharmonious) sounding whole. They are “equal but different”, united in a musical pluralism (van Leeuwen 1999, p.80).

The context of tele-improvisation is pluralistic by its very nature. Musicians meet online, and in most cases without any knowledge of each other’s cultures and musical traditions. This produces a scenario in which social heterogeneity is often a prevailing parameter of interaction, and as with musicians’ sequential and simultaneous use of use of adjacency pairs, it can tell us much about the embryonic musical relationships within improvisatory discourses as they develop. Polyphony has played an important role in many styles of Western improvisation, and as a form of “social heterogeneity” was a key aspect of the highly improvisatory free jazz movement of the 1960s and 1970s. This could also be viewed as reflecting the social circumstances of the European and American civil rights movements of that period. However, as Lomax notes, that while polyphony and counterpoint have been thought of as “the invention of European high culture,” studies also show that they have long been a feature of “complimentary subsistence societies,” where “women outweigh or equal men in 100

productive importance” (Lomax 1968, p. 166-7). In relating the musical hierarchy of voices in cultural song to the social hierarchy within cultures, Lomax highlights the role that musical texture has played in our understanding of non-western musical cultures. It is necessary to reiterate that these are “general and contextual” principals that are applied to the way that we comprehend the theoretical, and socio-cultural relationships that musical texture foregrounds. This is applicable to the analysis of tele-improvisatory interaction, where the significance of a particular texture is viewed in the context of the interaction itself, e.g. the cultures of the participating musicians and their emerging musical relationships.

3.4.7 Social Unison As is the case with social heterogeneity, social unison is an analytical term that also has its roots in traditional musicology, unison being considered the action of performing a monophonic composition, where all voices or instruments sing or play the same melodic line without variation. Van Leeuwen describes the experiential meaning potential of social unison as being able to present or represent […] what it is we do when we sing or play in unison” (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 79). It engenders a feeling of togetherness and unification, or conformity and discipline. This parallels Lomax’s findings that “small societies in which “social unison” is the dominant form tend to be ”leaderless societies” (Lomax 1968, see van Leeuwen 1999 p.79), which are male dominated and have an emphasis on consensus and conformity” (van Leeuwen 1999, p.79). Social unison can also have different value meanings in the context in which it appears. It can be viewed from both a positive and negative perspective, “where we view it positively, it can come to mean solidarity, consensus, a positive sense of joint experience and belonging to a group. Where we value it negatively, it can come to mean conformity, strict disciplining and lack of individuality” (van Leeuwen 1999, p.79). From an analytical perspective, how accurate the blending of individual voices into one melody can also indicate the degree of consensus and conformity. While the different timbres of human voices and instruments will naturally be heard as separate within a single melodic line, any deviation from the melodic line itself is classed as “heterophony” in traditional music theory, and is indicative of a foregrounding of “individual timbres, timings, embellishments” (van Leeuwen 1999, p.79).

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The often disparate and eclectic nature of intercultural tele-improvisation means that unison and heterophony occur only rarely, as they require coordinated recitation of a melodic line already known to the player. However, where an emergent improvised melody is repeated in unison, or heterophony, this can help to foreground growing consensus in the interaction between participating musicians.

3.4.8 Homophony Traditional music theory defines homophony as a texture created from single dominant melodic line that is supported by harmony and rhythm. It emerged from the renaissance in the works of Italian opera composers during the 1600s, however it was not until the Nineteenth Century that its social significance became most profound. As the Industrial Revolution gathered pace, life for the majority of working people revolved around the factory (a dominant hierarchical structure of Nineteenth Century industrial working life), and this was in turn reflected in the social and cultural fabric of life. Van Leeuwen makes the analogy of homophony to social domination as personified in the structure of the symphony orchestra, and musical forms such the symphonic sonata form. However, it was the German sociologist and philosopher, Max Weber, who most clearly saw the social organization of symphony orchestra “as one of the most highly developed types outside the factory” (Weber 1947, see van Leeuwen 1999, p. 82). While some of Weber’s observations are to be seen in the context of the era, his analysis of the structures, and conflicts of social organisation have been fundamental in developing our understanding of the ways in which they affect contemporary thinking. The purpose in reaching into social theory here is to demonstrate the link between the structures of social organisation, and their impact on music practices. For instance, homophony is a less prevalent texture in much Persian and Indian Classical music, than it is in Western music. However, it is only really in Western freely improvised music that homophony is not used at all. These are all considerations for the analysis of intercultural tele-improvisation where multiple social and cultural perspectives need to be interpreted for their influence on the interaction.

3.4.9 Sonorous Motion The ways in which the above textural parameters come to influence components of musical interaction such as melody, rhythm and harmony are fundamental to the analysis 102

of intercultural tele-improvisation. They are viewed as constituent parts of expression in music and sound as action, which coalesce to produce experiential meaning in improvised dialogues. When combined they create what Wilson Coker describes as “sonorous motion” as groups of texture, timbre, and loudness coalesce to produce force or movement in the music. Coker explains the most familiar forms of sonorous motion as: Complexes of qualitative and relational differences. The qualities of timbre, loudness, and pitch along with duration relations appear in groupings. And as the music’s sounds succeed each other, the local sonic and temporal characteristics continually present new groupings. Thus, the differences which make sonorous motion are polymorphic combinations: pitches, timbres, intensities, and durations of sounds are heard in ever varied arrangements with several – or even all – of those characteristics changing together (Coker 1972, pp. 42-43).

The concept of musical motion as an experiential quality of movement and force is a perspective echoed by a number of theorists of musical semiotics, cognitive linguists and musicologists (Coker 1972; Lakoff & Johnson 1980; Johnson 1987, 2008; van Leeuwen 1999; Larson 2012). It plays a key role in the examination of networked musical and cognitive interaction, e.g. how musicians perceive and respond to sonorous motion in their creative interaction. However it is Coker’s concept of force as energy that leads to impulsion or physical displacement of sound that underlines the experiential meaning here. In this context Coker defines musical force as: The potential energy possessed by sounds by virtue of (1) the position of the sonic and temporal characters within their respective dimensions and (2) the energy expended, or amount of work done, as the sonic and temporal characters are displaced from one position to another. This displacement will have both direction and degree (Coker 1972, p. 43).

This is reiterating what has already been touched on in the previous sections concerning experiential signification in melody, rhythm, harmony and timbre and the ways in which they are defined by physiological components, e.g. mapping of physical exertion to rising and falling melodies, and the tensing, emphasising, relaxing, of rhythmic progression, stability or tenseness of tonality and materiality of the voice or body in defining timbre. The proposition here is that our physical experience of having bodies in the world shapes our conceptual understanding of abstract experiences, e.g. our perception of motion in music is shaped by our experience of physical motion (Larson 2012). Steve Larson’s extensive study of gravity, inertia and magnetism in music unequivocally demonstrates the ways in which listeners and musicians expectations of pitch in tonal music are supported by metaphors of physical motion. Larson applies his evaluation of these three elements of musical motion to composed tonal music, and jazz improvisation. However, the author 103

argues that it can also be applied in the context of the thesis case studies as evidenced in the musical outcomes and the reflective experiences of participating musicians. From this view, the experience of force, or moving our bodies in motion, or standing upright conceptually structure our understanding of musical interaction through schematic relationships, e.g. related physical effort to the production of high or low pitch ranges and associated metaphorical perception of excitement or relaxation. This study applies these analytical principals to musical instances and the ways in which musicians refer to their experiences of these instances in their reflective transcripts.

3.4.10 Summary A social semiotic approach to analysing musical interaction in tele-improvisation has been outlined and indicated the ways in which experiential meaning is metaphorically enabled in the minds of networked musicians. The next section will detail how conceptual metaphors can be seen to organise their experience of improvised interaction through image schematic structures of experience, and how this can be applied to the analysis of the ways in which networked musicians reflect on their interaction.

3.5 Conceptual Metaphor As described in the previous sections, metaphor plays a vital role in how we understand experiential meaning potential in improvisatory interaction. As Lakoff and Johson argue “they also govern our everyday functioning, down to the most mundane details […] what we perceive, how we get around in the world, and how we relate to other people” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 3). Through a large body of empirical linguistic evidence, Lakoff and Johnson demonstrate that metaphor is an embodied imaginative structure of understanding by which “we project patterns from one domain of experience in order to structure another domain of a different kind” (Johnson 1987, p. xiv-xv). This occurs when “we conceptualize one domain (the target domain, which is typically unfamiliar or abstract) in terms of another (the source domain which is most often familiar and concrete)” (Zbikowski 2005, p. 66). It is an intrinsic part of how we conceptualise our experience of the world as “human understanding is image-schematic through and through, from the most primitive and mundane unreflective acts of perception and motor activity all the way up to abstract reasoning and argument” (Johnson 1991, p.12).

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The analysis in this research investigates the ways in which networked musicians conceive their tele-improvisatory interaction by examining transcripts of their vebalised reflective experiences. How musicians use conceptual metaphors to structure their experiences provides insights into their perception and reasoning that might otherwise be missed by more conventional discourse analysis techniques. It forms the third tier of the multimodal analytical framework that maps relationships between musical instance, gesture and reflective experience to gain a greater understanding of the ways in which musician’s perceive their interaction. It should be stressed that conceptual metaphors are themselves considered to be multimodal, as Lakoff and Johnson point out: Not all conceptual metaphors are manifested in words of a language. Some are manifested in grammar, others in gesture, art or ritual. These nonlinguistic metaphors may, however, be secondarily expressed through language and other symbolic means (Lakoff & Johnson 1999, p. 57).

In this light a multimodal analytical approach provides the opportunity to cross-reference concurrent modes of expression and reflective experience to achieve “thick descriptions” (Geertz 1973) of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction.

3.5.1 Image Schema Image schemas are conceptual structures for the way that we perceive abstract and concrete experiences through our physical interaction with the world. It is a term coined by Mark Johnson in 1987, and has since become central to the field of cognitive linguistics, and other related fields “as intuitive and powerful instruments for analyzing the nature of thought and language” (Grady 2005, p. 35). Focussing on the human body as integral to our rationality “an image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience” (Johnson 1987, p. xiv). In other words image schemas provide meaning to patterns of musical experience such as a rising melodic line, with accented staccato notes played in a fast tempo. Image schemas structure our conceptual experiences through metaphors of embodied physical experience, without which they would fail to explain abstract thoughts and concepts such as those related to perception in tele-improvisatory interaction. Lakoff and Johnson (1980; 1999) and Johnson (1987; 1991; 2008) categorise a range of image schemas based on structural, orientational and ontological metaphors that are applicable to the analysis of perception, interaction and causation in intercultural teleimprovisation. A definition of these core metaphorical concepts follows. 105

3.5.2 Structural Metaphors Structural metaphors refer to the conceptual structuring of human experience, by which one type of concept is metaphorically structured by another (Lakoff & Johnson 1980). An example of this is the concept of an “argument is war” where our conceptual understanding of an argument is shaped by metaphors such as attacking, strategies, shooting down, going into battle (Lakoff & Johnson 1980). The conceptual basis of this metaphorical structure is also applicable to other realms of human interaction such as politics, sport and computer games. A central tenet of the structural metaphor “argument is war” is engagement, which can be viewed in either in a positive, or negative manner. The process of engagement needs a start, middle and end, and as such is conceived as a journey, and this is the basis in which it is used in this research. Musical improvisation is a temporal process of engagement, a journey that musicians embark upon. This concept of a musical journey relates to an image schema known as SOURCE-PATHGOAL27 (Fig.8), which as Johnson argues is “one of the most pervasive and constantly recurring schematic structures that is central to our embodied knowing” (Johnson 1991, p.8). A-------------->B Fig. 8 SOURCE-PATH-GOAL image schema (Johnson 1991).

A summary of Johnson’s qualification of the SOURCE-PATH-GOAL schema is: •

There are no pre-given starting and ending points

•

The image schema is a pattern of a process or interaction rather than a static gestalt capable of many instantiations in many different experiences

•

It is an embodied schema of our imagination that exists across all our sensory modalities

When applied to the way networked musicians conceive of their musical interaction, the SOURCE-PATH-GOAL schema can reveal much about their conceptual engagement with the improvisation through their verbalised reflective experiences. A common feature of all of the case studies in this research is the way that they move through “musical vignettes’, 27

Lakoff & Johnson employ capitalisation of metaphors and image schemas, and formatted accordingly in this thesis.

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which themselves have loose but identifiable beginning, middle and end points. Here we begin to build a picture of the way musicians perceive their place and those of other musicians in a trajectory of the SOURCE-PATH-GOAL schema. Applying this to the topological experience of music, Johnson developed this further into the MUSICAL LANDSCAPE schema, which is further adapted by this research through “compositional blending” (Johnson 2008, p. 142) into the TELE-IMPROVISATION LANDSCAPE schema to take account of the specific spatial and temporal attributes of tele-improvisation, which will be explained further in the following paragraphs.

3.5.3 Orientational Metaphors Orientational metaphors are distinct from structural metaphors in that they do not structure one concept in relation to another “but instead organise a whole system of concepts with respect to one another” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 14). They are concerned with our spatial orientation derived from our physical experiences such as up-down (verticality), in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral. VERTCALITY (Fig. 9) is a pervasive schema because of our “tendency to employ an UPDOWN orientation in picking out meaningful structures of our experience based on spatial orientation metaphors” (Johnson 1987, p.xiv). As Johnson argues: “We grasp this structure of verticality repeatedly in thousands of perceptions and activities we experience everyday, such as perceiving a tree, our sense of standing upright, the activity of climbing stairs, forming a mental image of a flagpole, measuring our children’s heights, and experiencing the level of water rising in the bathtub. The VERTICALITY schema is the abstract structure of these VERTICALITY experiences, images and perceptions” (Johnson 1987, p. xiv).

Fig. 9 VERTICALITY image schema (Zbikowski 1998).

When considering the role of an image schema such as VERTICALITY in structuring our experiences, it should be remembered, “these patterns should not be conceived as concrete rich images, but rather imaginative structures […] we employ these processes in order to have ordered, recognisable representations and experience. The same image schemata so 107

crucial to our sensorimotor activity are equally crucial to our more abstract modes of cognition” (Johnson 1991, pp. 12-13). As they are multimodal, they are enabled by different types of sensory experience, and “not specific to a particular sense. In other words, image schemas are buried ‘deeper’ within the cognitive system, being abstract patterns arising from a vast range of perceptual experiences” (Grady 2005, p. 35). While the VERTICALITY schema can be applied to thousands of everyday perceptions, an example that Lakoff and Johnson use is HAPPY IS UP. In this example “the fact that the concept HAPPY is orientated UP leads to English expressions like “I’m feeling up today.” This can be applied to many qualities of experience in which the perception of that experience is realized through metaphors of verticality such as excitement, positivity, health, status, future events and so on. By implication the emotional antithesis of happy is also conceptualised as sad being down. As Lakoff and Johnson point out, “Such metaphoric orientations are not arbitrary. They have a basis in our physical and cultural experience” (Lackoff & Johnson 1980, p. 14). Spatial orientations have long been employed in the musicological analysis of pitch and harmony, such as the way that we conceptualise vertical or parallel chords, tonal gravity, or the upward to downward movement of melodic contour in small (conjunct) or large (disjunct) steps. In his analysis of “indexical functions” in musical signification, Coker (1971) refers to “certain principals of sensory perception along with corresponding structural relations of properties affecting interpretant formation” (Coker 1971, p. 96-97). While this is distinctively Peircian language, it does illustrate the way that we perceive the movement or clustering of pitch as structured according to spatial contour. Indeed Coker describes this schematic structuring in terms “scalar schemata” as a conceptual framework for analysing pitch classes (Coker 1971). This notion of the affect of sensory perception on how we interpret spatialisation and movement in music is also paralleled in the more recent work of the late musicologist Steve Larson (2012). A colleague and collaborator with Mark Johnson, Larson argued that our perception of musical motion is shaped by our experience of physical motion “so that we not only speak about music as if it were shaped by musical analogs of physical gravity, magnetism, and inertia, but we also experience it in terms of “musical forces”” (Larson 2012, p. 2). Larson’s studies primarily focus on these three areas of gravity, magnetism, and inertia in tonal music, which he demonstrates through predictive computer modeling based

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on the Heinrich Schenker’s28 ideas of expectation and comparison. While this kind of quantitative examination is useful for predicting rates of occurrence in these areas, the methodology presented here establishes a framework that incorporates this into a qualitative examination of musicians’ experiences of musical interaction. The foundation of Larson’s theory is in Lakoff and Johnson’s taxonomy of metaphor, and develops the proposition that conceptual and experiential schematic structures of perception demonstrate “how we both think and act is fundamentally metaphorical in nature” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 3). As discussed in previous sections, spatial orientation is also an implicit and, welldocumented aspect of musical signification where pitch range and melodic contour equate with emotional concepts such as happiness, excitement, or melancholy because of “our experience of the way vocal effort must be increased to raise the voice or decreased to lower the voice: (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 111). Van Leeuwen describes how this occurs in practice: Pitch range realizes the emotional extension of sound acts, or the style of speech, music and/or other sound production that may characterize an era, a culture, a social group, a social context, or an individual. The more the pitch range increases, the more there is room for the expression of feelings and attitudes, the more it decreases, the more the expression of feelings and attitudes will be confined, whether because emotional energy is lacking, or because if its habitual or deliberate containment (van Leeuwen 1999, p. 111).

While orientational metaphors are the basis of the VERTICALITY image schema, as Lakoff and Johnson acknowledge, they are not necessarily universal, “orientational metaphors […] can vary from culture to culture. For example, in some cultures the future is in front of us, whereas in others it is in the back” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 14). Todd Oakley (2012) observed differences such as this in the relationship of straight in the VERTICALITY schema. Referencing Cienki’s (1998) study of straight in Russian and English, he argues that “straight has much in common with VERTICALITY schemas, and straight correlates strongly in theses languages with UP, while antonyms like bent correlate with DOWN. Straight marks a recurring regularity with our everyday perceptual interaction with the world, which, in turn, provides reason to believe that it patterns our everyday social interactions as well” (Oakley 2012, p. 5).

28

Heinrich Schenker was a Twentieth Century composer and pianist who developed a form of musical analysis based on the examination of musical hierarchy in the relationships between pitches that this reveals.

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These are necessary considerations for the analysis of cross-cultural musicians verbalised experiences and are as important as recognising specific cultural significances in melody, harmony or rhythm. While the principal analysis examines interaction through the experiences of an Australian focuss musician, it also cross-references the reflections of cross-cultural musicians’ and this methodology underpins this approach.

3.5.4 Ontological Metaphors While structural and orientational metaphors are useful for mapping these familiar bodily experiences onto image schematic concepts such in VERTICALITY, they only go so far in explaining all of our perceptions. Ontological metaphors allow us to understand our experience in terms of objects and substances, so that we can isolate parts of our experience and “treat them as discreet entities or substances of a uniformed kind.” As Lakoff and Johnson argue, “once we can identify our experiences as entities and substances, we can refer to them, categorise them, group them, and quantify them-and, by this means reason about them” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 25). The following examples are adapted from Lakoff and Johnson (1980) to give some idea of how these can be used in musical perception. Referring The timbre of the guitar in that section was beautifully warm. Quantifying It required a lot of processing power to play with that rhythm cycle. Identifying Aspects The flute sounded so rounded in that part. Identifying Causes The density of textures in that section made it sound very full. While ontological metaphors allow us to discriminate between parts of our experience, such as the warmth of a timbre, or fullness of texture, we also impose boundaries and borders on these experiences “that make physical phenomena discrete just as we are: bounded by a surface” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 25). This provides the basis of the

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CONTAINER schema (Fig.10) with which we can project physical in-out orientation onto events, actions, activities and states. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) argue: “Events and actions are conceptualized metaphorically as objects, activities as substances, states as containers. A race, for example, is an event, which is viewed as a discrete entity. The race exists in space and time, and it has well-defined boundaries. Hence we view it as a CONTAINER OBJECT, having in it participants (which are objects), events like the start and finish (which are metaphorical objects), and the activity of running (which is a metaphorical substance)” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, pp. 30-31).

Interior

Boundary

Exterior

Fig. 10 CONTAINER image schema (Johnson 1987, see Tompkins & Lawley 2009).

Applied to the perceptions of networked musicians, an improvisation is an event in a CONTAINER that the participants as OBJECTS are inside of, which has a SUBSTANCE of improvisation. The perception of performing an improvisation from a start to a finish time, where you can either be inside or outside, playing or not playing, will all feature in the ways in which musicians both perceive their action in real-time as they reflect on their performance in the midst of action (Schön 1995). The following examples are adapted from Lakoff and Johnson (1980) in their descriptions of CONTAINER metaphors for a musical context: The guitarist came in on the 2nd beat of that rhythm cycle (rhythm cycle as CONTAINER OBJECT). I couldn’t hear the meter of that rhythm cycle (rhythm cycle as OBJECT). The climax at the finish of that section of music was really exciting (finish as EVENT, OBJECT within CONTAINER OBJECT). I didn’t do much playing until the middle of the cadenza (playing as SUBSTANCE). These statements demonstrate some of the ways in which musicians can perceive their interaction. As Lakoff and Johnson stress: Activities are viewed as a container for actions and other activities that they are comprised of. They are also viewed as the containers for the energy and materials required for them and for their by-products, which may be viewed as in them or emerging from them (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 31).

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3.6 New Domains Require New Metaphors Referring to section 3.5.2, new target domains may also require new metaphors by which perception is structured. This can occur through “conflation” and conceptual blending of metaphors. As Turner (1991) argues, “We can invent new metaphors by figuring out the image-schematic structure of the target and finding a source that matches it” (Tuner 1991, see Grady 2005, p. 39). This is particularly relevant to interaction in tele-improvisation, which involves unique conceptual parameters distinct from that of co-located musical improvisation. To encapsulate this, the framework adapts Johnsons’ MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphor (Johnson 2008, p. 250) in which the source domain is physical space and the target domain, musical space. Occurring across located and dislocated spatial, temporal zones of perception the TELE-IMPROVISATION LANDSCAPE metaphor (Fig. 11) maps this metaphor to an extended physical space (source domain) in which perception takes place in a tele-musical space (target domain). Musicians not only navigate (improvise) in a musical landscape but they do this cognisant of their multileveled located and dislocated interaction.

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(Extended Physical Space ⇒Tele-Musical Space) Traveler ⇒ listener (improviser) Path Traversed ⇒ musical work (improvisation) Travelers present location ⇒ present musical event Path already traveled ⇒music already heard (previous improvised material) Retracing Steps ⇒ replaying previously heard / improvised material Path in front of traveler ⇒ music not yet heard (continuing improvisation) Segments of the path ⇒ elements of musical form (melody, timbre, rhythm) Speed of traveler’s motion ⇒ tempo Obstacles ⇒ unfamiliar musical terrain (musical cultures & traditions) Fig. 11 Illustrates the cross-metaphorical mapping in the extension of physical space in Mark Johnsons’ MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphor (2008) to TELE-IMPROVISATORY LANDSCAPE metaphor.

3.6.1 TELE-IMPROVISATION LANDSCAPE Metaphor The above example demonstrates the numerous schematic structures of this pervasive metaphor in networked interaction as illustrated in the ways in which musicians verbally reflected on their perception of tele-improvised interaction. A contribution made by this research lies in identifying new metaphors that structure networked musicians temporally and spatially dispersed perceptions based on their verbalised reflective experiences. The following case study excerpts show the ways in which musicians’ perceive their interaction in the TELE-IMPROVISATION LANDSCAPE. I was just trying to feel it here and see where he was at, and trying not to play too much. So it was a kind of floating about looking for notes (Hanlon 2012). Well here I am waiting for resolution, and waiting to see what the guys are going to do and I’m going to introduce myself to the environment (Sayyadi 2012) When I play here in the night time, they are playing in the morning. They think about what happened yesterday. I am actually past, I am playing in the past and they are playing in the future at the same time all together (Ganburged 2012).

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I was also aware that when someone else was playing, something to do with the levels and the interface, I can’t quite explain it, but I also felt like I had to step back, listen and then I could participate in playing something (Perez 2012). I’m definitely aware that we are playing at a different time of day because of the time-zones and how this affects our sense of time elapsing, I’m not sure. In the music I was kind of aware of leaving space in the music for other people to give them time for them to develop their own melody or something although it is always difficult to leave space, it’s always an issue (Perez 2012). The sense of space that my mind would drift to from time to time would come back to the music and it really is separate to any physical location in my head (Hanlon 2012). When I started this part, I followed a traditional Mongolian tune where the horse running is reflected in the tune (Ganburged 2012). He was going one way and I was going another, I was trying to follow him but I felt like I was playing catch up (Premnath 2012). You might think oh that’s not working, so stop and start again, so you might just fall back on something you have played before (Hanlon 2012).

These comments demonstrate that the dominant metaphor is the MUSICAL LANDSCAPE in which musicians are travelling along a path as the source domain, and the music is the target domain. However, they are concurrently aware of the distributed and temporal dislocation of this experience where the target domain of musical space is augmented with conceptual metaphors of networked space. This creates additional cognitive demands over and above those of interacting in a collocated setting, requiring conceptual blending of the source and target domains. To take account of this the author conflates Johnson’s source domain of ‘physical space’ with ‘extended physical space’ to a target domain that moves from ‘musical space’ to ‘telemusical space’. However, as observed in the last two comments, musicians may also encounter problems in their interaction. These can be viewed as “obstacles” (Moser 1998; 1999, see Moser 2000) along the path, such as “He was going one way and I was going another, I was trying to follow him,” and the approach for a musician in this situation may be to “stop and start again” or “fall back on something you have played before”. This might occur through going back to the starting point or revisiting a previous musical phrase or section (as a location along a path in the musical landscape). This is analogous to the cognitive structure inherent in SUCCESS IS A PATH (Moser 2000), which emerged from studies about students transitioning from university to work. This schema is based on Johnson’s SOURCE PATH GOAL and conflates other cognitive structures such as single career steps, parallel paths, detours and obstacles (Moser 2000). As many of these characteristics feature in tele-improvisation, the author also blends these into the model 114

(Fig. 12) of the TELE-IMPROVISATORY LANDSCAPE to take account of the complexity of this experience based on the musicians reflections in transcripts of video cue recall sessions.

Fig. 12 Illustrates the Image schema of the TELE-IMPROVISATION LANDSCAPE metaphor as a conceptual blend of MUSICAL LANDSCAPE (Johnson 2008), and SUCCESS IS A PATH (Moser 2000). The solid red border represents the nexus of the located and extended physical space of the tele-improvisatory experience that traverses the entire experience as dotted red lines. Three black lines in the centre of the diagram represent any number of musicians in an interdependent interactive space in which they may cross over each other, retrace their steps in the musical landscape or encounter obstacles such as unfamiliar tonalities, rhythms, or harmonic progressions.

The schematic structure as seen above is only a basic illustration of some of the many potential perceptual experiences in the TELE-IMPROVISATION LANDSCAPE schema. For instance the start and end points of an improvisation may be far less static or contiguous than suggested here, and the perception of extended physical space to musical space may be broken at various points due to interruptions in a musician’s physical (located) space, i.e., mobile phones, noises. This is why it is important not to mistake visual representations or verbal descriptions for the actual image schema, as Johnson (1991) proposes, “we need consider only a few of the variety of experiences of perceptual tracking” (Johnson 1991, p. 7). In other words, only some experiences are needed to demonstrate a how we perceive a particular experience. It is the variety of metaphorical structures within an experience that make up the richness and complexity of that

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experience, and where inconsistencies arise, this only reflects this complexity of that experience. As Johnson (2008) argues: However strong our desire for a monolithic, consistent ontology might be, the evidence does not support such a unified and simple view of human experience. The absence of any core literal concept of musical “events” should direct our attention to the ways we imaginatively conceive of the flow of our musical experience by means of multiple body-based metaphors that provide the relevant logics of our various conceptions of musical space and motion (Johnson 2008, p. 259).

While Johnson is referring to the imaginative concepts involved in the experience of listening to composed music, the author argues that this idea is also pervasive in the variety of perceptual and cognitive experiences involved in collaborative interaction in teleimprovisation. This comes about through the added dimensions of a temporally and spatially dislocated networked musical experience, which will also be perceived in multiple ways across different cultures.

3.6.2 Culture and Metaphor As previously stated, any comprehensive mapping of metaphorical structures of teleimprovisatory experience across cultures requires much further in-depth investigation. However there is a significant potential for such a study as Johnson (2008) argues: The grounding of metaphors in bodily experience suggests possible universal structures (of bodily perception and movement) for understanding music […] and since there may be differing cultural interpretations of bodily experience, metaphor provides one important avenue for exploring cultural and historical variation in significantly different conceptions of musical experience (Johnson 2008, p. 259).

Future research is required to investigate and taxonomise the wide range of conceptual metaphors involved in the experience of tele-improvisatory interaction across a variety of cultures, and where parallels can be drawn. As a first step, the analysis in this thesis focuses on the experiences of one Australian musician in relation to several musicians of Persian, European, and East and Central Asian nationalities and cultural heritages. This provides a lens in which to view and interpret the interaction, and the related schematic experiences that emerged from the transcripts were cross-referenced with the experiences of the non-Western musicians’ experiences. Translators were also engaged to aid in the interpretation of emergent cross-cultural metaphors, and selected analytical examples demonstrate where similarities occur. While this is only a starting point, we only need to look to previous research in the analysis of non-western music as touched on earlier in Feld’s (1982) studies of overlapping speech 116

patterns by the Kaluli people of New Guinea. In earlier studies, Feld (1981) found that the Kaluli “systematically metaphorize “water” and “sound” to express a theory of the form and performance of their vocal music” (Feld 1981, p. 22). What can be inferred from this is that schematic structures of imagination are key to understanding cross-cultural networked musicians patterns of experience. In this light “metaphor is not merely a matter of language, it is a matter of conceptual structure […] it involves all the natural dimensions of our experience, including aspects of our sense experiences: color, shape, texture, sound ect. These dimensions structure not only mundane experiences but aesthetic experience as well” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p 235).

3.6.3 Metaphor and Causation While we have established the basis for an analysis of networked musicians reflective experiences, the ways in which they manipulate sound to affect causation in improvisatory interaction is also enabled by metaphor, and emergent structural, orientational and ontological concepts such as up-down, in-out, object, substance. This blend of metaphor and emergent concepts occur through what Lakoff and Johnson (1980) describe as “prototypes of causation” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p.69), which are perceived as patterns of sound within tele-improvisatory interaction. A prototype of causation is defined by a cluster of components that “recur together over and over in action after action as we go through our daily lives. We experience them as a gestalt; that is, the complex of properties occurring together is more basic to our experience than their separate occurrence” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p.71). As discussed previously, the gestalt also has its roots in Merleau-Ponty’s a phenomenological view of Gesalten as causal stimulus, and relates to meaning as phenomenally experienced. In developing this perspective Lakoff and Johnson also draw on the theories of educationalist Jean Piaget, who theorised about the way that infants first learn about causation through the manipulation of objects around them. Examples such as dropping spoons, throwing toys “involve certain shared features that characterise the notion of direct causation that is so integral a part of our constant everyday functioning in our environment” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p.70). We can apply this to many areas of human activity to gain an insight into our intention, planning and responses to various stimuli and it forms a useful tool to examine the changing nature of tele-improvisatory interaction. 117

For networked improvisers it is the perception of recurring patterns within musical components, e.g. melody, harmony and rhythm that are experienced as gestalts29. They are the groups of sound parameters such timbre, texture, pitch, articulation, meter, e.c.t that imbue a melody with its significant qualities. When heard together, patterns within these musical components form parts of a family of sound that create prototypes of causation; for example the musical statement and improvisatory response. The musical statement will feature significant attributes such as homophonic texture, a “figure” perspective and certain melodic, timbral and rhythmic characteristics dependent on the musical intention. Likewise any response might contain the requisite semiotic resources for the same experiential purpose. It is a melody played in a particular key, with a particular rhythm, and timbre that is being recognised as part of a group of sounds through its composite of sound parameters. A musician can directly manipulate these parameters or “surface qualities” (Coker 1972, p. 55) to cause further change in the music’s form. As Tarasti argues “expression and content are inseparably connected to each other. The slightest change on the level of expression produces change of content as well” (Tarasti 1994, 11). Direct manipulation is not limited to purely iconic musical components but also real-time fluctuations of sound qualities within an ongoing interaction. If a guitarist plays a series of high pitched plucked harmonics in G major, she will create a pattern of features, e.g. timbral percussiveness, high frequency (pitch), short attack (articulation) regular or unmetered rhythm, and consonant harmony that create a pattern of resemblances leading to formation of a gestalt in her own mind, and the minds of the improvising musicians. This may then trigger a particular response to that prototype, such as lower pitched, long note durations that will scaffold the higher, more percussive timbres that are being output by guitar. Interacting musicians may then further manipulate the tonality, texture or timbre to affect further change. Musical responses such as this are viewed as emerging out of prototypical causation, as the result of direct manipulation. They are “instances of making” where as a result of the manipulation, the object (music) is perceived as having changed form. As Lakoff and Johnson argue, they are “elaborated by metaphor to yield a broad concept of CAUSATION, which has many special cases” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 75). For the purposes of this research, the following list demonstrates an adaptation of emerging metaphors (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 72) for tele-improvisation: 29

The author is keeping to the way that Lakoff and Johnson spell this, rather than the original German Gesalten.

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THE OBJECT COMES OUT OF THE SUBSTANCE - I made a paper airplane out of a sheet of paper. It was a sad melody (object) that came out that minor chord progression (substance). THE SUBSTANCE GOES INTO THE OBJECT - I made a sheet of newspaper into an airplane. The minor chord progression turned into a sad melody. The electronic effect turned the guitar sound (substance) into a drone (object). CREATION IS BIRTH – The syncopated rhythm triggered that melody. There is one final and unique metaphorical form of causation that is primarily conceptualized through the EMERGENCE metaphor. This occurs where an emotional state is conceived as causing an action or event (Lakoff & Johnson 1980). This can be demonstrated in phrases such as: I stopped playing from sheer exhaustion. The music started to sound sad from the melody that the guitarist was playing. CAUSATION is viewed as an act, or event that emerges from the state, e.g., exhaustion, and sadness. They form a bridge between meaning, perception and action that can then lead to an evaluation of the approaches and strategies that networked musicians develop to interact in the dislocated medium of telematic interaction.

3.7 Instrumental Gesture Having described the musical, semiotic, and cognitive analytical approaches taken in this research, this section will now outline the role that “instrumental gesture” (Cadoz 1988) contributes to signification and meaning in tele-improvisatory interaction. Instrumental gesture describes a musician’s playing techniques, and the expression of feeling through “physical and perceptual information” in sound as “an energy continuum between the gesture and the perceived phenomena” (Cadoz & Wanderley 2000, p. 78). The instrumental gestures that are the primary focus of the analysis are “effective” gestures which are the gestures “necessary to mechanically produce sound,” such as blowing into a saxophone, or plucking a guitar string (Traube, Depalle & Wanderley 2003, p. 42). The author agrees with Traube, et al (2003) that instrumental gestures are present in qualities of 119

sound that are acted upon and reciprocated in tandem to visual signification (Cadoz & Wanderley 2000, p. 78). As the interaction in these studies occur without visual signifiers, instrumental gestures and associated meaning are only perceived in the sound qualities themselves.

The analysis therefore examines the ways in which musicians’ gestures

influence the sound that they produce, and how this contributes to theirs, and others perception of experiential meaning in tele-improvisatory interaction. It is acknowledged that posture and many other physical movements made by a musician will contribute to the overall production of sound, and while these gestures underscore embodied rhythmic or temporal awareness, they are viewed as supporting effective gestures, and only considered in this light. Close examination of musicians’ gestures in parallel to the music produced and their verbalised experiences helps to elicit information about how they employ effective gesture, the effect on related interaction, and the ways in which the physical effort of gesture shapes the resulting sound. Cadoz and Wanderley (2000) group effective instrumental gestures into three categories: excitation, modification and selection (Cadoz 1988; Cadoz & Wanderley 2000, p.80). •

Excitation gesture “provides the energy that will eventually be present in the perceived phenomena,” and these are differentiated as instantaneous (plucking or picking) where “the sound starts when the gesture finishes,” or continuous “when both the gesture and the sound co-exist,” e.g. a trumpet players vibrating the embouchure into the mouthpiece and its continuing sounding. A further distinction can be attributed to “a continuous gesture that applied to specific objects, produces a sequence of discrete excitations” (Cadoz & Wanderley 2000 p. 80 original in italics), such percussive hitting of objects or plucking of strings

•

Modification gesture modifies the instrument in some way “without any substantial expense of energy being transferred to the final sound,” e.g. pressing the valves on a trumpet, or pressing down a string on the fret board of a guitar. Modification gestures can be further differentiated between parametric and structural. Parametric is a continuous alteration of an instruments sound, for example, vibrato: a trumpet player can alternate the pressure of embouchure giving a vibrato sound. Alternatively a Structural modification gesture might be the addition of a mute in the bell of a trumpet, or some other instance of preparing an instrument, such as processing with effects, e.g. reverb, delay.

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•

Selection gesture allows for a choice of similar elements on an instrument, what octave range on the instrument a musician wishes to perform in, which will be visible through the position of fingers on a fret board or keys. For brass and woodwind players this might be alternate key-pad configurations to aid intonation

While these definitions are useful for mapping and categorising networked musicians’ instrumental gestures to their interaction and resulting sound, there remains the thorny issue of how electronic musicians and sound artists gestures can be described and interpreted when there is no link to the physical production of sound. Although the studies feature electronic musicians performing with signal processing software on laptops, this is partly overcome by the fact that they use acoustic instruments and objects as sound sources, so instrumental gestures of sound production are audible in actions such as hitting, scraping or shaking objects and/or other musical instruments. However more work needs to be done on understanding the experiential qualities of sound generated from purely electronically sources in what Iyer describes as the “grey area between bodily presence and electronic impossibility” (Iyer 2008, p. 287). As illustrated in the preceding chapters the embodied nature of meaning in sound is a central tenet of the theoretical perspective and analytical approaches taken in this thesis. The role of gesture forms a key component of understanding the ways in which musicians express experiential meaning in the ways in which “the attitude, movements, or sounds of one organism affect another” (Coker 1972, p.10), or as Cumming (2000) also puts it “the felt significance of sound” (Cumming 2000, p. 134).

3.8 Methods The previous sections have described the over all foundations and shape of the research, outlining a multimodal analytical framework blending a social semiotic perspective with conceptual metaphor theory from cognitive linguistics. It has described how audio, video and reflective transcripts foreground experiential meaning in networked improvised musical interaction through sound, gesture and schematic structures of musicians’ perception. This section describes the experimental research design, including methods, data collection and analysis, interface characteristics and participant profiles. It starts by categorising improvisatory modes of interaction, and how these are used to identify musical instances for analysis.

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3.8.1 Identifying Interactive Modes In these studies, interactive modes are the musical building blocks on which teleimprovisation is based. They comprise musical components such as melody, rhythm, harmony, and related parameters of interaction such as timbre, musical texture, aural perspective as outlined in section 3.4. It is the interplay of musicians’ voices through these interactive modes that foreground representation, expression and meaning making in improvisatory interaction as well as the evolving relationships between networked musicians. The researcher is also able to draw on many years of experience as a composer, co-located and networked improviser, developing what Crabtree describes as ‘adequate mastery’ of the domain, and “can recognize as members recognize what is going on in the phenomenal field of practical action under study and how it is getting done” (Crabtree 2003, p. 81). While much qualitative research looks for relationships within transcript texts as part of a coding process, the motivation in this research is in examining interaction in improvisatory musical discourses. While maintaining a holistic multimodal approach the study begins by looking at relationships in the music and referencing them to transcripts of musicians’ reflective experiences and instrumental gestures. The process of identifying relationships within the interactive modes in the music plays much the same role as coding text in conventional qualitative analysis of interview data. A summary of the interactive modes and related parameters of interaction revealed in the case study data is as follows: •

Melody: sequentiality (call and response) overlapping simultaneity; establishment of motif; (shape, contour, texture), initiating instrument and musicians’ responses, progression (how a melody harmonically develops and concludes); timbre; aural perspective (figure, ground or field)

•

Rhythmic and Meter: establishment of rhythmic and engagement between musicians; initiating instrument; progression (rhythm development and conclusion; cycle and meter); musicians’ responses; aural perspective (figure, ground or field)

•

Tonality and Harmony: establishment of tonal centre; initiating instrument; harmonic progression; resolution; use of dissonance and density; musicians’ responses

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•

Electroacoustic noise: types of sound qualities; initiating instruments and extended techniques; progression; where timbre is predominant in interaction; progression; musicians’ responses; aural perspective (figure, ground or field); interlock

•

While individual interactive modes are itemised here, they may also emerge in multiple configurations, where no clear melodic, rhythmic, harmonic or sound structures are prominent.

3.9 Case Study Research In order to examine networked improvisatory interaction, it is necessary to design and conduct experimental studies. This was achieved through case study research (CSR) (Woodside 2010), in which incremental combinations of musicians from Iran, Malaysia, Mongolia, Germany, France and Australia participated in three, forty-minute improvisation sessions.

The sessions were conducted at the sound studios at the University of

Technology, Sydney (UTS) as the principal node, and individual musicians’ home studios in Germany, Canada and the United Kingdom. The musicians did not know each other and had never met, however all musicians received an introductory session to familiarise themselves with the eJamming network interface and telematic playing experience.

3.9.1 Interface Requirements It was intended that where possible the CSR should mirror the ad-hoc collaborations occurring in current telematic platforms, where cross-cultural musicians download and install a software interface that allows them meet and improvise with geographically dispersed musicians that are logged into the platform at any given time. However, as discussed in Chapter 2, technical knowledge of network architectures, or access to state of art audio equipment was not a priority for the selection of participants. The choice of platform is governed by a number of prerequisite criteria, which are as follows: •

Ease of download and installation of interface on PC and MAC operating systems

•

Wide compatibility with a range of sound card interfaces

•

Low latency, high audio fidelity that operates smoothly on domestic broadband with varying up and download speeds

•

Built in text bar communication

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As has already been highlighted, live video streaming is not currently available to interfaces that facilitate low latency, high audio quality on domestic broadband speeds. Web-based video streaming applications not only make high demands on available bandwidth, but even when employed on high speed research networks, visual fidelity noticeably lags behind the audio. While this is most apparent in WAN connections across oceans, priority is given to the audio fidelity. As referred to in Chapter 2, this appears to be of lesser importance to musical interaction than one might think and as Cáceres, et al argue “Until video can match audio in terms of latency, the trade-offs for synchronizing video and audio are a significantly higher bandwidth utilization (for uncompressed video) vs. a correspondingly longer latency for audio (to match video codec lags)” (Cáceres et al. 2008, p. 63). With some successes, more recent ongoing research with dedicated high-speed Interenet2 networks has provided high quality visual streaming. However as previously highlighted, the priority of this study is concerned with examining interaction between cross-cultural musicians who may only have access to domestic broadband speeds.

3.9.2 Participants Participants in these studies were expert musicians with a minimum of 5 years professional experience, or acknowledged as master musicians having studied their instrument at tertiary level, or continuing high-level study with master musicians.30 They were selected for their qualifications and improvisatory experience through the author’s engagement with both local and international improvisatory musical communities. They were not required to have prior experience of telematic music making, however, improvisation needed to be a prominent feature of their musical practice. Due to the high migrant population of Australia, it was possible to choose musicians of diverse cultural heritages from the local Sydney area, many of which were very recent émigrés. It was made clear to them that their participation would take two hours of their time and was entirely voluntary, and in line with the approved University of Technology ethics applications, the audio-video and interview data would be kept securely and not given to any third party. Each musician signed consent forms31 agreeing to be named in the studies, allowing the results to be

30 31

Musician’s biographies can be viewed in Appendix D. Ethics references can be found in Appendix F.

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published in the thesis and related peer reviewed academic publications.32 It was also made clear that they could withdraw their participation, or later refuse to have their contribution to the results published.

3.9.3 Examining Interaction To examine both musical and cognitive interaction in a multimodal analysis, it is necessary to listen to, and observe the participants improvising from geographically dispersed locations, and to ask them to reflect on their experiences. This was achieved by Case Study Research (CSR), and reflective Video Cued Recall (VCR) (Omodei and McLennan 1994; Raingruber 2003) procedures, which will now be described in further detail. One of the difficulties of telematic research is that the researcher is unable to be present in more than one location under study, which can be an issue in overseeing experimental conditions. In these studies, this is compounded by a desire to emulate impromptu sessions that occur between cross-cultural musicians using telematic music systems. These were important considerations for the development of a framework for analysing intercultural tele-improvisatory engagement, and require three main questions to be addressed. •

What experimental methods should be used to gather of multimodal data (music, video and reflective text) on tele-improvisatory musical interaction?

•

How should multimodal data be examined and viewed holistically?

•

What type of research design would best achieve high quality case study data and analytical framework for the evaluation of intercultural tele-improvisation within the scope of a PhD research project?

As has already been touched on, this thesis does not claim to be an exhaustive musical or ethnographic study of all of the cultures involved in it. Rather, it is a multimodal examination of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction as it occurred over three case studies. Categories of interactive modes as previously highlighted provided the basis for an examination of salient instances of melodic, rhythmic, harmonic and timbral exchanges and the ways in which musicians perceived this interaction. The next stage of the analysis was to identify relationships between the musical instance, gestures and the reflective experiences of the participating musicians, in a descriptive analysis that accompanies the audiovisual case data. 32

A.

Research contained within this thesis was peer reviewed in a number of publications as listed in Appendix

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While all participating musicians spoke English as a second language, translators were also engaged for further clarification of specific socio-cultural characteristics in either the music, or the musician’s perception of interaction. This combined analytical methodology and data collection provided a “triangulated” approach to the analysis of case study research (CSR) employing “multiple research methods across multiple time periods” (Denzin 1978, see Woodside 2003). Woodside describes the procedures of CSR as: (1) direct observation by the researcher within the environments of the case, (2) probing by asking case participants for explanations and interpretations of "operational data" (van Manen 1979), and (3) analysis of written documents and natural sites occurring in case environments (Woodside 2010, p. 6).

Woodside is describing a case study multimodal framework for research of co-located activities, which requires a number of alterations when participants are geographically and temporally dislocated. Due to the dispersed locations in which musicians were performing, direct observation “within” each environment was not possible. This was overcome by video recording the musicians’ performances for later observation and video cue recall sessions, which generated transcripts of musicians’ reflexive experiences for later analysis. It is the multiple methods that were employed to gather and analyse data that is fundamental to a triangulated multimodal approach and this will be described in further detail below.

3.9.4 Data Collection The research began with three pilot studies, which were conducted at the University of Technology, Sydney (UTS) in June, 2010. They were central to the CSR design, data collection and analysis techniques. The pilot studies provided audio-visual recordings of the participants: •

Performing in an collocated and networked improvisation sessions

•

Retrospectively describing their experiences of interaction in collocated and networked improvisations

•

Transcripts of the reflective-video cued recall sessions

The pilot studies were useful for understanding what methods were going to be appropriate for the data collection, and analysis of the three expert evaluations. The first study was a forty minute improvisation conducted in the sound studios at the University of Technology, Sydney (UTS) with the participation of two music degree 126

students who had both participated in an earlier course workshop of networked music making in the eJamming platform. The pilot study differed from the workshop in that its aim was to generate a comparative (networked to co-located) study with the student musicians performing in a collocated improvisation setting, and to be able to compare their experiences to the workshop. Using the video-cued recall (VCR) method, the students were asked to watch a video recording of the improvisation session, and verbally reflect on their interaction and comparative experiences between networked and collocated scenarios. This was recorded as an audio recording for later transcription. The video was used as a prompt to allow the participants to recall their experiences of the interaction. They were asked to stop the video at any time to comment on the interaction at any one moment. VCR allows participants to relive their experiences and draw together relationships that occur both consciously and unconsciously, and is “well suited to capturing temporal, relational, emotional, and spatial meanings because videotaping itself preserves these influences” (Raingruber 2003, p. 1157). These are important considerations for the gathering of musicians’ interactive experiences as data, which are arguably transformed by the spatial and temporal dislocation of the telematic environment. Following van Manen, VCR captures “four existentials that are critical foci of interpretation, including lived space (spatiality), lived body (corporeality), lived time (temporality), and lived human relation (relationality)” (van Manen 1990, p. 101). For these reasons, VCR was considered the best way of capturing participants’ reflective experiences in studies that traverse these unique spatial and temporal domains. The second pilot study included one of the previous student musicians improvising with an expert tabla player of Malaysian descent trained in South Indian Karnatic music who would also participate in case study III. It was conducted in two separate studio labs at UTS and served as an introduction to the eJamming interface for the tabla player. This pilot study was integral to foregrounding aspects of intercultural tele-improvisation that would become the basis of the eventual CSR. As the student musician had participated in both studies, his reflections on the second session highlighted the value of working with one musician who participates in multiple studies by providing an evolving perspective based on a growing familiarisation with the telematic environment and networked experience. The intention was to further trial the data collection methods (video recording and reflective video cued recall) and to examine the musician’s experiences of the two scenarios from transcripts of the video cued recall session in preparation for work with expert musicians. 127

The third pilot study involved the introduction of the eJamming interface to the expert focus musician (Australian guitarist) in a trial with a volunteer Chinese student Erhu player. Again the aim was to introduce him to the interface and allow him to experience a networked improvisation with a non-Western musician for the first time. This trial was also used to finesse the case study set up plans, adjusting camera angles and audio levels from the interface for better monitoring and recording purposes, and to trial some of the procedures for examining the video recording while referring to the VCR transcripts.

3.9.5 Case Study Procedure and Variables Modeling the case study procedure on the pilot studies, each improvisation session was approximately forty-minutes in duration, and increased in numbers of participants with the focus musician (guitarist) performing in each. The sound studios at UTS were equipped with the network interface (eJamming) and served as the central node in which the data collection (video, sound recording, and interviews) took place. Situating the studies on campus provided immediate post performance access to the focus musician, as well as higher degree of control over the experimental conditions than might otherwise have been the case. As previously highlighted, the case studies featured local cross-cultural musicians, however, they were not introduced to each other, or aware of each other’s location. It is also acknowledged that any network latency encountered between the musicians on campus was lower than the delay experienced between themselves and the international participants. This may have contributed to perceptual variations in the rhythmic interaction in case study III and IV. Likewise, the network connection between the musicians on campus was more stable, resulting in them experiencing fewer dropouts, (jitter, packet loss) than their international collaborators. While none of the participants reported these issues as a significant problem, it should nevertheless be considered as a potential variable in the case study analysis. The specific combinations of instruments selected for each study were based upon a complementarity of harmonic, melodic, rhythmic or timbre characteristics. For example, monophonic instruments such as the Persian ney, or saxophone can only be played in a melodic or rhythmic pattern, e.g. not more than one tone at a time. Employing extended techniques, players can also voice harmonics or overtones. Polyphonic instruments such as the guitar can be played in many combinations but naturally provide a harmonic

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accompaniment to monophonic instruments. These considerations play a role in the assembly of any musical ensemble unless specific combinations are required. Case Study I was abandoned due to incompatibility of players’ expectations, and therefore the analysis commences with Case Study II. However, the first study served a useful purpose as a further pilot study. Hence, clips are numbered and presented as II, III and IV. These studies will now be described. •

Case Study II featured two participants. An Iranian musician performing on the ney (Persian flute) and the focus musician on guitar. It was conducted in the Bon Marche building, UTS with the musicians separated in labs on different floors of the building. They did not know each other and they never met in person.

•

Case Study III featured three participants. This included a second Iranian musician performing on Persian tanbur from his home studio in Montreal, Canada, the Malaysian tabla player and the guitarist performing in the Bon Marche building, UTS. The tabla player and guitarist were separated in labs on different floors of the building. They did not know each other and never met in person.

•

Case Study IV featured four participants. This included a German percussionist and electronic sound artist performing from his studio in Braunschweig, Germany, a French born, UK based musician playing soprano saxophone, shakuhachi, percussion and electronics performing from his home studio in Sheffield, UK, Mongolian morin khuur (horse fiddle) player and throat singer, and the guitarist performing from UTS. The Mongolian and Australian musicians performed in studio labs on different floors of the Bon Marche building. They did not know each other and never met in person.

3.9.6 Audio / Video Recording The studies conducted at UTS were video recorded with a JVC camera at 35 fps with the field mixed audio recording from the eJamming interface routed directly into the camera. The networked musicians based outside of the university were instructed in how to video record their performances and were asked to focus the camera on their upper torso and face, so that the entire instrument was in view. They were also asked to record the audio from the eJamming interface directly to the video camera.

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3.9.7 Video Cued Recall Upon completion of each case study improvisation, the audio-visual data was collated as a Quicktime movie to be watched by the researcher and participants in VCR sessions. The participants were asked to watch and listen to their performances and encouraged to stop the video wherever applicable to verbalise their experiences of the interaction (Fig.13). In some instances probing by the researcher was needed, and occasionally discussions were allowed to develop where they were felt to be leading to further clarification. For the musicians performing at UTS this occurred immediately after the improvisation, or where the performance occurred late at night, the following morning (less than eight hours). Each VCR session was approximately one hundred and eighty minutes duration and where necessary, a translator was present.

Fig. 13 Photogragh of video cued recall session with Bukhuluun Ganburged (case study III) and translator Zaya Khanchiimaa.

For logistical reasons, it was not possible to conduct VCR sessions with the international networked musicians in this manner. The procedure entailed these participants transferring the audio-visual data via a file transfer application, and the researcher uploading them to a 130

private YouTube channel within a twelve to twenty four hour period. The VCR sessions were then conducted (Fig. 14) via the Google Hangouts application, which allows for realtime stop and start of YouTube clips. This allowed the participant and researcher to replay and synchronously view the video together. Audio recording of the VCR sessions was done via digital hard disc recorder.

Fig. 14 Photograph of video cued recall session between researcher in Sydney and participant MS in Braunschweig, Germany.

3.9.8 Translators As highlighted earlier, all non-English participants spoke English as a second language, however translators were also engaged to elicit deeper level descriptions of the musical interaction and experiences of the musicians where necessary. In some instances further “back translation” (Brislin 1972, p. 55) was also carried out for cross-referencing and further clarification of the translation. The author also engaged expert Persian musicologist and improviser Aref Toloei,33 who assisted in providing further translation and ethnomusicological background to the VCR sessions with the Iranian musicians. 33

Biographic details provided in Appendix D.

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3.9.9 Transcription The resulting audio files from the reflective VCR sessions provided nine, one hundred and eighty minute (approximate) audio files for transcription. This included an additional three post performance discussions with the focus musician, and short post performance VCR discussions with individual participating musicians. The transcription was carried out by the researcher, which also included writing memos during the transcription process, contributing initial analytical responses in the identification of salient instances of interaction. See appendix for examples of VCR transcriptions and memos.

3.9.10 Memo Taking While this research does not employ a grounded theory analytical method, memo note taking was used throughout the research process to facilitate an ongoing observation and questioning of the data in the following ways: •

Participant observation: recording analysts initial observations, musicians’ gestures and comments during, and immediately after the case study performance

•

Video Cue Recall: observations on musicians’ reflective experiences

•

Data transcription: iterative observations during the transcription of musical interaction and verbalised reflections from audio recordings of video cued recall sessions. Memos were mostly brief sentences or small paragraphs often notated quickly during the above phases of the research. While they may appear disconnected, they helped to form a conceptual overview throughout the analytical process.34 They have been transcribed from handwritten notes and observations.

34

Sample memos can be viewed in Appendix C.

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3.9.11 Data Analysis The video and audio recordings of the case study performances and transcripts of musicians’ reflective experiences were a rich source of data. They provided three primary data sets for the specific areas of interaction to be examined. •

Multiscreen videos: improvised tele-improvisatory musical interaction and related instrumental gestures

•

VCR transcripts: verbalised reflective experiences documenting musicians’ interactive experiences and perception

•

Memo’s, post performance discussions and follow up participant interviews: developing analysis and further probing of participants’ experiences.

The challenge was to accurately map the relationships between instances of musical interaction, gestures and production of sound as well as the musicians’ reflections of their interactive experiences. To avoid potential repetition, the interpretation and discussion of results is integrated in the presentation of analytical findings. A descriptive discourse approach explains the relationship of musicians’ actions to its semiotic significance and the theoretical framework. This integrative approach was chosen in order to be clearer than separate and sequential presentation of analysis followed by commentary. From a multimodal perspective, it was also necessary to view the data sets holistically. This required being able to listen to the musical improvisation, observe the musicians’ gestures and read their reflective comments in a way that each could be viewed in relation to each other without having to switch between data sets. This was achieved in a two-step process of (1) compiling the individual video recordings of each musicians’ performance into multiscreen clips (Fig.15), (2) identifying instances of musical interaction, related gestures and musicians’ reflective comments and entering them into a data table (Table. 1).

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Fig. 15 Screenshot of case study IV multiscreen video clip featuring dispersed musicians improvising in the telematic audio interface eJamming.

The analysis began by examining each multiscreen clip for interactive modes (instances of melodic, rhythmic and harmonic and timbral interaction) along with the relative parameters of the interaction such as adjacency pairs, timbre, aural, perspective, musical texture. The analysis also investigated the associated instrumental gestures that were involved with production or manipulation of sound, as well as the musicians’ reflective comments about their perception of the interaction at these given points. This information was then transcribed into a data table containing a timeline, so that the interaction could be viewed as an evolving structure. Table. 1 documents salient instances of evolving improvisatory interaction in melody, rhythm and harmony and the related parameters of interaction. The two right hand columns show the related gestures and comments by musicians for each instance of interaction.

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Table. 1: Data table of transcribed musical interaction, gesture and musicians’ reflective comments.

This first process was a detailed identification of tele-improvisatory interaction, which was later used for selecting salient examples for further analysis. This level of scrutiny was needed to be able to simultaneously view the multimodal data and the relationships that emerge between them. It also allowed for a global view of how components of interaction, e.g. melody, rhythm, and harmony change (or not) over the duration of the performances. After each study had been transcribed into a data table, a second process of identifying salient instances of interaction began. This multimodal process is used to select key areas of interaction for further in-depth analysis through the mapping of data (music, gesture and reflective experience) in the transcription tables to specific sections on the multiscreen video timeline. These sections were then edited into smaller clips for data presentation and analysis. A DVD containing the selected case study multi-screen clips and information on the online component to the thesis will be explained more fully in the coming sections. While the motivation for the research lies in the evaluation of networked musicians’ approaches and strategies to intercultural tele-improvised interaction, to begin to understand this requires the researcher to follow each musical instance through a cycle of its concurrent modes. These are viewed as expression (communication through music and 135

sound), interpretation (musicians’ apprehension of meaning in music and sound events) and response (causation, interaction in music, sound). Enmeshed in this cycle of interaction (Fig. 16) is the musicians’ embodied perception, which underpins the analysis at each stage of the evaluation.

Interpretation

Expression Embodied Perception

Response

Fig. 16 Diagram of the cycle of expression, interpretation and response enmeshed with the musicians’ embodied perception in tele-improvisatory interaction.

The cycle of interaction provides a model for understanding the dimensions of signification and cognition, which informed the approach to the analysis of case study clips. The musicological analysis examined relationships in tele-improvisatory discourses and the ways in which networked musicians used interactive modes for expression, interpretation and response in their interaction. Salient examples were then chosen for further analysis through listening and viewing the multiscreen clips and the data tables. This process involved identifying related instrumental gestures within each chosen example and drawing on the reflections from the VCR transcripts and relevant memos at these given points. The musicological analysis examined interaction through a social semiotic perspective looking at the social, cultural and phenomenological characteristics within the interaction. The combination of these multimodal analytical techniques required the researcher to look for the ways in which participants also made sense of their telematic interaction, which can only be viewed through the perceptive experiences of the musicians themselves. As Woodside (2010) suggests: Sense making is how the individual (i.e., person, group, and/or organization) make sense of stimuli. Sense making foci include: (1) focusing on what they perceive, (2) framing what they perceive; (3) interpreting what they have done, including how they solve problems and the

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results of their enactments (including the nuances and contingencies in automatic and controlled thinking processes) (Woodside 2010, p. 6).

As has been stated throughout, this research takes the view that thinking processes are informed by the “bodily grounding of meaning and concepts in sensorimotor experience” (Johnson 2008, p. 117). This has important implications for the ways in which selected instances of interaction are evaluated, requiring the researcher to look beyond the situated, visual and sonic ‘aesthetics’ of musical performance, in favour of an experiential understanding of distributed, creative cognition, i.e., the way in which dispersed musicians perceive and respond to embodied representation and meaning in the “flow” (Csikszentmihalyi 1993) of intercultural networked improvisatory performance.

3.11 Summary This chapter has outlined and justified the research approach, and the specific and methodology applied to the analysis and evaluation of the thesis case studies. It stated that the research is grounded in a constructionist view of knowledge and a social semiotic interpretivist theoretical perspective (section 3.1). The analytical framework developed in this thesis employs methods from both multimodal discourse analysis and cognitive linguistics to: •

Examine musical instances of interaction, related instrumental gestures and networked musicians reflective experiences

•

Develop a thorough understanding of the ways in which musicians perceived their interaction from empirically tested linguistic methods

•

Map relationships between different modes of expression (music, gesture, perception) and broader social and cultural phenomenon

•

Evaluate the approaches and strategies that networked musicians develop to interact in intercultural tele-improvisation

•

Contribute to new knowledge in both practice and theory

Based on criteria identified in Chapter 2, this practice-led approach demonstrates the necessity of a multimodal analytical framework to capture both the practical and experiential components of tele-improvisatory interaction. The author argues that it is only by investigating the conceptual and perceptual experiences of networked musicians’ in tandem to their collective musical interaction that we can arrive at an understanding of the approaches and strategies that they develop to perform together across social, cultural and 137

geographical divides. In other words, it is not only about how they interact together but the ways in which they perceived that interaction and how that shaped their creative responses. The following chapter demonstrates the application of the multimodal framework to the analysis of selected examples of intercultural tele-improvisation across three case studies of musicians performing from geographically dispersed locations. It describes the evolving interaction between participants mapping relationships between musical instance, gesture and reflective experience, which form the basis of an evaluation of their interactive approaches and strategies.

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CHAPTER 4 - ANALYSIS 4.1 Introduction This chapter describes the application of the multimodal analytical framework as outlined in Chapter 3 to selected excerpts from three case studies of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction. In Chapter 2, (literature review) a number of criteria for developing this model were identified. This included semiotic and phenomenological perspectives of telematic experience and presence, metaphorically structured perception, listening, gesture, intercultural improvisatory collaboration, and the ways in which these elements can be examined in case study research to reveal intention and causality in tele-improvisation. A social semiotic theoretical perspective coupled with analytical approach drawing on multimodal discourse analysis, and cognitive linguistics was described, and this now underscores the following analysis and evaluation. The proceeding analysis examines modes of interaction and related sound parameters, as detailed in section 3.8.1, and the role that each of these interactive modes plays in shaping salient instances of expression, interpretation and response (causation) in tele-improvised jam sessions. It investigates correlations between selected musical instances and reflective experiences of musicians, and the ways in which this is augmented by instrumental gesture as detailed in section 3.7. As the musicians cannot see each other, the examination of gesture in this context relates to those gestures involved in the production of sound, corroborated by musician’s reflections and the audio-visual data. The multimodal presentation of each case study analysis begins with an excerpt summary followed by a descriptive analysis, augmented by selected audio-visual multiscreen video clips on the accompanying DVD. Readers of this thesis are requested to view and listen to each case study excerpt as they read the descriptive analysis. Excerpts can be selected from the case study menu of the DVD, which is also outlined in the thesis Appendix. While the selected examples provide the focus of the analysis, it does so with consideration for the preceding and proceeding musical material, and the ways in which this contributes to the analytical perspectives taken. Readers are therefore given the opportunity to listen and view each full-length (forty minute) case study tele-improvisation in its entirety from the project

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web site.35 The project page also contains downloadable excel sheets of the data tables described above. So that selected excerpts can be viewed in relation to the entire case study performance, each excerpt summary contains the timeline location within the entire forty-minute performance. The selected excerpts vary in duration, and have been chosen for their interactive significance rather than any time-based uniformity. While the multi-screen recordings of the musicians’ performances are aesthetically dynamic, they form only a part of a multimodal data set in which instrumental gesture and the musicians’ perceptive experiences are examined in parallel. The innovation of this research is in the development of a practice-led analytical framework that can be used to evaluate networked musical interaction and generate theory. The inspiration for the project comes from the researcher’s many years of experience in networked music performance, which have led to the epistemic and theoretical approaches taken, and the specific areas under examination. While the aim of the project seeks to evaluate practices of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction, the framework and collected data will be also useful for investigating networked interaction in education, business and the arts.

4.2 Case Study II Due to technical anomalies, results from the first case study were invalidated; hence the analysis commences with the findings of the second study. Case study II (Fig. 17) features Sydney based guitarist and focus musician Michael Hanlon, and Iranian ney player Sina Taghavi, previously based in Tehran, and now living in Sydney. In order to simulate the telematic experience, the study was conducted with the two musicians separated in two studio labs in the Bon Marche building, University of Technology, Sydney, (UTS). They did not know each other and never met. Table 2 outlines the key performance indicators of the study.

35

Each entire case study performance and related transcription table can be downloaded from the data page of the project website http://telesound.net/data/ by entering the password thesis.

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Fig. 17 Screen shot of Sina Taghavi (ney) left, and focus musician Michael Hanlon, (guitar) right, improvising from separate locations at University of Technology, Sydney City campus with the telematic audio interface eJamming. Table 2: Key performance indicators of case study II. Musician ID

Nationality

Instrument

Location

Date

Local time

Translators present

Comments

Michael Hanlon (focus musician) ID = MH

Australian

Guitar + electronic effects

UTS, Multimedia lab CB.3.4.10

17/1/2012

11:00

n/a

Participated in previous pilot study

Sina Taghavi

Iranian

Ney

UTS Sound Studio CB.3.3.17

17/1/2012

11:00

Omid Tofighian, OT & Aref Toloei AT

Refugee from Iran, recently arrived in Australia

ID =ST

4.2.1 Excerpt 1: 0:00 – 9:31 Case study time line location 0:00 – 9:31

4.2.2 Excerpt Summary Excerpt 1 occurs between 0:00 to 9:31 in the opening minutes of the case study. It has been selected for the ways in which it illustrates the processes of melodic interaction between the two participants as they first hear each other warming up, through to their introduction and subsequent improvisatory interaction. While the video camera in the sound studio (2nd location) had not started recording, the excerpt has nonetheless been 141

selected for the significance of the musical interaction that occurs between musicians meeting for the first time, as well as its impact on the development of the entire fortyminute improvisation. The techniques with which dispersed musicians initiate, and respond in the early stages of networked improvisation are key to the analysis of their interaction, and illuminate the creative and cognitive approaches that they develop throughout a networked jam session.36

4.2.3 Descriptive Analysis The improvisation begins with guitarist MH initiating single quaver triads in C# minor responded to by ST on ney with single quavers of E in a loose 4/4 simple duple meter that drifts in and out of a distinguishable pulse. The interaction is unfocused as the musicians hear each other for the first time and begin to familiarise themselves with the tonal ranges of each other’s instruments. In this opening sequence, MH adjusts his audio and effects levels until happy with his sound, and once he establishes this, the interaction becomes more structured. It can be observed that the manipulation of the guitar sound through the use of tap delay, reverb creates a timbral palette of recurring sound patterns that contribute to causation and affect throughout the improvisation. Sound qualities of the ney are manipulated through mouth and lip movements, fingering techniques, breath control and microphone techniques that also create significant patterns in sound qualities such as intonation, amplitude, and articulation. These timbral qualities are the result of “effective gestures” (Cadoz & Wanderley 2000), which are used by musicians as instrumental techniques to produce, manipulate and control sound. Effective gestures have distinct categories as described in section 3.7, and they will be referred to in this manner throughout the analysis. From 0:27 MH initiates ascending scalar note sequences on guitar, imitated by ST on ney in a sequential call and response pattern. This sequential melodic imitation acts a meeting point for both musicians who comment on it within the first three minutes of their video cued recall session. MH: I was just trying to feel it here and see where he was at and trying not to play too much. So it was a kind of floating about looking for notes, but I am definitely playing more like a ney than I would on my own. 36

Please refer to case study II data table for a detailed itemised account of interaction throughout the full length performance. The descriptive analysis contains verbal translation from Dr Omid Tofighian referred to as OT, and musicological translation from Aref Toloei referred to as AT.

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ST: (through interpreter) It was a new experience with the guitarist, it was a strange feeling and environment, some moments he would feel really close and some moments he felt really far away.

The musicians are expressing their perception of each other’s networked presence through the pervasive CONTAINER SUBSTANCE metaphor that is structuring their experience of the tele-improvisatory environment. MH’s expression, “I was just trying to feel it here and see where he was at,” and as ST comments “some moments he would feel really close and some moments he felt really far away” are indicative of the adjustments that the two networked musicians are making to interact in the telematic and non-visual encounter. Indeed, it is their concept of musically ‘feeling’ each other in the CONTAINER of the networked environment that is structuring their creative engagement. This early encounter also illustrates an evolving familiarisation between both participants as the dialogical melodic interaction develops from sequential to simultaneous patterns of interaction as demonstrated in the clip and data table. MH reflects on his perception of this familiarisation in metonymic descriptions, metaphorically identifying his guitar playing as “like a ney,” and later comments on the ney playing “guitar like patterns”, which are contributing to the organisation of his thoughts and actions. For musicians negotiating the non-visual spatial dislocation of networked interaction, metonymy is frequently used to structure their perception of networked collaborators. This is enabled by the MUSICIAN AS INSTRUMENT and MUSICIAN AS MUSIC metaphors, allowing them to conceptualise their experience through the conceptual blending of these two related metaphorical schemas. As Lakoff and Johnson argue to “conceptualize one thing by means of its relation to something else” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 39). At 0:48 MH voices an ascending and descending ostinato pattern in E minor on guitar that ST plays a wavelike melodic line over on ney. This increasing familiarisation between the two musicians is evident in the ways in which the two instruments begin to weave polyphonically around each other (Fig. 18). As the interaction moves from call and response (adjacency pairs) to increasing overlapping playing, or as Tannen, (1992) would argue moving from “report talk” to “rapport talk” (see van Leeuwen 1999, p. 68), the improvisation becomes more fluid indicating the growing musical relationship between the two players until they formally introduce themselves at 2:44. ST is employing melody types from the nava, which is one of the main modes in Persian modal system known as dastgahs. Even if you do not read music, you can perhaps follow the way in which the sections of black dots start to overlap indicating the musician’s growing familiarisation with one 143

another. The symbol of a line with two dots and 4 over it is a musical simile meaning that the previous pattern is repeated.

Fig. 18 Musical score example of the two melodic lines moving from sequential call and response to overlapping, simultaneity as the musicians become more familiar with each other in tele-improvisatory interaction. Ney is the top line and guitar is underneath.

The score example above illustrates the merging of the two instrumental lines as the players become more familiar with each other during the warm up and subsequent verbal introduction. However from their own perspective, they had already introduced themselves through their earlier musical interaction (during the warm up), and had conceptually already entered into the CONTAINER SUBSTANCE of the improvisation. MH describes his perception of the this introduction: We are being introduced to each other now verbally but we had already introduced each other musically, and had a feel for each other. Well I know I had chosen a couple of keys that would work for me already and you kind of know what to expect […] for all intents and purposes we could have already been right into it […] even though we were trying to listen to our sound and make them right in the headphones, we were also gaging what the other person was doing and how they sound.

MH is reflecting on the comparative nuances of a verbal introduction versus what he perceived as the previous musical introduction, and how this occurred when they were already, “right into it” (CONTAINER), and the significance of such a pervasive concept to his experience of the interaction. From 3:35 (the formal beginning), the interaction features guitar initiating an ostinato (repeating) pattern of quavers and crotchets on A, followed by a single downward strum in C# minor. ST responds on the ney with an ascending melodic pattern of C# D# and then E, which is based on a repetition of the opening melodic pattern of the warm up section played earlier by MH on guitar. This motif is identified a number of times throughout the improvisation, and is often revisited by ST to end sections, or initiate new ones. It is also 144

perceived by MH as an imitation of his earlier phrases on guitar during the warm up, and identifies it whenever it appeared in his VCR session. The interaction at this point begins to mirror the earlier sequential call and response patterns of the warm up section at the beginning of the improvisation as the musicians continue a musical dialogue that moves between sequential and simultaneous interaction as their familiarity increases. Over the following forty seconds, there are some apparent differences in intonation that occur in the lower register of the ney when sounded with the equal tempered guitar. Both musicians are aware of this and make attempts to attenuate this through instrumental gestural techniques (e.g. lip movements, bending guitar strings), and avoiding particular tone groups. While the ney in this study is tuned to an equal tempered E, the scales that ST uses combine tetra chords (containing three fractional intervals that form a perfect fourth) in the upper and lower registers. Explaining how this is occurring, Iranian tar37 player and musicologist Aref Toloei, who was present in the VCR session states, “the higher tetra chords exist in the range of guitar, but the lower ones don’t […], which is why you can hear it as being out of tune.” This illustrates one of the obstacles that networked musicians face when playing across cultural and musical traditions. Attempting to attenuate their tuning, both players developed a range of approaches to deal with this that include effective gestures such as breath, lip, and finger techniques on the ney, and bending strings over fret board positions on the neck of the guitar. In a series of modification gestures at 4:53, MH reaches over to his effects unit to change and lengthen the reverb setting, and at 5:08 he places his guitar pick on the table and begins playing with his fingers. The subtle gestural change from playing with a guitar pick to finger plucking can be heard in the warmer less percussive sound of the guitar, which along with the extended reverb now implicitly suggests the atmosphere for the following section. MH then begins, slow descending ostinato arpeggio lines in E minor which creating a harmonic base for ST to continue to play ney over. This generates a homophonic interaction that begins in small (conjunct) intervals that become wider and more expressive as it develops. At 5:38, ST manipulates the timbre of the ney to express an emotive sense of melancholy through a combination of breathiness, trembling lip movements and shaking of the instrument, creating an intimate, vibrato like sound from the instrument. This is reinforced with a legato (gentle attack) and longer durational phrasing, which are significant of this experiential meaning. As musicologist AT points out “it was a vibration made by the lips 37

Long necked string instrument shared by many countries of the Middle East & Caucasus region.

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[…] it makes it higher or lower” translating a comment from ST, translator OT contributes, “it is also a transition from one note to another.” At this development stage of the interaction, the combinations of the guitarist finger plucking slow, timbrally “warm” descending tonal patterns processed with a long reverb triggers a response from the ney player ST, who then emulates a similarly responsive timbre through employing the techniques described above. This creates an experientially intimate and atmospheric sense within the improvisation, which is reflected in ST’s comments when asked about the particular gestural movement of his fingers and lips, ST comments, “I was trying to be atmospheric, and that was the feeling that I was getting from the guitar player, so I wanted to create an atmosphere.” ST is able to perceive a combination of the guitar changing timbre from a “bright,” percussive plectrum sound to “warmer” finger plucking (Brislin, Lonner & Thorndike 1973, p. 55) combined with descending ostinato patterns, which appears to influence his response at this point in the improvisation. The combination of amplitude, timbre, descending pitch contours, note articulation and duration are well established parameters of communication of contemplative tenderness in music, and as discussed earlier have been rigorously defined from a number of empirical studies of “cue utilization in performers communication of emotion in music” (Juslin & Sloboda 2010, p. 463). While studies of the communication of emotion in music to date are based on collocated music performance, it is argued that these same attributes are paramount to expression and interpretation in networked improvised music performance. In the absence of visual cues, they become important signifiers for networked musicians to communicate and respond to experiential meaning in networked interaction. Demonstrating another variation of this at 6:25, the improvisation pauses to a resting point and MH again gestures to adjust the level of delay on his effects unit. ST then initiates the following interaction by moving up a register on the ney, and begins by replaying a melody that emerged in the opening twenty seconds of the improvisation at 0:18. MH responds to this higher pitched, wider range melody by increasing the pitch range of the accompanying ostinato chord pattern in E minor. This section of interaction builds and then concludes by returning to the tonic as the players finish in an imitative call and response three-note ascending melodic pattern. In a combination of modification gestures of lip movements and gentle shaking of the instrument, ST affects an undulating and very breathy, vibrato like soft timbre on the ney that eludes to a sense of “tendereness” through combinations of 146

sound as previously described in studies of cue utilisation (Juslin & Sloboda 2010, p. 463). He also motions his body forwards and backwards, which places him in and out of range of the microphone.38 The lower pitches are played in closer proximity to the microphone expressing a closer social distance in aural perspective, and the higher pitcher further away, making them more distant, moving his sound between figure and ground like perspectives. When asked about this section, he responds by describing this physical posturing as part of an “attitude” to his playing where his gestures perform the role of an embodied, metaphysical meaning in his playing. This researcher pauses the video and asks ST to his comment on his playing at this moment: RM: It seems that when you play lower (register) the notes are louder and when you play higher that they are softer – but it is also because you move away from the microphone […] Why do you move away from the microphone when you go higher? ST: It depends on the player’s situation it’s moody (in English). RM: You moved away from the microphone, so that means that you can’t hear yourself as much though. ST: No, no I just enjoy it like that (in English). (ST speaks with OT - for translation) OT: It is more like a stance, a positioning yourself, more of a personal attitude. (OT clarifies the situation with ST who responds to both in OT & AT in Farsi). (translation) AT: It adds his interpretation. (ST disagrees with in translation and clarifies further in Farsi with AT & OT) OT: No it’s more about attitude, feeling and his personality coming through when he does that. (ST speaks to OT in Farsi) (translation) OT: He says he is drowning in his music when he performs those gestures. So in my interpretation what I think he is trying to say is that there is no distinction between the music and his personality. There is a unification, the meaning of the sound and the meaning that he is thinking of cognitively becomes one at that point 38

While ST moves in and out of the microphone range he also intimated that he was having problems with his audio monitoring at this point. This was due to him moving “off mic,” which in an acoustic performance scenario would not have provided the fluctuations in volume that he perceived. It should be noted that a substantial amount of time had been spent on satisfying his monitoring requirements before the session, and it had been well balanced by the media lab engineer.

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As ST moves in and out of the microphone range it forms a crucial component of his creative expression, at this moment, and at other times throughout the improvisation. It is a salient example of culture specific meaning in which the emotive qualities in his playing are being produced through a combination of modification gestures (shaking the instrument, lip movements and breathiness) and his physical placement of sound from a figure perspective into a less prominent position in the interaction. He views it as a metaphysical unification of body and sound, illustrating the cultural underpinning of his perception of experiential meaning at this point. Continuing the analysis (8:15 - 9:31), the final segment of this excerpt is generated by a regular 4/4, ostinato line played repetitively in single note pattern by MH on guitar. These measured patterns of time immediately give the music a sense of motion, which ST responds to in a fast wave like melodic pattern in the upper register of the ney. This interaction includes significant modification gestures by ST as he manipulates the timbre of the ney with his lips to pitch bend tones, and add vibrato to the sound. Interestingly, what can be observed from the clip is the way in which the repetitive single note pattern played by MH affects such a dramatic change in tempo and intensity in the movement of the music. As Larson argues this results from hearing rhythmic musical successions as physical motion (Larson 2012), and this is certainly demonstrated in the way that ST responds on the ney. MH recalls the dynamic response to this sudden change in tempo, and deciding to continue the pattern, “I remember thinking wow he’s really going for it here. I think we were really getting some confidence, so I stayed hitting those notes.” MH is not only reflecting on an emerging strategy in action but his perception of a growing confidence between the two musicians. It demonstrates how musicians experience, and adapt to networked dislocated collaboration without the visual signification of body language, facial expression and co-located presence. As networked musicians cognitively adjust to their dispersed interaction, their reflective experiences illustrate the ways in which their perception is structured by metaphors of movement such as the MOVING MUSIC metaphor and orientational metaphors such as the TELE-MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphor, where they look for each other, explore, retrace their steps, come across obstacles and eventually navigate their way through. What also emerges are the ways in which the musicians begin to improvise from sequential adjacency pairs in call and response, to simultaneity in exchanges as collaborative familiarity grows. This pattern also recurs when blocks of interaction reach a conclusion and the musicians begin the process 148

of further development. At 9:13 MH ceased playing the ostinato pattern and it can be observed that the interaction immediately drops in tempo and intensity. ST then reiterated his last melodic phrase in a slow legato bringing the segment to a close.

4.2.4 Excerpt 2: 0:00 – 1:52 Case Study Location 20:23 – 22:15

4.2.5 Excerpt Summary Excerpt 2 examines “dialogical interplay” in rhythmic exchanges between both musicians initiated on guitar and responded to on ney. It was selected for the ways in which it demonstrates the difficulties, or obstacles that musicians face in interacting across culturally familiar rhythm cycles. In their attempt to build a faster rhythmic interaction, they struggled to synchronise their playing together until the last twenty seconds of the clip. It is argued that their ability to move the two rhythmic lines together in this way is enabled by experience of musical motion in the rhythm, with their experience of physical movement.

4.2.6 Descriptive Analysis The segment that this analysis pertains to emerges from a slow, loosely structured blues progression initiated on guitar (from 18:36) on full length recording that gradually deconstructs into sequential adjacency pairs, before coming to a resting point. 39 The musicians are playing notes of extended durations with increasing pauses, signifying a sense of closure to the music. MH speaks into the microphone “do you want to play something fast?” MH reflects on what he experienced at this point, “I thought he might want to play something fast. I might have been leading it on this slow melodic thing, so probably more for his sake […], he didn’t answer me.” MH perceives his role in the interaction as having been “leading it on this slow melodic thing” indicating a sensitivity for “dialogical interplay” as a shared collaborative approach for ST to contribute further to. This is the 2nd time he has spoken through the 39

This can be heard by locating it on the full length recording of case study II. Available at http://telesound.net/data/

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microphone and received no response from ST. While microphones were supplied to musicians in all three case studies, direct verbal communication only occurred during this one, and was always instigated by the focus musician MH. Asked why he didn’t speak throughout the session ST states: “I just tried to get close to him musically” and at the end of the VCR session musicologist AT provides some additional cultural context to this: AT: In Persian music it is not the way to speak during improvisations. In Indian music like ragas (sic) they do speak, make jokes and even tell a story but in Persian music it is just silence and this includes the audience too. RM (researcher): does this include whether there is an audience present or not ? AT (musicologist): The audience is not important, it is a matter of playing seriously, even for yourself alone.

While ST doesn’t verbally respond to the question posed by MH, he never the less takes the suggestion and begins to play a fast wavelike melody in E minor on ney. MH brings in a syncopated (metered rhythmic emphasis) ostinato pattern on guitar in 3/2 simple triple metrre at a tempo of approximately 130 BPM (Beats Per Minute). ST then joins the interaction with a faster conjunct wave like melody that moves across the guitar line without synchronising. This causes the interaction to falter and stop, resuming again as the musicians attempt to attenuate their playing. Musicologist AT describes the rhythm that ST is playing as loosely based on a rhythm of 6/16 with similarities to what is known known as Chàhàrmezrab, a rhythmic pattern for both solo and ensemble usually based on the melody immediately preceding it. It can also be applied to any of the material in the Radif, a collection of melodies, modes, moods, rhythmic patterns, plucking figures, and ornamentation techniques in the Persian musical and theoretical repertory (Toloei, 2012). At 0.33 MH stops plucking the ostinato line and begins to strum percussively against dampened (muted) strings as he attempts to lock into the metre that ST is playing in. What emerges here is one of the problematic issues that arise for networked musicians improvising across musical traditions. For a Persian ney player the Chàhàrmezrab is a chance to demonstrate style and virtuosity. It is traditionally a solo piece, and like much urban Persian music, it is based on a meters such as 6/16, 12/8, 12/16, 10/16 but often augmented by ornamentation and free rhythms (Heydrian & Reiss 2005, p. 525). The sizeable solo repertory of the ney also means that while players adhere to specific metres,

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even when accompanied by another instrument there is an expected level of rubato (tempo variation) in the playing. While the two time signatures 3/2 & 6/16 in this example share divisible time values, they have different meters (pulse patterns). What can be observed however is that the musicians eventually synchronise by adjusting the pulse (meter) and this is born out in the way that ST describes his interaction as trying to follow the guitarist. (translation) AT: (musicologist): he's playing in 6/16, which is what I told you they played in Chàhàrmezrab. [ST: speaks in Farsi (Persian)] OT: (translator): But then the guitarist didn’t follow him. AT: I think it was a bit fast for a guitar player to keep up with. [ST: speaks in Farsi (further translation)] OT: With the electric guitar he couldn’t keep up but maybe with acoustic guitar it would be different. AT: It should be something like that (clapping out the rhythm), followed by ST tapping rhythm out on the desk. RM: (temporarily sounds like it is synchronizing) Does it drift into time there ? ST: I tried to follow the guitarist (in English) RM: So you followed the guitarist time ? ST: Yes.

AT’s musicological knowledge of Persian music is invaluable here, as the rhythmic interaction in this exchange is structured by a beat that lands on every 6th semiquaver to that of every half note. The interaction stops and starts as each player attempts to synchronise with one another through either stopping and restarting, or pausing and waiting for the other musician to rejoin the improvisation. For MH this also involves playing with ‘fingerstyle technique,’ playing directly with fingers, fingernails and/or picks attached to fingers to achieve different qualities of sound. Both musicians continue to attempt to lock their interaction together where at 1:34-1:52 the rhythm begins to synchronise over the last 20 seconds of the clip, as ST continues playing the same rhythmic line but gradually shifting the meter of his performance from 6/16 into 3/2. ST (ney) begins to synchronise the downbeat of his 6/16 to that of MH’s (guitar) 3/2 in what Larson would describe as “rhythmic gravity” [as] the quality we attribute to a rhythm 151

(when we map its flow onto a physical gesture) that reflects the impact physical gravity has on the physical gesture onto which we map that rhythm” (Larson 2012, p. 149). ST perceives this as “following the guitarists time,” his perception structured by the physical sense of following an object in motion in the MUSICIAN IS THE MUSIC metaphor. While the TELE-MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphor is viewed as the predominant conceptual schematic structure, there are likely to be many others that reflect the complexity of networked creative and cognitive activity.

4.2.7 Excerpt 3: 0:00 – 3:44 Case Study Location 22:19 – 26:03

4.2.8 Excerpt Summary This excerpt examines timbral qualities of the exchanges between the two musicians in which timbre plays a central role in the interaction. It occurs immediately after excerpt 2 (just analysed), and emerges out of the problematic rhythmic exchanges that the musicians have just been engaged in. The interaction illustrates the musicians focusing on instrumental gestures such as lip, breath, vibrato on ney, and extended playing techniques and electronic processing of guitar to achieve gradations of sound qualities rather than salient melodic or rhythmic motifs.

4.2.9 Descriptive Analysis As stated, this excerpt follows immediately after the deconstruction of the previous example, and also demonstrates a recurring structure of “vignettes,” or thematically organised improvisations that occur throughout all three case studies. Indeed MH reflects on this immediately after this section: The whole improvisation seems to be a series of short pieces or vignettes that are really going for a minute or so. I have just thought that I didn’t think of this when we were playing to try for a 30-minute piece of music. We were nearly there with the motifs coming backwards and forwards and when things aren’t working, it’s like I go to the effects, or try a different style but it is definitely an abrupt change. It would have been interesting to go for 30-minutes rather than lots of trying to work sections out. In watching it now I would have liked to have seen that part developed

Evident in the interaction in this excerpt is that as each vignette deconstructs, the musicians return to sequential playing until another theme emerges, and overlapping simultaneity once again becomes the predominant mode of interaction. The deconstruction of improvised passages (also documented in previous excerpts) is a familiar structural trait 152

of freely improvised music resulting in a fragmentation of “formalised tendencies that may have developed, creating space for new developments […] characterised by a letting-go, a detachment from the piece” (Samson 1997, p. 4). In this example the musicians continue to play in a fragmented sequential interaction until 00:29. The intervention to this actually occurred 10 seconds earlier as MH extended the level of reverb and delay on his effects unit, which gave the guitar sound a long tail of decay transforming his sound, and provoking a new exploration of material. In the highlighted transcript above, MH actually refers to using the effects unit in this manner, and it is apparent that the changing the qualities in the guitar sound propels the improvisation into new musical territory. His technique is to use this long tail reverb and delay processed sound and strum the guitar strings in very short, fast up and downward motions along the neck of the instrument while moving between two and three note positions. The affect of his is that the guitar sound becomes a composite of percussive two & three note tones, fused in long reverb and delay. This creates a progression of unified timbrally percussive tonal voices that underscore the interaction as MH describes: I have a bit of reverb and a delay, and I’m almost scratching the guitar and playing very fast [singing an example dlldlldlldlldllldlldlldll] and sliding my left hand up and down the fret board, in between notes, so rather than going note to note I’m sliding up and down while playing it very fast. I’m concentrating on the texture of the sound with the reverb and delay gives it fullness, makes it sound like there’s lots and lots of notes […] I just stumbled across it and thought “oh I haven’t done this before” and think I will probably do that again as I really enjoyed it and it works as a bed, or I thought so anyway.

The TELE-IMPROVISATION AS MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphor continues to underscore the musicians’ conceptual awareness, and this is again demonstrated here in MH’s perception of stumbling across a playing technique with the use of effects. His sense of “scratching the guitar and playing very fast, sliding up and down the neck,” illustrates a physical structuring of experience in the experiential senses of touch, motion, and spatial orientation. ST’s response to this percussively timbral guitar sound is a series of very fast trills on ney that emulate the reverberated pointillist patterns being sounded on the guitar. In a series of modification gestures ST also manipulates the sound of the ney through lip and breathing techniques and gently shaking the instrument to create undulating timbral effects. This develops into a breathy vibrato sound that is accentuated when he begins playing a series of long duration notes, which are picked up by MH as a reciprocal part of the 153

interaction, “I was consciously trying to lay a bed of sound here, bringing it up and down in volume and he was playing quite a shaky tone too.” Again it is spatial orientational metpahors that are present in his conception of “laying a bed of sound, bringing it up and down in volume” as he perceives his role as providing a layer (underneath), and over which, the ney could play. Just as significant however is the imitative approach taken by ST. While much of the sequential playing has been melodically imitative in nature, this is the first section that timbre plays a specific role in this way, and then perceived and acted upon by one, or other of the collaborators. It is the undulating (up and down) qualities of the guitar sound that is providing an experiential sense of shaking that MH perceives in ST’s playing. While this would have been visually apparent in a colocated setting, it becomes the experiential basis of “shaking” where the “felt significance” in the sound is perceived by MH. At 3:00 ST stops playing briefly (to breathe) and rejoins at 3:08 with an ascending conjunct melodic passage on ney that triggers MH to follow on guitar in likewise ascending motion. Again it is the rising melody that draws MH into joining in with the upward motion of the melody, which begins to create a sense of impulsion and tension. The tension is finally released when the ascension finishes, and ST moves back down the scale and MH stops playing the accompanying timbral soundscape. He then punctuates the finish with a couple of plucked single notes again adjusting the level of delay on the guitar as they feedback the signal out of sync with the final interaction as it again deconstructs into the beginnings of the next section.

4.3 Case Study III Case study III is a 40-minutre networked improvisation that features 3 musicians (Fig. 18), Sydney based guitarist Michael Hanlon (focus musician) Malaysian tabla player Shaun Premnath, also Sydney based, and Peyman Sayyadi, Persian tanbur, an Iranian musician of Kurdish origin, previously based in Tehran, and now living in Montreal, Canada. The study was conducted with Sayyadi performing from his home studio in Montreal, and the two Sydney based musicians performing on campus at UTS separated in two studio labs in the Bon March building of the city campus. None of the musicians knew each other or had ever met. Table 3 outlines the key performance indicators of the study.

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Fig. 19 Screen shot of Michael Hanlon (guitarist and focus musician) top left, Shaun Premnath (tabla) bottom left, performing at separate locations at UTS, Sydney with Peyman Sayyadi (tanbur) right, performing from home studio in Montreal, Canada.

Table 3: Key performance indicators of case study III. Musician & reference ID

Nationality

Instrument

Location

Date

Local time

Translators present in VCR

Comments

Michael Hanlon (focus musician) ID = MH

Australian

Guitar + electronic effects

UTS, Multimedia lab CB.3.4.10

22/1/2012

11:00

n/a

Participated in previous pilot study

Shaun Premnath

Indian

Tabla

UTS Sound Studio CB.3.3.17

22/1/2012

11:00

n/a

Shaun is an Malaysian Australian of South Indian descent

Iranian

Persian Tanbur

Home studio, Montreal, Canada.

21/1/2012

22:30

n/a

Sayyadi was performing at 22:30 the evening before and during the northern winter.

ID =SP

Peyman Sayyadi

ID =PS

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4.3.1 Excerpt 1: 0:00 – 9:31 Case Study location 0:00 – 9:31

4.3.2 Summary The first excerpt is a nine and a half minute example of the opening minutes of the improvisation. It has been selected for the ways in which it demonstrates a combination of rhythmic, melodic and timbral interaction between networked musicians meeting for the first time across large geographic areas and time zones. It also contains an example of how the events and sonic characteristics of dispersed locations can impact on the extended physical spaces of collaborators and the ensuing interaction. One example of this occurs through the interruption of a mobile phone ringing in the Montreal location, and the analysis examines how it is perceived in the Sydney studios, and its affect on the interaction. The improvisation takes place across the Northern and Southern hemispheres with Peyman Sayyadi SP (tanbur) performing on a winters evening, 14 hours behind the musicians Michael Hanlon MH (guitar) and Shaun Premnath SP (tabla) in Sydney, who are participating during the middle of the morning on a particularly hot and humid day, albeit in air-conditioned studios.

4.3.3 Descriptive Analysis The interaction begins with percussive unmetered finger rolls on tabla and clusters of over driven (distorted) long durational tones in E minor on guitar. MH mixes the guitar sound to a low volume “ground” like aural perspective, with tabla foregrounded as figure. This is indicative of how he conceives the role of guitar in this early part of the improvisation and reflects on this within the first couple of minutes of the VCR session, “I’m only feathering away here, the tabla starts and that was an obvious place for me to start, and I thought I would start with something low to create a bed.” MH conceives of wanting to “start with something low, to create a bed” of sound with the guitar. His intention is informed by his perception of the joint percussive timbres of the tanbur and tabla, which he experienced in the pre-performance warm up and reveals later in his transcript to be guiding his creative decisions at this point. The percussiveness of the timbres represents height in sound (frequencies) that he perceives as needing to be 156

complimented with a lower sound. Structured by metaphors of VERTICALITY, his cognitive response here is to situate his sound underneath the interaction with something “low,” which he does with soft timbral playing that is low in pitch, volume. Concurrently, SP enters the improvisation with light drum rolls on tabla with the tops of his fingers, creating abstract unmetered patterns of percussive sound. Asked if these techniques were particular to traditional Indian Classical music: No I’m just setting a mood or ambiance. I thought I would get the vibe going. When I was doing this, I had in mind a rainforest and that sort of water trickling down and just tried to imitate that as a way to start it off […] when I start something off and I don’t know what is going on, I put a picture in front of me of how I want to start. I’m quite a strong visual person. When I start something off I just want to see where I want to go, kind of like an escape kind of thing. Also it depends on how I feel on the day. If I’m feeling adventurous I might start straight away with a beat but if I want to start calmly, I’ll start free-time-ish ambient sort of thing.

SP uses a “concrete rich” metaphor of the rainforest to initiate his interaction, which itself is structured by the TELE-IMPROVISATION AS MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphors as depicted in his statement “When I start something off I just want to see where I want to go, kind of like an escape kind of thing.” While he is describing a facet of his approach to initiating the improvisation, the subjective mind image of the rain forest plays a secondary role to the way that the MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphor is structuring his perception. As stated in section 3.5.3, it is important not to mistake visual representations or verbal descriptions for the actual image schema itself. However, as becomes apparent in this example, concrete rich metaphors are often conceptually structured by related image schematic structure, in this case of the MUSICAL LANDSCAPE. While the improvisation between guitar and tabla has commenced, the tanbur player PS is yet to enter the interaction, and has been sitting listening to the developing sound and reflects, “Well here I am waiting for resolution, and waiting to see what the guys are going to do and I’m going to introduce myself to the environment.” PS’s approach of waiting for “resolution” indicates his perception of the TELEIMPROVISATION AS MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphor as he waits for the other two musicians to move within it, to “see what the guys are going to do” or the direction they will take, so that he can “introduce” himself to the “environment.” The “environment” here is comprised of the musicians and the music as landscape within his extended physical space of his location, and that of the other musicians. 157

At 0:40 PS enters with a single downward strum in G major from which he gradually builds an ascending melodic phrase that develops in call and response like sequential adjacency pairs in his interaction with SP on tabla. As was observed in the beginning of the previous study, this use of sequential interaction is indicative of the musicians developing a musical “rapport” which occurs when sequentiality is replaced by simultaneity in their interaction. As the players become more familiar with each other’s sound, so to does the overlapping (simultaneity) of their playing. PS reflects on the moment he first enters the improvisation: That is the moment I decided on the scale I was using. It’s called Màhur in Persian music. It’s major and common between Persian and Indian music, it’s our common language […] it’s reminding me of my memories of India […] I’m more influenced by the tabla in this part. I think it’s because we had a short play before the session and the influence is still going on in me.

The interactivity between the tabla and tanbur is illustrated not only in the analysis of the recorded music but also in the way in which PS is perceiving the interaction with the tabla as a “common language.” This illustrates the pervasiveness of the MUSIC AS LANGUAGE metaphor, where “passages in music are conceived as sentences, with individual notes or clusters of notes taken to be the equivalent of words” (Johnson 2008, p. 235). While Johnson cautions against a strict syntactical interpretation of the MUSIC AS LANGUAGE metaphor, the social semiotic underpinning of the research ensures that the analysis focuses on multimodal areas of expression (pitch, rhythm and timbre) in the musicians’ interaction. The experiential qualities of the engagement are further illustrated by PS recounting his memory of the earlier interaction between tanbur and tabla, and its continued embodied influence in him. At 0:57, the collective concentration is punctuated by the sound of a mobile phone in PS’s home studio in Montreal, which briefly cuts the flow of the interaction. PS’s partner is present in the room and she mutes the phone but not before it has cut across the perception of the musicians in Sydney, whose facial expressions demonstrate the interruption to their concentration, commenting: MH: The phone threw us all off a bit there. SP: I thought we would re-run, I wasn’t expecting it to be honest.

PS did not comment on it during the VCR session, preferring instead to describe his interaction over the music at this point. However, the video clearly shows his attention being diverted to the phone ringing, and then to his wife, smiling, acknowledging the 158

inopportune moment of the phone call. This highlights the unique nature of telematic interaction, in which the characteristics of distributed environments may impact on the perception and interaction of dispersed collaborators. This can potentially include physiological states such as fatigue or alertness, occurring in opposite climatic seasons and waking hours of the day. Networked musicians collaborate across large geographic and social domains where circadian rhythms will be tuned to the environment in which the musicians are based, for example tanbur player PS performing in the late evening of a Canadian winter, and the Sydney based musicians performing in the mid-morning of a Southern summer. While it is not the remit of this study to investigate these potential influences, empirical studies (Olson 2003) demonstrate that circadian rhythms do influence intellectual functioning in teleconferencing collaborative intellectual work. This is an area for future research. From 1:19, the improvisation recovers from the mobile phone interruption and develops in sequential exchanges between tanbur strumming a conjunct wavelike melody of E, F, C, A, G, answered by small percussive replies from the tabla. MH also continues to situate the guitar in a “ground” like perspective, foregrounding the interaction between the other two instruments with low volume overdriven sound processed with reverb and delay. It can be observed in the video, 1:30-2:07 that his attention is focussed between his guitar playing and the effects unit. As he outlines in the VCR transcript at this moment, the decisions he makes about the processing of his sound, and the timbre he wishes to achieve is related to what he perceives as the percussive sonic characteristics of the combination of tabla and tanbur. Commenting on his perception and the intention: I wanted to start with a washy bed […] it was a distortion but lower in the mix with reverb and delay and I also rolled some of the top off it to make it big and washy […] It’s a broad bed of sound that doesn’t really have a melodic structure, I think that’s what I was looking for there. I had heard the other two instruments and one is obviously percussive instrument, and the other was still very percussive in it’s playing, very sharp in its notes, and I guess I was dropping down in registers just searching for that place where it felt good for the three of us.

In this statement MH demonstrates how his experience is being structured by both orientational

and

ontological

metaphors

through

SOUND

AS

SUBSTANCE,

VERTICALITY and TELE-IMPROVISATION AS MUSICAL LANDSCAPE schemas. He “feels” the percussive playing and “sharp” notes produced by the tabla and tanbur is requiring him to play, or underscore (spatially underneath) the sharper percussive sounds with a “washy bed.” He does this by “searching for that place where it felt good for the three

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of us,” illustrating again this conception of not only searching around a musical landscape but also the best place to be in that landscape. These ontological and spatial metaphors are so pervasive that they are also structuring his approach to the frequencies of sound that he wishes to achieve. This emerges from his professional as a sound engineer and music producer as well as a guitarist. Describing how he “rolled some of the top off,”, he is referring to the technical act of removing frequencies that occur in the top range of high-pitched instruments or sound sources typically around 4000 Hz. Other frequently used terms that demonstrate these metaphors are “trim the tops,” “taking a little bit out of the bottom end,” (removing bass frequencies around 60 Hz), “chopping some of the mids” (removing frequencies around 300 Hz in the middle band area). Of course the reverse can also be applied in that frequencies may need to be added where they are missing or need boosting. They all refer to creating space within a frequency range of sound, which is conceptually structured by the ontological SOUND IS SUBSTANCE metaphor, based on physically experiencing an oversupply, or deficit of frequencies in balancing a mix of sound. As MH continues voicing durational processed clusters of notes, it is within these moments that PS perceives the guitar as following the tanbur and tabla in the musical landscape, and that it has a familiarity with the harmonic progression (direction) that the improvisation is taking, as PS states, “I think the guitar is following us in this section, the guitarist was so, I thought familiar with Indian and Persian music.” This demonstrates not only the metonymical basis of musician as musical instrument, but also what he perceives as the guitarists familiarity “with Indian and Persian music,” which is PS’s experience as he joins them in navigating a path through the musical landscape. He feels MH is familiar with the direction and territory of the MUSICAL LANDSCAPE. Tabla player, SP also expresses similar sentiments in his comments on the sequential nature of the exchanges between tanbur and tabla, with the addition of the MUSIC AS LANGUAGE metaphor, “Here we are slowly getting into it, a bit of call and response, very free-timish, (sic) it’s good we were talking.” SP perceives the musicians “slowly getting into it” (CONTAINER) in a “call and response […] it’s good we were talking” echoing the perception that PS had described earlier of “sharing a common language.”

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At 2:04, the sequential nature of the interaction gradually moves into overlapping exchanges as SP (tabla) and PS (tanbur) become more familiar with each other’s playing and the rhythmic cycle is established. PS develops a melodic line constructed from his opening modal melodic phrases, recalling and developing parts of the previous melodic material. The guitar is still placed in a ground like perspective passively underscoring tabla and tanbur with processed low-pitched drones and tonal clusters, there is also a growing familiarisation between the three players as they begin to lock into the rhythm cycle provided by tabla player SP, who describes his perception of the interaction: This is where we get a rhythm into it, an 8-beat and quite common called Bhajani, which is a common rhythm cycle played for religious ceremonies. It’s a very simple thing in 4/4 but in an eight beat cycle. There is no such thing as 4 for us, as most of our stuff is double time relative to a Western time signature as 8 is our common time.

Asked to expand on the religious significance of the rhythm cycle SP responds: With this beat for example we have the common deities in Indian mythology say if it’s an invocation to the mother goddess, nine out of ten times any songs that are composed are very melodious because people will go to the temple and they want something to sing that is simple, so most people can just clap and get their groove into it. No one is a born musician, so it’s simple for them to clap to, hence why it is called BHAJAN after BHAJANI, which is the rhythm cycle.

The interaction between tabla and tanbur is significant in the approaches that both musicians are taking. It has a relatively slow tempo that moves in and out of a regular meter, the guitar is voicing grainy, overdriven tonal beds of sound as the tanbur delivers a melodic line accenting the pulse of the meter in certain phrases. Tanbur player, PS describes his contribution at this point as drawing on a melody inspired by an old Kurdish love song. It happens most of the time when I’m playing my melodies, they come across my mind and I like to use them to make my music more ethnic,40 more familiar. It’s a kind of connection I want to connect to the listeners what atmosphere I’m in. It’s just like reciting a famous quote from an old poet during a speech […] I don’t play it note for note, I just refer to that melody and the listeners can recognise that melody that they have heard before, just like me. It is not a major part of my music, I just refer 20% of my music like this […] the one we were discussing is an old love song from Kurdistan.

While the participating musicians would not necessarily be aware of the melodic or rhythmic nuances of each other’s culture of religious music or love songs, both of these forms contain experiential characteristics that have been found to be common to the emotional perception of “tendereness” in the previously highlighted psychological empirical studies of cue utilsation in performers communication of emotion in music in section 3.2.2 (Juslin & Sloboda 2010, p. 463). Characteristics include slow mean tempo, 40

The use the term ethnic here refers to music that is “more preserved and is closer to the ancient tradition” (Johnson 2007, p. 120 original in italic) of Persian and Kurdish culture. It often refers to music of regional origins.

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slow tone attacks, low sound level, small sound variability, soft timbre, large timing variations, accents on stable notes, soft durational contrasts and final ritardando (Juslin & Sloboda 2010, p. 463), which are all present in this example. Many of these characteristics are also mirrored in Fonagy and Magdics (1972) and van Leeuwen (1999) examples of the experiential meaning potential in patterns of speech, and their application to music as discussed in 3.2.1 demonstrating their application across a range of interdisciplinary theoretical perspectives. The improvisation continues in simultaneous interaction with the tanbur building further melodic complexity around the evolving modal melody. At 2:30 the musicians are engaged in fluid improvisatory interaction demonstrating their increasing familiarisation with each other’s sound and playing styles. This in turn provides the space for more experimentation, which is evident in the way that the tanbur and tabla have settled into evenly metered homophony with tanbur taking a figure like perspective. At 2:55 tanbur decides to resolve to the terminus or end phase (Olson & Olson 2003) of the melodic passage before adding a fast wavelike rubato (stretching time) ornamentation to the last phrase. SP perceives this as moving out of the rhythmic cycle, and requiring him to attenuate his playing to a faster rhythm that he feels PS is pursuing. That’s the point where I thought we had established a comfort zone, and I though ok lets add a bit of colour to it but I think he got the wrong interpretation that and he stepped up his game a bit and got a bit faster. I thought oh “what are you doing?” and then as I said before, I had to play catch up. I liked his syncopation and displacement of the rhythm but it wasn’t working. I felt because my 1st beat could have been his 3rd beat I had to slow myself or he had to catch up or something, we were just trying to find a common ground. That was my struggle.

Emerging here, are cultural differences in the musicians perception of musical motion in which SP’s 8-beat rhythm cycle has distinct steps and landing places that are not being strictly followed by PS. This creates consternation in SP as he feels he has to slow down, or PS had to catch up, and as documented this increasingly becomes a feature of the way that SP perceives the interaction between tabla and tanbur throughout the improvisation. Continuing to underscore this interaction, MH voices clusters of E minor tones on guitar, which at 3:46 he develops into short conjunct melodic phrases. MH comments on this short single note phrase, and his continued background accompaniment describing how he is “still looking around for what I liked” searching for his place in the musical landscape. “I’m playing faster and quite percussive here but still looking around for what I liked, I 162

noticed I did some more picking and more strumming and single notes and it still creates that droney sound.” At 4:09 PS introduces a dynamic shift in the music by playing (imposing) a melody that is a further development of the opening Màhur modal phrases. This is done with an increased tempo, volume and frenetic playing style that again moves across the rhythm cycle that the tabla is sounding. This pushes the improvisation from a dialogical simultaneity into a strongly homophonic interaction dominated by tanbur, foregrounded and accompanied by the tabla and guitar. PS comments on his perception of this moment: PS: Here I am trying to introduce this melody that I have just made to tabla and guitar, and I am hoping they hear it and will try to speak the same and play with it. RM: (researcher) do you feel like you are leading it here ? PS: Yes I am, I tried to impose my melody because I am thinking it is the common word between us. RM: So you feel the tanbur is the lead instrument between the guitar and tabla ? PS: For this moment yes, and I think they are following.

This dominant melodic line from tanbur continues to develop through a series of higher scalar variations of the Màhur mode. Initially, the increase in tempo results in a more regular meter and synchronisation between the musicians, however the tanbur continues to push and vary the tempo according to the dynamics of the melody, and at 4:40 the interaction again begins to deconstruct. This deconstruction is also the result of the musicians’ perceiving a thinning in the density of the music through SP dropping his playing down to just finger tapping the meter on the tabla, as he attempts to establish the rhythm cycle again. This repeated action of dropping down to marking a basic meter has become part of the response that SP employs when he feels the rhythm moving too far out of the cycle: SP: Michael was just doing lots of ambiance and setting the mood. From what I can hear it was mainly Peyman and me accompanying. That’s why I shifted to the bass, it wasn’t working, so I just started tapping, actually throughout the piece I am just doing basic taps the whole time as I wasn’t sure where to go. So I thought let me find a beat so I can get back into it again. RM: (researcher) Is that what you are doing there, just counting ? or are you trying to find Peymans meter ? SP: Yes, and also trying to set a beat, so just tap,tap,tap to me it is 1,2,3,4 (referring to PS’s meter) but I’m thinking 12345678, 12345678, so doubling my speed over that. I was just trying to find his pace, so that I could weave everything else back to normal. I also think I got a bit carried away playing with my pulses, so I think he got a bit thrown off there.

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Again there is a clear indication of SP’s perception being structured by his place relative to the other musician’s, and the marking of a pulse becomes a strategy for him to pull the group back together into the same direction or in his words “weave everything else back to normal.” Despite the issues that SP is having with the rhythmic interaction at this point, it doesn’t impact on the dynamic intensity in which the tanbur is engaged. Asked about how he perceived his playing in this section PS comments: I think the influence that I am in is with the tabla, it reminds me of the Indian styles of music and I try to play something that is familiar to him and my influence on him […] is rhythm I think. He discovers my bits and he tries to adapt himself. RM: (researcher) How well do you think that worked? PS: I think it is a common behavior for percussion players, I have a lot of experience playing with percussion players. They try to discover what rhythm you are playing and then follow you, mostly they don’t care about the tonality or melodies. They want to follow the rhythm. RM: What were some of the rhythms you were playing in? PS: They are basically 4 beats and once I played a 7 beat rhythm.

What can be gleaned from the music at this point is the rubato like (stretched) manner that PS weaves the tabur in and out of the 4 beat cycle that is actually being conceived as a rhythm cycle of 8 by SP. Following the first pulse of the 4 beat meter, it can be observed (Fig. 19) at 4:04 that PS begins preempting (circled in red) this first beat in an anacrusis-like manner, while increasing the amount of quarter notes he is playing per bar as it moves from 4/4, to 5/4 and then 6/4 over the 4/4 or 8/8 rhythm cycle played on tabla. This has the effect of forcing the rhythm cycle forwards in a dynamic temporal motion that can accommodate some of the complex structures of 16th beats that PS uses for the descending modal melodies. This subverting of time by the tanbur imbues the passage with an urgency creating a tension between objective and subjective time. PS is using this device, as a point of control, as he said previously, to “impose my melody because I am thinking it is the common word between us.”

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Fig. 20 Musical score example of the way in which the tanbur (top line) preempts the first beat of the cycle in an anacrusis like manner and then pushes through increasing meters of 5/4 and then 6/4 while tabla attempts to maintain the original 4/4 represented as C (common 4/4 time) in an 8 beat cycle .

Without being able to read music, what can be observed is the pre-emptive quaver note ♪ in bar 1 (circled in red) of 3.1, and the increasing meter (pulse) of time signatures 5/4 and then 6/4 on the top line (tanbur), while the tabla remains in common 4/4 time as indicated by the C in the time signature. As can be heard in the example, this has the effect of pushing the motion of the music forward, requiring the other musicians to move at a similar pace emphasising the experiential meaning potential of a variety of signifiers within this interaction. These include the tanbur and tabla moving from a sequential call and response, to the tanbur dominating the interaction. This occurs not only by tanbur placing itself melodically as “figure” in the aural perspective but in its subversion of time within the rhythmic cycle, as PS states, to “impose” a melody. However, for SP, it is not only the fluctuations of tempo but also the non-visual networked experience itself that is also providing a challenge: The whole thing of being a tabla player is that I have to follow the person I am accompanying. If he goes faster I have to go faster, and likewise with slowing down. For us, I think it is also the visual element that helps us. Take that out and it is a bit of a challenge but we just have to rely on our ears. We are so reliant on seeing each other like facial expressions, smiles and I am doing this now.

While the ontological considerations of dislocated and geographically dispersed interaction have been previously discussed, it is worth reminding ourselves of the implications for musicians’ perceptions. In Indian Classical music, particularly in the performance of a raga, tabla traditionally maintains the rhythm cycle set by the soloist, and performers sit in a semi-circle where they can see each other. While the raga opens with an alaap (unmetered improvised section) most often played solo on instruments such as sitar sarod, rudraveena, sarangi and bansuri, the percussive instrument tabla is responsible for augmenting the tempo 165

set by the soloist into the taal (rhythm cycle) that introduces the next section known as the gat (main rhythmic section). In a co-located setting this is implemented with cues between the musicians through significant facial expression and bodily movement, and its absence is something that SP has to adjust to. The way that he perceives these timing issues is also illustrated in the way that he experiences musical motion. This is evident not only in the music itself but in his verbal reflections such as “I was playing too fast,” “he had to play catch up,” “doubling my speed over that.” These statements demonstrate how the experiential characteristics of the MOVING MUSIC metaphor, is structuring his perception of the tempo disparity, where the source domain of physical motion is structuring the target domain of music (Johnson & Larson 2011). It is only by considering these combined elements that a more complete picture of the interaction begins to emerge. There is more to the interpretation of this passage than just differing musical interpretations of meter and rhythm. For example tanbur, like the ney in the previous study has a large solo repertory where ornamentation and free rhythm are components of the ways in which urban Persian musicians play (Asaf’ev, 1977 see van Leeuwen 1999, p. 102), and this is evident in the rhythmic fluctuations of the performances in both case studies with Persian musicians. As has just been described, the tabla is also traditionally considered both a solo and accompanying instrument. However, when performing with a soloist (vocalist or instrumentalist) there is an organisational hierarchy in which “composition, tempo, and rhythmic cycle is determined by the soloist” (Heydrian & Reiss 2005) and then maintained by rhythmic instruments such as tabla. This is obviously providing consternation for SP as the solo instrument in this example (tanbur) continues fluctuating the tempo constantly moving outside of the established meter that PS originally set. It is also the case as Blacking (1973) argues, “organisational hierarchy” within the musical relationships mirrors the social relationships of a cultural group or society, where “the relationship between patterns of human organisation and the patterns of sound are produced as a result of human interaction" (Neuman 1977, p. 234). One could point to the rigid caste system in both North and Southern India as indicative of a powerful and embedded social phenomenon that instills a need for the observance of hierarchical structure that by its very nature exhibits an intransigence that less hierarchical social groups are subject to.

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In a post VCR follow up SKYPE conversation, PS also described growing up in rural Kurdistan, where he learnt to play the tanbur in an environment in which most members of the community played an instrument for both leisure and ceremonial occasions. He described this as a broad communal activity that involved a large portion of the community and how “it wasn’t until I left that environment that I realised that I was a musician and that it was considered something special” (Sayyadi 2012). While PS had learnt with the requisite discipline to play the instrument to the high standard he has achieved, it also demonstrates the communal and non-hierarchical social conventions of the society he grew up in, and the influence this has on his musical approach. From 5:46, tabla begins a solo rhythmic line and tanbur pauses, maintaining single pulse strums while guitar continues underpinning the interaction with durational tones. SP reflects on how he used this break to reset the rhythm in the hope of bringing the players together again: I think at this point I was doing my own thing because I could easily set the beat and that’s what I did, so he would go “ok that’s the beat lets go with that,” setting up a common ground again.

However, at 6:39, the interaction comes to a pause as SP drops the tabla rhythm back without PS having joined the cycle as intended. SP continues to sound a finger roll on the tabla and darabuka with MH voicing pulsing drones while manipulating his sound moving the volume fader on the effects unit. At this point, PS begins playing short percussive trills that mirror the finger rolls on tabla but gradually uses this to build another melodic sequence. SP visibly drops his energy looking slightly disinterested but continues to play short rolls between tabla and darabuka. The musicians are contributing to the sound world without really being engaged in anything together. For SP this was about creating the space for tanbur and guitar to interact: This is where I stopped giving the beat and started to chill a bit to let them do their own kind of thing, because it seemed to be just me and Peyman, I didn’t hear a lot of Michael, so I thought I would give them some space.

At 7:20 tanbur then enters the improvisation with a new melodic motif and rhythm, which PS points out is the 7 beat or 4/7 that he described earlier. This continues over a two minute period until it becomes apparent that the guitar and tabla, are unable to synchronise with it. The tanbur stops playing and the improvisation draws to another pause. PS reflects on changing nature of this section, and how he interprets the other musicians’ approaches to the rhythm he is playing:

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The tabla is waiting for us to start a rhythm, and I tried to do it, […] it is here that the 7 beat is, and I notice that the tabla doesn’t follow me, so I stopped, and the guitar is in another rhythm in 2 beats. The 7 beat is an Iranian rhythm, it is a dance in Kurdistan we call Gariana, which is the name of a River. I have a friend who plays that line here as he was acquainted with the rhythm, so I thought it was a good idea to play it here too, but I realised Shaun does not know that rhythm.

What is apparent in this interaction is PS’s expectation that the other 2 musicians would “follow” him, based on his recollection of performing it with a friend, who as he admits “was acquainted with the rhythm.” SP does try to follow the sequence, however he found it difficult to keep in time with, commenting: PS: At this point Peyman started playing a riff, so I just thought I will try and follow him. My whole concern was trying to fit in with Peyman because I didn’t know what his time signature was, and what his pace was, he was just all over the place, one minute he would be fast the next slow, there was no consistency in his playing. I remember what I did there, so I took a step back. I wanted to hear both of them play, let him (Peyman) take the role, let him play what he was most comfortable with, then I’ll just weave myself back into it. RM: (researcher) When you say weave yourself back into it, what kind of technique would you use to do this, like the metered taps you were just doing ? SP: I would find where his accents are and, so that if his one is there I will start counting from there. For us our accents are really important. If you set an accent on the one, then that is very significant. For us we have the first beat and then the off beat, so I was trying to find his first beat, to find the off beat, so I can distinguish where it is, so I could get myself back into it. In terms of my methodology, I would just tap as it is something that I wouldn’t ordinarily do, but I was just struggling. In a normal Indian classical I would have stepped back, let him set the pace and then got back into it. This whole section coming to 10 minutes now is just trying to work out what his pace was.

What can be drawn from both the music and the SP’s reflection at this moment in the interaction is the ways in which his perception of the rhythm is being structured according to the way he interprets groups, or patterns of accents. He illustrates this in describing how he tries to “find where his (PS’s) accents are, and start counting from there.” This demonstrates how his perception is being structured by groupings or patterns of accents. As discussed in chapter 2, patterns help us make sense of embodied musical meaning, i.e. a rising or falling melodic contour or syncopated rhythm. As Larson (2012) argues “our minds have a drive […] to create meaning by grouping percepts into patterned relations […] our minds also have a drive to see (or hear) percepts based upon simple, complete shapes” (Larson 2012, p.35). SP’s frustration is he is unable to hear clear pattered relations as complete shapes of rhythm in which to synchronise his tabla playing with. While much of the focus has been on the tanbur and tabla in this excerpt, the guitarist MH uses more embodied and performative terms to describe his approach to the rhythmic interaction, which he perceives as being directly related to the tabla: 168

MH: Not knowing these complex time signatures that he was doing and moving backwards and forwards on. The closest I can get to playing along with it is almost dancing to it and getting that feel and knowing that that is what it is and I have to play at that speed. RM: (researcher) When you say dancing to it, can you explain what this means to you a bit more ? MH: Just moving, obviously I’m sat down playing guitar but I will actually start moving my body to the sound of the tabla just by concentrating on it. That will help me to not sound too out of time. I mean sometimes being out of time can be good but I guess it makes me feel that I was with him. Sometimes I noticed I’d be back concentrating on the other instrument and think, ‘ohhh back to the tabla’ and sometimes it would be the focus of the 3 of us but that is how I got over the unfamiliar time signature issue.

MH’s approach to the interaction is one of positioning his sound in a perspective that moves between ground and figure, e.g., moving between a distant aural perspective, to being foregrounded in it, and as just described, this is also echoed in SP & PS’s perception. MH’s own reflection demonstrates that he doesn’t engage with the rhythmic interaction on a technical level, and this is demonstrated in his performance, in which he focusses on creating distant backdrops of tonal sound that occasionally emerge with, or imitate a melodic motif.

4.3.4 Excerpt 2: 0:00 – 6:23 Case Study Location 13:34 – 19:57

4.3.5 Summary This excerpt occurs approximately 5 minutes after the previous example (excerpt 1). It emerges after a period in which the improvisation enters a resting point in which all three musicians are either not playing, or interlocking in an abstract, unfocussed manner. As described in 3.4.4, periods of interlock are indicative of a diffused interaction in which the collaborative focus is abstracted, and without an instrumental voice in a figure aural perspective. There is a pause in the expression creative intention. This can also be observed in the body language of SP and PS, who both stop playing at different periods during the preceding period, further illustrating the collaborative hiatus they have reached. With this background in mind, the following excerpt has been selected as an example of how the interaction rebuilds itself after deconstructing, and the ways in which melodic motifs are exchanged and developed between guitar and tanbur through phrasing and modulation.

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4.3.6 Descriptive Analysis The interaction in this section begins with MH sounding low volume resonating harmonics on guitar, his finger vibrating a single string in an ongoing excitation gesture. SP taps a 4/4 simple duple meter on the tabla, which then abstracts into percussive hits and finger rolls on the darbuka drum. In ongoing excitation and modification gestures, MH increases the volume of the guitar and continues to vibrate a single string while manipulating the effects unit as a separate sound generator. His attention is focused on creating an undulating tone between the guitar, and the level of the instrument’s electronic feedback through the effects unit as demonstrated in his on going instrumental gestures. PS has the tanbur in a resting position on his lap as he listens to the unfolding improvisation, and at 0:17 he moves his computer mouse to re-awaken the monitor screen to view current interface information. His attention is now focussed between the screen and listening to the emerging sound while he is not playing. The increasing volume and intensity of the resonating guitar sound and the absence of tanbur places the guitar as figure in the aural perspective for the first time in the improvisation. This changes the relationship dynamic of both the interaction and the resulting sound in which the guitar is dominating. At 0:23 PS places the tanbur upright on his lap and continues to just listen, temporarily removing himself from the music. His comments at this point reflect the emergence of the related MOVING TIMES metaphor, in which “a musical event is conceptualized as an object that moves past the stationary hearer from front to back” (Larson 2012, p. 67). PS: I’m just waiting to see what happens, I hope the guitar starts a clear melody, I hope, and I try to join again, and then the scale came back to a major scale. RM: Do you remember what scale it is ? PS: It is C major, I like this motif and I tried to expand on it.

PS now perceives the motion of the music as moving independently from himself and he is able to stay stationary and “join again” when “the guitar starts a clear melody.” This occurs when the “scale came back to C major” and he comments, “I like this motif and I tried to expand on it,” again illustrating his perception of musical motion, moving outwards or expanding. While the TELE-MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphor is one of the more pervasive structures of the musicians’ experience, as has been highlighted in section 3.6.1, “we 170

conceive of the flow of our musical experience through multiple body-based metaphors” (Johnson 2008, p. 259). Underpinning the TELE-MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphor are two other pervasive schemas. They are the MOVING OBSERVER metaphor, in which the observer (musician) moves through a landscape of time, and the MOVING TIMES metaphor in which the figure (music) is moving relative to the stationary observer (musician). As Larson (2012) points out “although the logic of each of these metaphors is different, they both are based on the fundamental conception of the passage of time as relative to spatial motion […] and both play a role in our understanding of musical motion” (Larson 2012 p. 66) and this is demonstrated in the interaction. At 00:25 the guitar voices a distinct conjunct (small stepping) melody and the video clip shows PS’s attention being drawn to this as his eyes and facial movements move from a position of general listening, to focussing on the melodic motif itself. At 0:53 PS enters the improvisation marking the meter with upward strums on the chord of C major (lower stave, Fig. 21), and then begins to imitate the melodic motif from 1:001:28 that has been just voiced by guitar. As PS reflects, “I’m getting the melody from the guitar. It’s an expansion on what the guitar is playing.” Again it is not necessary to read music to observe in the score beneath what can be heard in the clip of the melody being voiced firstly on guitar and then picked up and modulated by tanbur.

Fig. 21 Musical score example of sequential imitation between guitar and tanbur.

The score excerpt demonstrates the cross-cultural transference of a melodic cell that is imitated, and further developed by PS on tanbur. It illustrates an active pedagogical engagement within the interaction that is so pertinent to this study. What starts from a rhythmic and melodic interaction between tabla and guitar becomes a learning process of musical material that is then exchanged and becomes the entry point for tanbur to rejoin the 171

improvisation. While this form of interaction and learning will undoubtedly occur in colocated settings, the opportunities for networked musicians to access and learn from such diverse musical cultures outside of their locales is key to the motivation of the study. The interaction between tanbur and guitar continues to build and develops into a stylistic counterpoint call and response, with tanbur imitating and developing received melodic motifs from guitar, while also accompanying with clusters of warm harmonic drones. At 1:29 MH taps out the pulse of the rhythm on his effects unit, which gives the processed drones regular periodic waves of feedback that synchronise the vibrato effect with the meter of the music. MH’s physical action of tapping the beat into the effects unit also acts as a scaffold in structuring his perception of musical motion through the action of physical movement. As MH comments: I was tapping my delay to the other players,’ you can tap the speed of the delay in on the run, that’s why I like it on that instrument. The tabla had started to play “dung dung dung” [hand gesturing], and so I tapped along behind it, which meant that at least we would be in time or my delay would do something interesting in time with them until they wandered off and then I would wander with them. It felt like it was good to tap in the delay at that point.

The sense of movement in the music at this point is the result of a combination of increasing tempo, volume and intensity of the musicians’ performances. This is also reflected in the way MH describes his process of interaction with his effects unit, and his perception of it in relation to the ongoing musical motion. Phrases such as “tap the speed of the delay,” “on the run,” “tapped along behind it,” demonstrate the pervasiveness of the MOVING OBSERVER metaphor where words such as tap and run illustrate his physical experiences of movement structuring his perception of musical motion. This can also be observed in the clip, as the musicians’ increasingly animated bodily movements signify this tension in the music. Ordinarily this would be visually conveyed in co-located setting, however as has been described, networked musicians must rely on the qualities of sound, i.e. “pitches, timbres, intensities, and durations” to experience the sonification of force and movement. At 2:24 the guitar voices a distinct short wave-like melodic phrase that is picked up and repeated by tanbur in a direct call and response imitation. There is a playful dialogical interplay between the musicians voicing these phrases in various modifications and inversions of the original melody, which are then developed further by tanbur. The increasing volume and tempo of these exchanges are contributing to an increasing 172

impulsion or sonorous motion (Coker 1972) in the improvisation, which is experientially significant to the developing interaction as they continue to center around fragmentary melodic developments of MH’s original melody in C major. At this point, SP is both audibly and visually disengaged from the interaction, accenting individual beats of the meter in an ornamental accompaniment that belies his growing frustration with what he perceives as his collaborators being out of time. At 4:04 the intensity and building tempo draws the tabla into the interaction, and SP, who has been noticeably reticent in his contribution over the last few minutes now joins in a steady common 4/4 rhythm. He begins this by tapping the tempo out on tabla before joining the improvisation. However his perception of timing problems remain an issue for him. Reflecting on his absence, and then the nature of the unfolding interaction SP demonstrates how his perception is being structured by a complex blend of CONTAINER OBJECT, MOVING MUSIC, MOVING TIMES, MUSIC AS LANGUAGE, MUSIC AS LANDSCAPE and VERTICALITY metaphors: I wanted Peyman and Michael to play together and that at that point I thought “oh cool they are getting to know each other,” so I felt if they can talk to each other musically, then they can work out a common ground, then in the beat cycle, bang, I can just come in, and everything will have worked out seamlessly […] Again like I was saying before, he [PS] was doing those massive strums, it was good that he was doing it but they weren’t in pulse [time]. That was my concern, he was doing really, really nice patterns, they were really intricate but it is where he lands them that is my problem, because he is not in pulse and not with me […] he was doing a lot of fast descending notes, strumming a lot, but where it landed was the problem. I thought I was doing consistent rhythm, and then I’d have to take a step back, and then get back into it again, so a bit of a hiccup, which I felt. One point he was there, at others he wasn’t, it was pot-luck where he was going to land.

Following the clip, SP can be observed beginning and then stopping his tabla playing in the places he feels the other musicians are out of the time of the rhythm cycle. Statements such as, “have to take a step back, and then get back into it again,” again demonstrates the pervasiveness of the CONTAINER OBJECT, MOVING MUSIC and MUSICAL LANDSCAPE metaphors. His emphasis on where PS “landed” (sounded in time and space), illustrates the way in which his perception of musical motion is tied to his perception of musical space. Despite SP’s vexation with the timing issues, the three musicians can be observed actively engaged in attenuating their tempos to produce a flow of improvisation. While the issues SP describes are both visually and audibly apparent, the improvisation continues with a regularity that defies his reflected experiences of it. It is also an interesting example of the 173

complexity of perception that is involved in networked interaction of this nature, in which musicians engaged in the same musical activity will be experiencing it in different ways. At 3:57 MH hits a single bar chord in A on the guitar, which he intones for an extended duration before repeating it on the first beat of the next 4 bars. The depth and regularity of the note acts as a unifier in bringing the tabla and tanbur into synchronised interaction, and all three musicians briefly unite in the interaction. However, this all changes at 4:20, as PS introduces a complex rhythmic phrase that he describes as a Reise. This is a phrase in which the musician’s fingers are playing in a simultaneous upward and downward configuration simultaneously in which, “you can hear 4 sounds for 4 fingers with equal sound quality, sonority, so if you play it fast you can have an almost continuous sound” (Sayyadi, 2012). To the ear this sounds like a sonorous continuum at double the speed of the established tempo, while still marking the same meter. This again is played in PS’s signature rubato style that once again causes problems for SP, as he struggles to maintain the rhythmic cycle on tabla, under the expressive elastic time. At 4:44 MH drops to a series of insistent crotchets on guitar that have the effect of slowing the tempo and energy of the improvisation. This is enhanced further as MH begins playing conjunct descending six note phrases at 5:40 that are again imitated and responded to by PS. These patterns signify a felt sense of slowing motion in the music, which continues to until the interaction concludes.

4.4 Case Study IV Case study IV is forty-four minute tele-improvisation that features four musicians networked between cities in Australia, United Kingdom and Germany. It features Sydney based guitarist Michael Hanlon (focus musician), Mongolian morin khuur (horse fiddle) and throat singer Bukhchuluun Ganburged, also based in Sydney, Hervé Perez a French national based in Sheffield, United Kingdom, and Martin Slawig, a German percussionist and electronics sound artist based in Braunschweig, Germany. In this study both Perez and Slawig integrate interactive electronic sound processing software to generate and manipulate sound. Slawig is using Max/MSP, a powerful software program that enables real-time recording, manipulation and generation of sound. He uses this to sample acoustic sources of sound such as percussive instruments, gong, metal bowls and objects like noodles, sand and paper, which become sonic objects in his palette of sound. 174

Perez employs a sample editor known as DSP-Quattro, that allows for real-time manipulation of sound, which he processes and manipulates from the input from his microphone. He performs with soprano saxophone, shakuhachi, Tibetan bowl, bells, seashells, and Irish bodhran drum. Perez also includes pre-recorded field recordings, which he triggers and electronically manipulates as further percussive sound. In previous studies, focus musician and guitarist Michael Hanlon has processed the sound of the guitar (adding reverb, delay, distortion and equalisation) through effects units (hardware). However, on this occasion he chooses to perform on acoustic guitar without any effects in this study. The study (Fig. 22) was conducted with Perez and Slawig performing from home studios in Sheffield and Braunschweig on the morning of the 29th of January 2012. The two Sydney based musicians were performing on the evening of the 28th of January in two separate studio labs in the Bon Marche building of the UTS city campus. While all musicians had had at least one introductory session in the eJaming interface, only Slawig and Ganburged had improvised telematically together before. Table 3 outlines the key performance indicators of the study.

Fig. 22 Screen shot of networked musicians improvising from sound studios of UTS, Sydney, Australia, and home studios in Sheffield, UK and Braunschweig, Germany.

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Table 4: Key performance indicators of case study IV. Musician &

Nationality

Instrument

Location

Date

reference ID Michael

Australian

Hanlon (focus

Acoustic

UTS, Multimedia

guitar

lab CB.3.4.10

28/1/2012

Local

Translato

time

rs

21:00

n/a

Comments

Michael is plying acoustic guitar in

musician)

this session.

ID = MH Bukhchuluun

Mongolian

Morin Khuur

UTS Sound

Ganburged

(horse fiddle)

Studio CB.3.3.17

ID = BG

Mongolian

28/1/2012

21:00

Yes

Bukhchuluun is trained in Mogolian folk music and

throat

improvised in

singing

more exploratory contexts. He is also a recent immigrant to Australia

Hervé Perez

French

ID =HP

Soprano

Home studio,

29/1/2012

11:00

n/a

Multi

saxophone,

Montreal,

instrumentalist

shakuhachi,

Canada.

whose practice is

Tibetan

based in jazz, free

bowl,

improvisation and

Bodran,

sound art.

percussion and electronic processing. Martin Slawig ID =MS

German

Percussion

Home studio

and

Braunschweig,

jazz and extensive

Max/MSP

Germany

experience of

processing

29/1/2012

12:00

Yes

Background in

networked music making including performances with author.

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4.4.1 Excerpt 1: 0:00 – 4:38 Case Study Location 0:00 – 4:38

4.4.2 Excerpt Summary The following three analyses are contiguous excerpts from the first thirteen minutes of the improvisation. They have been selected for their demonstration of timbral, melodic and rhythmic interaction. The first excerpt is a four minute, thirty-eight second example of the opening minutes of the case study. It has been selected for the ways in which the networked musicians begin their interaction focussing on electroacoustic timbres, and textural tones rather than melodic, or rhythmic interaction as depicted in the previous two studies. It illustrates the use of extended techniques and electronics to provide an interlocking field of sound from which the improvisation is constructed. Despite the diffused and timbral nature of the interaction at the start of the improvisation, it produces melodic and harmonic interaction that is significantly more complex and formed to the previous two studies. This is the result of melodic interplay between the morin khuur and guitar, which is can be observed in the recording and frequently acknowledged by the musicians in the VCR sessions. In a pattern that recurs throughout the improvisation, the chosen segment concludes and deconstructs into a close of interlocking sound, returning to a focus on timbre through continued extended instrumental techniques.

4.4.3 Descriptive Analysis The improvisation begins at 0:20 with MH resonating a G tone on guitar by rubbing an undulating finger over the string on the fretboard, creating a continuous vibrating tone in an ongoing excitation gesture. In a direct manipulation of sound patterns, he then begins to accompany this elongated drone with a series of ostinato ascending patterns of plucked harmonics in G at a regular 4/4 meter. This example of causation moves the music forward into the next phase of development, setting the tonic key and tempo for this section of the improvisation. Enabling Max/MSP (Cycling 74 software) on his laptop, MS uses drum brushes to sweep against an area on the top of a metal gong that is sampled and processed through the software, producing a shimmering granulated metallic sound.

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BG contributes to this timbral collage of sound by sliding his finger down the neck of the Morin Khuur, producing a descending, wire-like sound. All the instruments are interlocking in a diffused interaction with no one instrument dominating or leading. This indicates the gradual coalescing of instrumental sound and expression as the musicians begin to familiarise themselves with each other’s timbre and tonal ranges. As focus musician MH reflects: MH: It’s nice, I’m louder than I thought I was. I felt everyone was just starting slowly, breathing slowly into it allowing it to develop […] I started a note that worked and staying down low, which felt like the beat of the piece as it started, kind of searching around still at the beginning. BG: I tried sliding down the neck of the fiddle while the other musicians were playing. I was just kind of experimenting to see how it would go […]. Martin started with some sounds that impressed me that were quite unusual, strange alien like sounds from a different planet and I was impressed by that, so I then started to join in there.

In a further demonstration of the complex mix of conceptual metaphors structuring the musician’s perceptions, we can again observe VERTICALTY in MH’s comments of “staying down low” and BG’s “sliding down the neck” which emerge as an over-arching structure in the musicians’ experience of the interaction. As illustrated in the previous studies, the CONTAINER schema is integral to the TELE-IMPROVISATIONAL LANDSCAPE schema along with the VERTICALITY and MOVING MUSIC metaphors, and this is demonstrated in the ways in which the musicians reflect on their experience of this opening section of the improvisation. For multi-instrumentalist HP who was the last to joint he session: I think I decided to come in gradually with textural sounds to punctuate what was going on. I think in the session I didn’t feel I could come straight in. I didn’t quite feel connected to the other people, I came in last in the sound check and you seemed to have done some preliminary tests, so for me it took me a while to get into it. I wanted to not stay out too long but I just felt that I had to slip into the improvisation gradually, hence the kind of textural things I was doing. I wanted to start as soon as possible with the excitement of being there and wanting to play something I suppose.

These statements all reflect the ways in which the musicians experience the unfamiliar musical and cognitive terrain in the embryonic stages of tele-improvisation. In perceiving their interaction in these ways, they begin to strategise their journey in the TELEIMPROVISATION

LANDSCAPE

structured

by

the

“cross-metaphorical

correspondences” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 97) of the experiential metaphors listed above.

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As an example, MS was asked about how he chose the moment to enter the improvisation at this point, which he comments through the interpreter, Silke Motschiedle (SM): MS/MS: It’s difficult to say as it is based more on impulse. It was almost like the other instruments invited him to come in. RM: so that invitation is made sonically ? MS/MS: yes RM: Can you describe the invitation? how do the sounds do this ? MS/SM: (a) it’s the sound of the instruments and (b) how they are played and the structure of the tones”

MS’ perception of an “impulse” or “sonic invitation” to join or “come into” the improvisation has a clear experiential basis, in the way that he describes focusing on the “sound of the instruments, how they are played and the structure of the tones,” or as Wilson Coker would argue, the attitude carried by the musical gesture (Coker 1972). This can also be heard the ostinato patterns of ascending guitar, as it moves from the resonating G, and regular plucking of tones increasing the motion of the music in what he “felt like the beat of the piece as it started.” At 0:57, MH begins voicing sequences of arpeggios in G major modulating to E minor, which create more complex patterns of tones setting up the harmonic structure of the improvisation. Layers of percussive electronic timbres underscore this as HP filters a percussive rainmaker through a granulation plugin (software effects processor), and MS sounds dynamic pulsing rolls on the gong with soft beaters. At 1:33 morin khuur (horse fiddle) player BG enters the improvisation with bowed single long tone durations on F, as guitarist MH synchronously switches to a static ostinato line in A minor, with an insistent series of quavers on F. This increasing rhythmic sequencing of tones begins to create a tension that begins to build in volume and intensity. As it builds there is a palpable feeling of accumulating energy, illustrating what Whitrow (1961) describes as the “three successive phases of accumulation, discharge, and relaxation and recovery” (Whitrow 1961 pp. 53-73). Morin khuur player BG contributes to this tension with increasing tempo, and ascending durational notes on the fiddle that build further intensity into the interaction. At 2:02, the video clip shows HP readying himself to strike two bells together at a perceived point of climax but feeling the climax has not been reached, pauses before striking them. Interestingly, and without being able to see each other when HP does sound them (2:09), MS strikes the gong and the other musicians collectively change together with a

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synchronicity that illustrates what was described earlier as the pre-composed quality of the interaction. MS comments on this sense of composition within the improvisation: What I found really special in this specific performance was that we were fast in in creating clear structures, almost like a real song with clear melody and musical structures, which is different to previous sessions where we normally have a lot more space, where it is mainly sound and more free. Michael and Bukhu were so tight together playing more like they are inventing songs together.

MS’s reflection on the musical structure of the improvisation reflects his perception of form within the CONTAINER SUBSTANCE metaphor. This can be seen in his perception of some of the “previous sessions where we normally have a lot more space, where it is mainly sound and more free.” In other words MS is recalling the “contained” space and “substance” of previous tele-improvisations, in comparison to the perceived defined musical structure in this session. The improvisation continues in a regular 4/4 simple duple meter with MH repeating the earlier sequences of the arpeggiated G, adding plucked harmonics, while BG continues to bow long octave notes on A, and tuning the morin khuur as he goes. Using small beaters, HP hits a Tibetan bowl (out of shot) on the first of every bar, which contributes further to motion of the music. MS continues to create pitched granulations of percussive electronic timbres, and as can be observed, his attention is split between the Max/MSP interface, the sound of the gong, and other percussive objects at hand. At 2:38 the gong feeds back at a high volume and he can be seen grimacing from the overload of signal in his headphones. Reflecting on this he comments: I put a pitch shift on the input and I hit the symbol very softly but it was already with a lot of volume and I thought “oh I have to be very careful”. I have some sand in the Asian bowl and I crack the sand through a nail and with the pitch shift I get that special sound.

By physically manipulating objects such as the gong and the sand in the Asian bowl, MS’s experience is immediately structured by this process, which is reflected in the ONTOLOGICAL and SPATIAL metaphors that he uses to reflect on his perception of the interaction in English. In this moment of the session I played more with the acoustic instruments, a little processing but not so much textures from the computer. It was more the live sound, which is a bit processed and this allows me to react more precisely to the playing of the two guys, rather than bringing textures in […] it was this real acoustic feeling with guitar and the harp from Bukhu (morin khuur) and it was more like playing with acoustic sounds from me also. I didn’t want to disturb it with my textures, I only want to support it and allow it to come out. I wanted to hear what would develop with these two guys. I didn’t feel it was right to bring in some strange atmospheres or hard textures.

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MS’s description of his approach to the interaction between MH and BG such as: “I didn’t want to disturb it with my textures, I only want to support it and allow it to come out” demonstrate the ways in which his experience is structured by the CONTAINER SUBSTANCE metaphor, and the ways in which this is shaping his approach. As the interaction continues, MH begins to incorporate a small descending motif of F to E, on guitar, which is then appropriated by BG in an imitation that transposes it on morin khuur in disjunct (large) leaps to an octave above. At 3:30 this melodic seed develops into a more structured wavelike melody comprising long durational notes with a noticeably composed structured quality. BG remarks on this part of the excerpt through translator Zaya Khanchiimaa,“This tune is based on Mongolian traditional tune but it is still improvisation that he is basing his improvisation on [...] it’s from a long song.” Interestingly, the morin khuur and the long song have metaphorical significance within Mongolian culture, and both the instrument, and the long song as a musical form, are frequently used to elicit allegories of motion and spatiality. The morin khuur carries not only the figurative head of a horse, but also signifies the motion of the animal in the way that the instrument is played. And, while the long song has many regional variations, its long note durations are said to evoke the space of the vast open grasslands of the Steppes41 (Pegg 2001). Significant to this analysis is that both contribute to a metaphorically structured and embodied relationship to culture and the environment in which they arise, underpinning an experiential understanding of perception in the “contiguous relations among people, performance modes, and nature” (Pegg 2001, p. 99). This forms an essential characteristic of the ways in which BG perceives his musical interaction, demonstrating the importance of such ethnographic considerations in the analysis of networked intercultural teleimprovisation. At 4:26, the guitar breaks out of the plucked ostinato accompaniment into a descending line that slows in pace, and contains qualities of slowing, relaxation and discharge that act as a “representamen” (sign) to the other musicians who pause with it. At 4:32 BG returns to the tonic with a long bowed note that provides a feeling of closure to this segment, which all of the musicians collectively feel bringing the segment to a resting point.

41

Refers to the high grassland plains of Mongolia.

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4.4.4 Excerpt 2: 0:00 – 8:08 Case study location 4:38 –12:46

4.4.5 Excerpt Summary This example begins from the deconstructed finish of the previous excerpt. It has been selected for the ways in which it demonstrates the improvisation moving from the structured melodic interaction between horse fiddle and guitar in the previous section, through a period of musical abstraction and sequential call and response, to further imitative melodic exchanges that are appropriated and developed between the soprano saxophone and horse fiddle. It demonstrates the ways in which significant musical and timbral parameters influence the interaction, enabling the metaphorical structuring of musicians experiences.

4.4.6 Descriptive Analysis The beginning of this section mirrors previous excerpts in the way that sequential call and response exchanges, seed new improvisatory ideas. HP is employing excitation gestures through extended instrumental techniques of blowing and voicing sound through the soprano saxophone to create processed breathy collages. Guitarist MH voices 2 and 3 note ostinato patterns in A minor, and MS creates percussive timbral soundscapes processed in Max/MSP. Morin khuur player BG contributes to the evolving improvisation by bowing ascending and descending chromatic lines that once again places the fiddle as figure in the field of electronic sound. At 0:37 MH changes key to G major plucking an ascending I, III & V scale positions of the chord, which immediately gives the music a brighter more consonant tonality. BG follows the key change with a rapidly ascending and descending melody that begins to provide further motion and urgency as the result of what the angle of the contours traversing the unfolding musical space (Coker 1972). In an example of one of the technical issues facing networked musicians, at 1:26 HP plays a processed saxophone melody that plays back at a high volume, cutting across, and briefly masking the other players sound. He continues to play for a short period before stopping and adjusting his level on his computer while monitoring it through the network interface.

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As can be observed, the impact of this can also be seen on the other networked players as their audio monitoring is briefly over-ridden by the volume of the saxophone, and BG stops playing altogether. Asked about whether he got a shock from the volume level, HP reflects: Yes because I kept changing the effects and sometimes it is a bit hard to predict the output volume, so I am going to my other computer to check my input level in ejamning to check how that was doing […] and I realised at my end I was really loud. I never know what kind of volume I am set at the other end.

In the statement “I realised at my end I was really loud. I never know what kind of volume I am set at the other end”, HP is reflecting on his perception of how events in his located physical space are extending into the networked spaces of his collaborators through the TELE-IMPROVISATION LANDSCAPE metaphor. It demonstrates the difficulties facing networked musicians in conceptualising their sound as it travels through the network into the distributed spaces of collaborators. However as he comments, this is not confined to networked performance: When I am working with an engineer, I always say I want to hear what the audience hears so I can gauge my sound, so I can tell how far to play away from the microphone. It’s always difficult because the monitoring they give you is never what the audience hears. And here online I never know what other people are hearing, or how loud I come across.

What he describes will be a familiar scenario to many musicians who perform live music. Receiving balanced audio monitoring impacts on the musicians’ perception of volume, intonation and the distance they need to kept from the microphone. When translated to networked music performance, musicians’ perceive these parameters through their physically located experience, i.e. the sound as generated by their instrument or equipment. However in actuality, this is subject to the discretion of the players at each node of the networked jam session, and HP cannot know the levels that each of them is hearing his output, leaving an element of uncertainty in what he thinks his collaborators are hearing. At 1:38, the improvisation recovers as MH begins plucking a regular 4/4 ostinato line in 5ths between G & A on guitar, which then deconstructs momentarily to sequential exchanges of pentatonic melodic fragments, accompanied by low durational throat singing and pulsing electronic tones. BG then enters with an ascending B flat minor pentatonic melody on morin khuur that is then answered by HP on soprano saxophone. This initiates a sequential imitative call and response between the two musicians with MH creating scratching timbres, scraping the strings against the fretboard of the guitar. At 3:29 BG begins bowing a forceful series of thirds in D sharp minor with a semi regular simple duple 4/4 meter at approximately 90 beats per minute on the morin khuur that 183

begins to create increasing motion in the music. Over the next 30 seconds this close harmonic tonality creates tension in the music as it progresses into a new collaborative phase synchronised by the increasing regularity of the meter (pulse), which is approximately ninety beats per minute. This is also the tempo of the musical term andante (walking in Italian) and corresponds to the walking pace of the average adult male, which according to Phillip Tagg is “an important parameter in determining the human/biological aspect of an affective relationship to time” (Tagg 1989). What can be observed in this section of the clip is the way that the tempo that BG sets, marshals the other musicians into the rhythm of the evolving interaction. At 3:42 HP enters on soprano saxophone imitating and transposing the morin khuur melodic sequence up a third, as MH plays a series of syncopated single strums on guitar, which contributes further intensity to the sense of impulsion in the motion of the music. The group is building this dynamic together, and demonstrating a collective interaction where no one musician is leading. At 3:56 MS strikes the gong, triggering a release in this building tension, accompanied by the addition of a low, gravel like throat singing by BG. This musical event is significant to all of the musicians who reflect on it, and BG comments in English that it is a moment of significant density in the dynamics of the sound, “It was a good place to start my throat singing and when the gong came in it was like a movie soundtrack, very rich and full and everything is booming.” The musicians all report this sense this collective build in dynamics through the significant aspects of close harmonic tonality, pushing rhythm and density of sound as referred to as sonorous motion in section 3.4.9. At the core of this musical event is the gong being struck, and HP elucidates its impact on the interaction insightfully: This one event came at exactly the right moment, and it gave a sense of it sharpening the mood, and it felt like it was coming together in that moment and took a definite direction. I think this is more to do with the timing and the musician more than the nature of the instrument. Perhaps the reverb of the instrument also gives a strong colour or strong mood, which is also part of it. The electronics and textural approach is very good for me because it gives a dimension to the music but it also connects to the more textural nature of what I do, so it allows me to go in and out of different modes.

Apparent in what HP is reflecting is not only his perception of the interaction through the recurring TELE-IMPROVISATION LANDSCAPE metaphor in the way that the gong drives the improvisation to take “a definite direction,” but the manner in which this occurred.

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As he states, it emerged as a unity or “coming together” of the music through the musical event of the gong strike, and the combinations of timing and electroacoustic sounds, which as referred to in section 3.4.1 act as signifiers and semantic carriers of meaning that contribute to causation. The manipulation of qualities of sound or “textures” as HP refers to them, also forms a path that “connects to the more textural nature of what I do,” in other words influencing his approach, allowing him to “go in and out of different modes” of playing. It is this experiential sense of individual musicians articulating their own voices in the dialogical interplay of the interaction as each player contributes disparate yet harmonious melodic, rhythmic, or timbral part that illustrate a unity of “musical pluralism” (van Leeuwen 1999 p.80). At 6:03 the improvisation briefly pauses before morin khuur player BG recapitulates his previous series of thirds in D sharp minor in an insistent repeating ostinato pattern. This time the pattern is played at a higher speed (approximately 120 beats per minute) introducing a significant increase in movement that again draws the other musicians in. What can also be observed in this section is the way that the roles within the interaction change as BG leads the harmonic and rhythmic musical progression generated by the musical motion inherent in what he is playing on the fiddle. While the MOVING MUSIC metaphor is dominant in structuring the musicians’ perception of this moment, it is interesting to note the cultural significance of this for BG as he explains in English, “When I started this part I followed the tune of a traditional Mongolian tune where the tempo of the horse running is reflected in the music.” BG is reflecting on a culture specific mapping of physical movement to the perception of musical motion. It demonstrates not only the role of culture in the interpretation of experience but the mapping of this experience across cultures. This is reflected not only in the ways in which the other musicians commented on this section but in their playing as well. As soprano saxophone player HP reflects, “I am enjoying the crescendo on the violin [horse fiddle] and kind of blended in a fluttering sound but I can’t remember what happens next. It does feel like we are going to move into something slightly different now.” The propulsion and intensity of the music continues and builds over the period of two minutes to a climax at 7:46. As can be observed in the clip the release of tension occurs as the zenith is reached, and this also reflected in the gestures of the musicians. For BG this is visible in his excitation gestures as he chromatically slides up the neck of the morin khuur with a frenetic bowing technique, his whole body physically enacting this moment. 185

HP has been building the tension with ascending melodic lines and free form high-pitched trills on soprano saxophone, and when this point is reached, his head suddenly jerks forward as if he had metaphorically hit a stopping point. Electronics musician, MS, is also generating a rising drone in Max/MSP as MH plucks short fragmented ostinato patterns on guitar, and both can be seen to physically respond to the intensity and climax of this build. This is again reflected in the way the MH perceives stopping just before the end motivated by what BG is playing: I was thinking “wow he’s going up and up and up, this is great” and I was thinking this is great and I looked at Michael [student assistant behind video camera] as if to say fantastic isn’t this great playing. I stopped just to let him play. I just wanted to let this one go. It was just like “wow,” I was just really enjoying the moment, building, building, building, probably took a bit longer than I thought but it was a nice piece of music.

The richness of the musicians’ experiences here, are reflected in the complexity of the ways in which their perceptions are structured. While musical motion is clearly dominant in structuring their experience, as MH illustrates in his statement, the VERTICALITY schema is also a strong metaphorical structure for the excitement and uplifting experience of the musical climax. As highlighted in section 3.3.2, once the accumulation reaches impulsion, the interaction enters a stage of relaxation as the excerpt comes to a close. The tempo slows and the tonality and melodic lines descend down, releasing the tension as the tonality returns to the tonic, heralding the end of the section. Each of these stages of accumulation, impulsion and relaxation are signified by distinct patterns of sound and MH reflects on the embodied nature of the way that these components foreground meaning in the interaction, “I think we all knew or felt that that was going to happen there, I don’t think I was alone in thinking that this was the end of this piece here.” It is through these embodied structures of experience that musicians are able to navigate their interaction in uncharted musical territory of intercultural tele-improvisation. As demonstrated, image schemas such as VERTICALITY provide the basis on which musicians can conceptualise their interaction, and adapt to the changing nature of each new musical scenario.

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4.4.7 Excerpt 3: 0:00 – 4:19 Case study location 12:48 – 17:07

4.4.8 Excerpt Summary This is the last excerpt of the analysis and begins immediately after the previous example. It emerges from the timbral remnants of the previous interaction, and has been chosen for the ways in which it illustrates the players use melodic imitation and repetition in constructing improvised dialogues, as well as the way that they conceive of contributing or shaping “space” for melodic interaction to occur in. It also focusses on the synchronicity of musical events such as key changes and rhythmic interaction that give this case study its pre-composed quality.

4.4.9 Descriptive Analysis As stated above, the improvisation emerges out of a backdrop of electronic timbres from the previous example that continues to be sounded by MS in Max/MSP. Focus musician, MH, begins plucking a G minor triad in a compound duple meter of 6/8 with a moderate tempo on guitar. This places the guitar as figure, leading the interaction, establishing a tonal center and rhythm for the other musicians to join. As can be observed in the audio-visual clip, morin khuur player, BG, sits listening to the guitar and presses his fingers against the strings of the fiddle, locating the harmonic positions from which to play from. In another example of the experiential basis of teleimprovisatory interaction, he physically gestures the bow above the fiddle, as he “feels” the right time to join the rhythmic cycle. Entering at 0:28, he plays a legato (smooth) conjunct melody in G minor that now replaces the guitar as figure in leading the interaction. At 0:55 BG changes to B minor, which MH then moves to on guitar. From 1:03 this is followed by three further key changes with which guitar seamlessly follows, giving it a pre-composed quality. Asked about the synchronicity of both players moving to these chords together, BG comments in English: I’m not sure, maybe it was just feeling it together, or a good guess […] If we were in the same room and it was the first time we met and playing together we would probably be waiting on what each other were going to play. There wasn’t a way [here] apart from one person should start and lead first, and I think every musician had the same opinion. So as we

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couldn’t see each other, there was no other way, other than by expressing ourselves, and it is through the music that we express ourselves. Everyone had their own moments where it is “here I start and here I lead […] it’s liberating”.

As BG comments, the confinements of the networked interface and lack of visual communication requires the networked musician to rely on their perception of the significant qualities of musical expression. He perceives this as being more “liberating” than “being in the same room […] waiting on what each other were going to play.” Interestingly, this experience is also reflected by tanbur player Peyman Sayyadi in his post VCR comments relating to case study III: I think when you play with someone else in a room, and you feel another one around you, some parts of your mind are engaged in that relation with other parts rather than music, so when the other musicians are not in the room you are more released, and that makes me more comfortable. That is what is so interesting to me and why I like this type of improvisation.

Both musicians are reflecting on their experience of co-located performance and the ways in which physically located presence makes demands on perception that can otherwise be dedicated to musical interaction in a telematic scenario. While facial expression and body language undoubtedly aid in the coordination of musical activity, the negotiation of human presence comes with a degree of perceptual drag that as demonstrated can otherwise be focussed on the music. As the harmonic and melodic interaction between guitar and morin khuur continues, at 1:26, this is underscored by percussive and electronic timbres created by MS in Max/MSP, and HP in his processing software. Both players are using objects such as shells, noodles, paper and hand rubbing to create complex layers of processed sound that is based on friction of objects rubbing together. HP is also manipulating “field recordings” (found sound) to add to the soundscape over which BG and MH are playing. HP comments on his perception of this as adding to the mood with fragile, subtle and minimal sounds: I am opening some pre-recorded samples and the window I just opened [on computer] contains field recordings. I think I started with the shells to start something very fragile, subtle and minimal. The guitar and fiddle were developing something together that I didn’t want to interrupt, or even add to, so whatever I was doing was quite small and minimal. With Martin’s participation I felt that all I could do at that point was to add to the mood by creating a space but not by playing an instrument for example hence the field recordings.

MS also echoes this sense of “creating space” for the other two musicians to play in: I didn’t want to disturb it with my textures, I only want to support it and allow it to come out. I wanted to hear what would develop with these two guys. I didn’t feel it was right to bring in some strange atmospheres or hard textures.

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These comments reflect the ways in which the two players perceive the interaction between morin khuur and guitar as something that they want to “support” by “creating space” for it to “develop” in. This demonstrates how they perceive the music in ontological terms as a SUBSTANCE that they don’t want to “interrupt” or “disturb.” Illustrating the complexity of this metaphorical configuration, the improvisation is also perceived as having a spatial orientational where they are “creating a space” for it to “develop”, reflecting the CONTAINER metaphor. What emerges from this is the ways in which metaphorically structured perception is informing the approaches that the musicians take in the midst of improvisatory interaction. At 2:29 MH begins a descending B, A, G# and F ostinato on line on guitar, which is contrapuntally mirrored on morin khuur moving up in the same intervals with increasing rhythmic intensity. The articulation of these lines is given with distinct accentuation providing a sense of dynamic sonorous motion, which traverse experiential phases of building tension, impulsion and relaxation as previously referred to in section 3.3.2 as “arsis,” “stasis” and “thesis,” which can be felt throughout the rest of the example. At 2:54 MH returns to plucking the earlier G minor triadic chord, and BG also revisits melodic material he played earlier in the sequence. At 3:28 both the guitar and morin khuur move together in another synchronous chord change to A that echoes the previous changes. On this occasion MH plays a conjunct wavelike melody of F, G#, A, B, A, G# that is then imitated in unison by BG. The interaction between both players straddles a collaborative heterogeneity and sequential call and response dueling that occasionally unites in unison. This illustrates distinct plural creative interaction between the players while merging in and out of these musical textures. At 3:49 the final tension in these phases of sonorous motion is released as both BG and MH slow in tempo, and finish the chord sequence in descending pitch contours. The section draws to a close with BG throat singing overtones that indicates the relaxed stage of the improvisation and acts as segue to the next section.

4.4.10 Conclusion The application of the multimodal analytical framework to the featured case studies as described in this chapter provides a detailed qualitative analysis of the ways in which dispersed musicians of different cultures perceive significance and experiential meaning in 189

dislocated tele-improvisatory interaction. The analysis demonstrates how patterns of sound in melodic contour, acoustic and electronic timbre, and metered time in rhythm can elicit causation and experiential meaning in networked improvisatory exchanges. This was illustrated by mapping examples of selected musical instance to the musicians’ perception of the interaction in those instances as depicted in their use of conceptual metaphor in their reflective experiences. This also highlights the complexity and depth of the musical and cognitive experiences involved in this practice, which is also mirrored in the multiple and complex metaphorical structuring of each musicians experience. The focus musician MH provided a lens in which each of the studies can be viewed and interpreted from a point of reference to each new study, and combination of participating musicians. This was augmented by the musicians’ own experiences as they reflected them in post performance VCR sessions. This analysis now forms the basis of an evaluation of the strategies and approaches (Chapter 5) that expert cross-cultural musicians develop to perform in this evolving field of telematic musical performance.

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CHAPTER 5 - EVALUATION 5.1 Introduction The previous chapter described a multimodal analysis of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction between geographically dispersed musicians. It highlighted emergent social, cultural and musical relationships in the musicians’ expression of, and responses to significant qualities in tele-improvised music and sound, as well as the creative and cognitive challenges that this presented. This chapter will now present an evaluation of the case study analysis, which uncovered important observations about the ways in which networked musicians approached their interaction, as well as the effectiveness of longer-term interactive strategies developed over the period of one or more networked improvisation sessions. To summarise the main findings: •

Intercultural tele-improvisation develops in stages marked by specific parameters of interaction

•

Networked musicians manipulate patterns of sound to signify intention and response (causation) in their approaches, and longer term strategies that map to specific stages of the improvisation

•

Significance in culture specific musical expression (melody, harmony, rhythm and timbre) is perceived through experiential meaning rather than literal association

•

Instrumental gesture and extended techniques play a key role in networked musicians expression of meaning in improvised sound, as well as overcoming obstacles such as attuning to unfamiliar intonation and rhythm patterns in intercultural interaction

•

Networked musicians’ perception of telematic interaction is enabled through image schematic structures of physical experience.

5.2 Criteria These five points illustrate the key findings of the evaluation, which found that distinct stages of tele-improvisation (Table. 5) were marked by specific parameters of interaction as outlined in section 3.4, and used strategically by musicians to instigate causation in tele191

improvisatory interaction. The criteria for this appraisal are based on the use of interactive modes as outlined in section 3.8.1, where direct manipulation of patterns of sound signify intention and response in electroacoustic noise, sound, and melodic, harmonic and rhythmic interaction. As referred to in section 3.6.3, patterns of sound are viewed as creating resemblances or gestalts in the minds of the musicians that form “prototypes of causation” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980 p. 75) that change through responsive direct manipulation of the stimuli (sound parameters). It also emerged that networked musicians’ perception of interaction is enabled through metaphorical image schematic structures of experience based on embodied meaning within patterns of sound. This was evident when examining specific instrumental gestures that musicians employed in the production of sound, and the musical and verbal interpretation and responses to them. This included realtime negotiation of unfamiliar musical modes and rhythms within each of these stages of tele-improvisation. While the cultures and musical traditions represented in each study provided a snapshot of cross-cultural approaches and strategies to an individual improvisation session, the experiences of the focus musician were invaluable to understanding the longer-term strategies that a musician develops and applies across a number of improvisation sessions. Table 5 illustrates stages of tele-improvisation that emerged in the case study analysis, and the significant interactive modes and parameters of sound associated with improvisatory approaches and strategies developed by the participating musicians. It should be emphasised that the approaches and strategies are not in themselves prototypes of causation but rather articulated by them. For instance, a tone voiced as a long note duration within the initiation stage of an improvisation may contain patterns of sound such as timbre, intonation, articulation, perspective, pitch that when heard in different combinations will elicit different responses. When a musician changes one or more of these parameters, so the musical outcome changes.

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Table 5: Stages of tele-improvisation incorporating interactive modes and parameters of interaction with related approaches and strategies. Stage

I1

Initiation

Interactive

Parameter of

modes

Interaction

Electroacoustic

Approach

Strategy

Interlock, sequentiality

Long note

Introduction of

sound abstract

(call and response)

durations, drones,

musicians’

noise, melody,

duration, legato

extended

sound to the

rhythm

articulation, caesura

instrumental

networked

(unmetered silence),

techniques with a

environment,

soft to moderate

focus on qualities

familiarisation

volume, irregular

of sound where

of interpersonal

meter, imitation,

no one

musical

minimal melodic

instrument is

relationships,

phrases, instrumental

prominent

initiation of

voices sharing ground

interaction, and

like aural perspective

development of harmonic center in which to build, or seed a new passage from

D1 Development

Electroacoustic

Sequentiality moving

Defining musical

Begin to build

sound abstract

to simultaneity,

texture and layers

musical

noise

homophony,

of sound,

structure as the

developing

polyphony, increase in

introduction of

interpersonal

harmony,

volume, aural taking

meter in melody

relationships

melody and

figure perspective.

or rhythm,

within the

rhythm

Ostinato (repeating)

monophonic

interaction

harmonic or rhythmic

instrumental

become more

patterns with regular

voices taking

familiar.

meter. Marcato

figure

Develop

(stressing of notes).

perspective, and

motivic content

developing

in melody and

musical motion

musical motion

through accents

through

and articulation

accented

of meter

articulation of

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Stage

Interactive

Parameter of

modes

Interaction

Approach

Strategy

metre in melody and rhythm

P1

Progression

Electroacoustic

Homophonic musical

Increasing,

Solidify

sound,

texture, monophonic

volume tempo,

interaction and

harmony,

instruments take

defined

build dynamics

melody and

figure perspective in

articulation, and

into material

rhythm

the interaction. This

additive musical

through texture

may also be

texture in

and density in

polyphonic if no

harmony and

harmony,

strong melodic

increased tempo.

rhythm and

patterns achieved.

Instrumentalists

volume to

Sonorous motion

may decide to

develop musical

develops through

lead this or

motion to

ostinato harmonic or

interact in

impulsion

repetition rhythmic

polyphonic

where energy is

patterns. Sforzando

dueling with

released in a

(strong emphasis on

others building

musical climax.

individual notes)

motion and

staccato (sharp attack)

tension.

articulation, changing instrumental timbral qualities through electronic processing or instrumental gestures, use of portamento (sliding between notes) and increased volume.

R1

Recapitulation

Electroacoustic

Sequentiality leading

Recalling and

Reinforcing

sound abstract

to simultaneity,

modulating

musical

noise harmony,

reiteration of melodic

previous melodic,

structure by

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Stage

Interactive

Parameter of

modes

Interaction

melody and rhythm.

Approach

Strategy

phrases, rhythmic

harmonic and

repeating

cycles harmonic

rhythmic events.

previous

structure.

melodic,

Reconfiguration of

harmonic or

dynamics and

rhythmic

articulation.

material. Attempts to begin to signify closure.

C1

Conclusion

Electroacoustic

Descending melodic

Instrumentalists

Provides closure

sound,

phrases, ritenuto

play in a reduced

to the section

harmony,

(sudden slowing

manner, releasing

and frame

melody and

tempo), cadence,

of tension.

musical form,

rhythm.

relaxation of rhythm,

gives a holistic

return to tonic key,

sense of

sudden drop in

completion.

volume.

D2 Deconstruction Electroacoustic Return to sequentiality Abstract diffused

Often used to

sound abstract

with increasing

playing, focus on

seed new music

noise, melody.

diffusion of melody,

longer note

and sound ideas

harmony or rhythm.

durations and

for continuing

Interlocking layers of

timbre, or

interaction or

sound, focus on

dropping out

bringing

timbre in

altogether.

interaction to a

electroacoustic, sound, unmetered rhythm, fragmented melody with legato articulation, Caesura (unmetered silence), soft to moderate volume and field and ground perspectives of sound focus.

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close.

The initiation, development, progression, recapitulation and conclusive stages of a networked improvisation, often, but not always occurred as smaller sections, or vignettes within the larger musical form. As the analysis demonstrated, this was a recurring feature not only in the musical examples but also in the transcripts of musicians’ reflective experiences, elaborated through a complex mix of conceptual metaphors. Each stage was either contiguous, or non-linear, repeating or deconstructing musical material before returning to the development of a new interactive stage. This highlights the multiple approaches that musicians developed that in turn coalesce to inform the their longer-term strategies.

5.3 Improvisatory Stages, Approaches and Strategies Each stage of the case study performances demonstrated examples of the musicians’ emergent approaches and strategies providing the basis for an evaluation of the ways in which they achieved causation, or subsequent musical outcomes. This was supported by additional data in the form of transcripts of informal post performance discussions that contributed further to an expansion of the musicians’ broader perceptions of their performances (example provided in Appendix B). The structuring of tele-improvisation in stages also has precedence in other co-located studies of improvisation such as Samson’s (1997) case study based “qualitative investigation of free improvisation” where he examines the experiential qualities of freely improvised music over four “periods” of construction, deconstruction, interplay and withdrawal (Samson 1997). His descriptive analysis of these periods demonstrates broad similarities to the stages of interaction in this study, however he uses general analytical descriptions such as “Eerie introduction: slowly moving held tones […] saxophone growling” (Samson 1997, p. 5) rather than focussing on the way that musicians’ signify meaning through their use of melody, harmony and rhythm as these studies do. As he states from the beginning, this is to “aquaint himself with the experience of the musical event and of the musicians experiences rather than objectify the “musical object” (Samson 1997, p. 4). From a social semiotic perspective the musical object in improvisation is rooted in the action of practice as process rather than form, allowing for a transparent mapping of experience to process. Interestingly, while Samson’s construction and deconstruction periods are ordered chronologically in his outline of improvisatory periods, they actually follow each infrequently in his analysis, where construction and interplay are more often found together, mirroring the frequent occurrence of initiation and development stages in these studies. While this demonstrates the conceptual similarities between telematic and co-located 196

improvisation, significant differences in Samson’s studies can be found in the musicians’ reflective transcripts, where the acoustics of a shared space and musicians’ frequent references to looking at each other is central to their interactive experience.

5.3.1 Initiation Stage Referring to table 5, examples of interactive modes and related parameters of interaction in the L1 Initiation stage were found in all three studies as evidenced by interlocking diffused interaction, phrases of long note durations, unmetered electroacoustic sound collages and minimal melodic phrases with a prevalence of call and response interaction. These approaches were effective in familiarising the musicians with the other players and their tonal palettes, as well as strategically developing a harmonic and metered base from which to build melodic and rhythmic interaction. This approach is also a feature of co-located freely improvised music, however without the visual clues of interacting in co-located settings, these techniques are useful approaches for networked musicians to cognitively adjust to the dislocated nature of the telematic interaction. The number of improvising musicians also plays a role in this as demonstrated case study II, which has a very small I1 Initiation stage in comparison to the other studies. Featuring only two musicians, they developed melodic and metered interaction, which transitioned into D1 Development stage within the first few seconds of the improvisation. This is due to fewer instrumental voices contributing to the sound space, which creates a perceived need in the musicians to engage in interaction more quickly. On the other hand case study IV had double the amount of musicians and the longest I1 Initiation stage of all the studies revealing that the more musicians there are interacting, the longer the initiation stage lasted. Focus musician MH summed up his experience of all three studies by reporting that he felt much more comfortable with a larger amount of musicians where the interaction was allowed to evolve more slowly and naturally.

5.3.2 Development Stage As can be observed in the multiscreen clips, the transition between the I1 Initiation and D1 Development stages of a networked improvisation occurred through direct manipulation of prototypes of causation; that is, the participating musicians’ expressed, perceived, and acted upon, patterns of sound. Examples were of gradual musical motion in sequences of individual tones within a harmonic structure, and/or metered pulse patterns that were recognised as a recurring group of sounds triggering causation in shaping a 197

particular melodic contour, or meter of a rhythm. This is apparent not only in the musicians’ performances but in their perception as structured by the SUBSTANCE GOES INTO THE OBJECT metaphor as discussed in 3.6.3 and born out in musicians’ comments such as: MH: Everyone was just starting slowly, breathing slowly into it allowing it to develop. HP: I decided to come in gradually with textural sounds to punctuate what was going on.

As highlighted earlier these are examples of “instances of making” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980), where as a result of the manipulation of sound, the causation is perceived as the music changing form. This is most clearly demonstrated in the D1 Development stage of case study IV. It can be observed that in the excerpt 1 (0:00-0:57 at section 4.4.1), the guitarist MH resonated a single tone on G before manipulating the qualities of the sound from a resonant tone to plucking (direct manipulation) an arpeggio sequence, transitioning the improvisation into a new stage in what as he commented “felt like the beat of the piece as it started”. This resulted in the music moving from the earlier I1 Initiation stage, into the D1 Development stage as all of the participating musicians changed with the introduction of the metered arpeggio as the consequence of this direct manipulation. It is worth remembering that such a change was the result of the manipulation of specific patterns of sound as part of a developing musical motion that may not have had the same result had it appeared in another contextual location within the interaction. Indeed MH’s reflective statement of a developing sonorous motion can also be heard in the increasing marked articulation, density of musical texture, electronic timbres and rhythm in the interaction itself. However, as was highlighted earlier, the number of improvisers also plays a role in the type of musical expression in these early stages. With four musicians in case study IV there was a much longer period of diffused interaction in which their introduction to each other took place. These are examples of causation that through the direct manipulation of prototypes of causation segues interaction from one stage to the next. This can be observed in the transition between sequential call and response to simultaneity in melodic interaction, and unmetered to metered rhythmic ostinato patterns that signify transitions between I1 Initiation, D1 Development and P1 Progression stages where embodied qualities of sound replace gestures of increased body movement and animated facial expression in a co-located setting. 198

5.3.3 Progression Stage As highlighted in the Table 5, P1 Progression stages emerged by defined increases in harmonic structure, tempo and density in texture, with an emphasis on homophony particularly where a monophonic instrument was present. Other observable approaches were ostinato harmonic or rhythmic patterns, and sforzando (strong emphasis on individual notes) staccato (sharp attack) articulation, which gradually built tension, resulting in a climax or zenith in the interaction. This was illustrated by the accumulation of energy in the sound, described earlier as the “arsis phase” moving to the “thesis” phase where “impulsion overwhelms the resistance and forces an emphatic release of pent up energy” (Coker 1972, p.52). Again, it was through the direct manipulation of prototypical parameters of sound such as increases in density and texture, volume and tempo that built sonorous motion in these studies to a climax, and eventual relaxation and conclusion. Musicians’ perception of impulsion is structured by their physical experience of movement in the building tension that will inevitably have to be released. There are many occurrences of this throughout the case study analysis, but a salient example took place between 6:00-7:46 in excerpt 2 of case study IV (section 4.4.4). In this 2 minute excerpt, all of the instrumentalists collectively engage in building intensity and tension in their playing to a climax that reaches a final conclusion, before suddenly dropping back to a single tone played on morin khuur (horse fiddle), accompanied by an electronic drone generated in Max/MSP. As illustrated in the case study clip, the sheer physicality of the musicians’ gesticulations at this point also demonstrated the transition from the tension in the musical climax to its release. While the musicians deployed specific instrument approaches in this dramatic example, the strategy remains the same, namely fulfilling the musical climax to resolution. It can also be observed that musicians often recall these approaches when similar prototypes re-emerge in the interaction. What can be inferred from this is the way that multiple configurations of sound make up the significant qualities in melody, harmony or rhythm that create a gestalt in the minds of the musicians, in this case of a developing musical tension that will build to its final release. This also occurred when melodic, harmonic or rhythmic material was revisited to instigate change, or to frame musical form, which was an emergent strategy in the R1 Recapitulation stage of interaction. In all

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studies, motifs were often recalled and modulated into new sections during the R1 Recapitulation stage

5.3.4 Recapitulation Stage An example of R1 Recapitulation in recurring harmonic structure can be found in excerpt 1 of case study II (section 4.2.1), in which a rising melodic pattern of tones recurred in sequential call and response between ney and guitar throughout the example. This can be viewed on the DVD as the additional excerpt for the evaluation. The melody consisted of an ascending pattern of C# D# and E that was originally voiced by guitar in the opening minutes of the improvisation. This motif was frequently replayed by ney player ST during segmental periods of deconstruction, or interlocking diffused interaction that would then signal a change to more structured playing again. However, each time it was replayed it contained different prototypes, or qualities of sound that in turn engendered different responses from the guitarist. For example this ascending melodic pattern was replayed on ney at 9:57 an octave higher with a breathier timbre, and softer articulation of the phrase, to which the guitarist MH responded in a higher pitched static melodic phrase that seeded the next few bars of the improvisation. Indeed, MH was already thinking strategically about this phrase, commenting, “I remember thinking “we’ll end on that”. And, he corroborates this perspective again in his transcript of case study IV reflecting more broadly on the strategy of recalling different motifs (tonal patterns) in all of the studies: I remember in previous sessions that we would often fall back into a motif to bring it back into something again, or if I felt like the piece was not going in a direction that I was comfortable with, or I just thought I had to use that tool to bring it back.

Along

side

MH’s

metaphorical

perception

of

TELE-IMPROVISATIONAL

LANDSCAPE, he also conceptualised a musical phrase as a “tool” that then formed part of his strategy to affect change in, or conclude the improvisation. To illustrate the crosscultural universality of this strategy, tanbur player PS reflected on his own use of repetition of melodic phrases in case study III: I’m still influenced by the melody we played at the start of the session […] I always have the melodies in my mind and I try to go back to the melodies that I just played. I think that is necessary to wrap up the whole speech (laughs) you need to go back to the things you said in the beginning.

In this comment, PS illustrates his conceptualisation of musical form by mapping the MUSIC AS LANGUAGE metaphor to IMPROVISATION AS SPEECH. However as the case study analysis demonstrated, this was repeated as a ubiquitous metaphorical 200

perception among the participating musicians in each case study, foregrounding MUSIC AS LANGUAGE metaphor as a cross-cultural phenomenon. It also highlighted the recurring strategy of returning to previous melodic patterns, which played the role of a “musical compass” for networked musicians’ orientation through dislocated non-visual improvisatory interaction. Importantly, it is the parameters of sound with which a melodic motif is voiced that results in the direct manipulation of causation, and likely to inspire numerous responses depending on the patterned configuration, and the context in which they are presented.

5.3.5 Conclusion Stage The musicians’ approaches to the C1 Conclusion stage of an improvisation can be observed in the use of cadences of descending melodic phrases, slowing tempo, relaxation of rhythm, and a return to the tonic note or chord. This provides a very clear example of the use of experiential meaning in musical signification, where these approaches result in the music feeling like it is coming to a conclusion. These characteristics also help give form to freely improvised music, which by its nature, begins as form-less. In fact, just when freely improvised music reaches conclusion is an interesting phenomenon in itself. As with previously documented stages, the transition from P1 Progression to C1 Conclusion stages is through direct manipulation of iconic musical components as detailed above. However this is not always as clear-cut as it might appear. While musicians’ approaches to the conclusive stages of smaller segments within an improvisation such as the climax are easily adjudicated, the conclusion to an entire performance is more problematic. While, the C1 Conclusion stages in these studies were embedded with certain configurations of iconic musical components, it was frequently followed by a period of deconstruction in which musicians paused, relaxed, sometimes ceased playing, or interlocked in unfocused collages of sound. However, musicians frequently used this strategy to initiate new musical ideas that were then developed into the next stage in the cycle. Underscoring this interaction can sometimes be an intuition that there is more to come, and that the cessation or “caesura” is temporary. However, when applied to networked musicians’ global perception of an entire improvisatory performance it becomes more difficult for them to ratify an ending. Interestingly, while all the case study

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participants were asked to improvise for forty minutes, a natural ending was never achieved without the intervention of the researcher. There are some indications that this was result of the musicians entering a “flow” state, resulting in a “distortion of temporal experience” (Csikszentmihalyi 2002, p. 90), however further work is needed to establish these relationships. Without clear direction, the conceptual structuring of time for the musicians in these improvisations was never conclusive.

5.3.6 Deconstruction Stage D2 Deconstruction was a stage that occurred many times throughout the case studies and typically described the dissipation of musical material related to the conclusion, in which musicians either definitively signified the ending of a section, or used it to seed new ideas for continuing interaction. It shared many of the same musical approaches with the I1 Initiation stage, and they sometimes became interchangeable when examined as sections that morphed out of each other within the larger improvisation. These are heard as interlocking layers of sound, a focus on timbre with a soft to moderate volume, long note durations with legato articulation, and unmetered rhythm and caesura (unmetered silence). What can be deduced from this is that direct manipulation of prototypes can either result in a sense of continuity or closure, depending on its location within an improvisation, and as just described this became ambiguous when musicians approached the proposed time frame of each study.

5.4 Instrumental Gestures Having described emergent approaches and strategies within evolving stages of a teleimprovisation session, attention will now be paid to instrumental gestures and techniques employed by musicians to produce specific sound qualities that helped deliver emotive meaning, or aid intonation and/or rhythmic and melodic interaction.

5.4.1 Case Study II The analysis of case study II illustrated the challenges that differences in intonation, and tonal ranges between the microtonal ney and equal tempered guitar presented to the musicians. As Persian ney player, composer and educationalist Shahram Malekkhouyan states, “Ney is a very limited instrument in terms of tunes and keys, therefore it does not 202

have the ability to perform across all Western music scales” (Malekkhouyan 2013). This illustrated the difficulties faced by both musicians interacting, not only across cultural boundaries and physical dislocation, but also with inherent musical and instrumental limitations. Despite this both musicians developed instrumental gestures and musical techniques to attempt to overcome some of the challenges that they faced. Ney player, ST, used real-time pitch bending through lip and breath techniques, which he commented through the translator as “trying to fix the tuning with his lips.” Musicologist AT confirms that lip, tongue, and fingering positions can indeed alter pitch up, or down by up to a semitone as well as being used to create vibrato and dynamics associated with emotional states. Indeed as the analysis highlighted, ST associated the sound qualities produced through instrumental and physical gestures such as breathing and moving in and away from the microphone with emotional states such as “moodiness” and “stance,” which hold deeper cultural connotations that referenced the use of breath in Sufi mysticism. While potential metaphysical relationships in networked interaction are outside of the remit of this study, this example does illustrate the links between embedded cultural meaning and the embodied experiential meaning from which it derives. The issue of intonation between guitar and ney was approached by guitarist MH attenuating the tuning of individual notes through bending strings on the fret board. He also used a number of other instrumental techniques for timbral variation and sonorous depth, including plectrum and finger plucking, scraping and resonating of strings in different neck and bridge positions, as well as electronic effects processing. These techniques produced defined sound qualities associated with the elicitation of different emotional states that have been extensively researched by Caroline Traube (2003) in her studies of timbre and perception in the classical guitar (Traube 2003; 2004), and (Friberg, et al, 2002; Juslin and Laukka, 2003; Juslin & Trimmers, 2010) in their studies of musical expression and the communication of emotion. While the above authors have rigorously mapped qualities of sound to emotional states, they are the result of direct manipulation of sound qualities as prototypes of causation, e.g. the emotional responses change as the sound qualities change. While this can be observed on numerous occasions throughout all of the studies, it is during case study II, excerpt 1 at 9:26 that MH modifies the length of reverb and level of compression on his guitar sound, which directly causes change in the interaction. While it doesn’t serve a productive purpose for him, his comments illustrate not only how changing the qualities of sound can 203

influence the interaction but his perception of a shared power relations between the two musicians: I changed my effect, and then it kind of, fell a bit flat, and then that motif [ST’s repeating melodic motif referred to in analysis]. We’ll see if it happens again but I did notice he would do that, and he would lead that, which was what was good about this, as I felt we would both do the cues to change situations. He would do something like that, or I would change effects or start playing with a different intensity.

MH’s reflection here not only demonstrates his perception of causation through direct manipulation of sound qualities and intensities, but also how this is metaphorically elaborated through his statement “I changed my effect, and then it kind of fell a bit flat.” This alludes to the ways in which direct manipulation of prototypes create causation even if it is not for a better outcome in this particular instance.

5.4.2 Case Study III The evaluation of the musicians’ instrumental gestures in case study III focused on salient examples in the rhythmic interaction between tabla and tanbur, and occasionally guitar. As foregrounded in the analysis, both tabla player SP, and tanbur player PS had difficulties in synchronising their playing to one another and understanding these issues required an examination not only of the dynamics of their musical and rhythmic exchanges, but also their perceptual experiences of their interaction. It should be stated that these timing issues were not the result of network delay as neither musician reported latency problems in their own sound monitoring. VCR transcripts revealed how SP felt unable to attenuate his playing to tanbur player PS, who he perceived as playing either too quickly, out of time, and not articulating the metres he was providing. A recurring approach for SP to resolve this was to focus on the pulse, or accents in the metre of PS’ performance and to physically tap them out on the tabla in the early stages of the beat cycle, and subsequent rhythmic development. This might appear an obvious approach, however as SP is unable to see PS’ physical gestures (wrist and arm movements), which might have helped him to synchronise to his playing patterns, this tapping out of metre through listening to PS’ pulse patterns becomes a crucial aural strategy in linking his perception with the experience of action. Indeed, of all the case study instrumentalists, SP found the non-visual component the most difficult to adjust to, and much of his time was spent developing techniques to attenuate his rhythm cycles through significant accents in the meter of the tanbur playing:

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I would find where his accents are and, so that if his one is there I will start counting from there. For us our accents are really important. If you set an accent on the one, then that is very significant. For us we have the first beat and then the off beat, so I was trying to find his first beat, to find the off beat, so I can distinguish where it is, so I could get myself back into it. In terms of my methodology, I would just tap and it is something that I wouldn’t ordinarily do, but I was just struggling. In a normal Indian Classical performance I would have stepped back, let him set the pace and then got back into it.

SP’s approach was to distinguish the first beat (pulse) of cycle from which he can identify the off beat as a measure to once again enumerate his own playing. As he comments, this would not have occurred in a traditional Indian classical performance but it becomes a practical instrumental technique for him in the unique scenario of unfamiliar musical territory in networked interaction. As could be observed throughout case study III, PS places his tanbur playing very much in a figure perspective, playing a leading role in the musical relationships. He tended to control the interaction, even “imposing” as he said, his will on it. However on the occasions that he drops out or moves away from this central perspective he would return to the interaction through a similarly measured approach of recalibrating his playing, strumming the pulse of the meter on the tonic of the chord. Marking the meter in this way is not dissimilar to the tapping approach that SP took on tabla, and this approach became a feature of his performance, which is also common to many string instruments that are played in a strumming motion as a way of marking the meter of a rhythm. While guitarist MH did not interact directly with the rhythmic complexities in this study, he was never the less aware of its intricacies. His approach of voicing atmospheric nonpercussive layers of sound was a way of underscoring this more complex rhythmic interaction. Interestingly he reports an embodied approach to marking time with his body to aid his understanding of the rhythmic components of tanbur : I noticed myself a few times that I was moving almost dancing to what I could hear, to get myself into that rhythm. Not knowing these complex time signatures that he was doing and moving backwards and forwards on. The closest I can get to playing along with it is almost dancing to it and getting that feel and knowing that that is what it is and I have to play at that speed […] obviously I’m sat down playing guitar but I will actually start moving my body to the sound of the tabla just by concentrating on it. That will help me to not sound out of time.

This is of course a natural tendency of musicians, as is the nodding head, or tapping of feet but it does help to illustrate not only the physical structuring of his perception but a strategy that he felt aided his ability to understand the rhythms even if he did not always interact with them directly.

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5.4.3 Case Study IV Case study IV is significant for the melodic interaction that developed between, acoustic guitar, morin khuur and soprano saxophone. In this study the guitarist MH chose to play unprocessed acoustic guitar in contrast to the processed sound of the electric guitar and effects module that he used in the previous case studies. This led to him employing specific instrumental gestures and techniques to achieve variations in timbre, which included; manipulation of sound qualities through variations of bridge and neck positions; variations of plucking approaches with skin (tops of fingers) for a softer sound, and fingernails and plectrum for more percussive timbre, which he commented helped to foreground the rhythmic qualities of the chord structures he played. This study also contained a high level of electro-acoustic sound produced by the electronic processing of acoustic percussion (gong, Asian bowl and other objects including rubbing hands and paper) in Max/MSP by percussionist and sonic artist MS. Techniques included the real-time sampling of live percussion and sound objects that were then processed with granulation and fed back into a processing loop, producing layers and drones of electroacoustic sound. Soprano saxophone and shakuhachi player HP also processed the output of these instruments as well as playing an assortment of percussion (bells, rainmaker, sea shells, Tibetan bowl) processed with granulation, delay, reverb and vocoder (electronic harmoniser). HP also used extended instrumental techniques as just blowing air into the instrument while depressing key pads, multiphonics (similar to overtone singing); blowing harmonics into the open instrument without a mouthpiece (and no key pads depressed), using tongue flutter effects as an approach to producing textures of percussive noise through acoustic instruments. These techniques were most commonly employed during the I1 Initiation and transition to D1 Development stages but also recurred when new stages were developing. In the first instance of the use of concrète sound (manipulated pre-recorded sound) in these sessions, HP triggered field recordings of water, and sound objects employing realtime effects manipulation and processing. Asked about his approach to processing concrète sound during improvising, HP comments:

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The processing that I do is used to extract musical information from the recording. For example it looks at the peaks and the harmonic content, so the processing reveals the harmony of a stream at that moment in time, so the sound might be white noise or abstract in musical terms but the water sound becomes a kind of ambient harmony with unusual intervals because it is not based on tempered scale, it is a natural harmony.

The density of this multileveled harmonic sound presented a sound-space that was rich with electronic timbre but rarely became a dominant feature of the interaction. MS & HP were keen to place these layers of electronic sound in a ground like perspective as a textural underlay to the melodic interplay between acoustic guitar and morin khuur. The musician’s reflections on their approach here demonstrates a sensitivity to the developing relationships within the interaction between acoustic guitar and morin khuur as both MS & HP comment: MS: I didn’t want to disturb it with my textures, I only want to support it and allow it to come out. I wanted to hear what would develop with these two guys. I didn’t feel it was right to bring in some strange atmospheres or hard textures. HP: The guitar and fiddle were developing something together that I didn’t want to interrupt or even add to, so whatever I was doing was quite small and minimal. With Martins participation I felt that all I could do at that point was to add to the mood by creating a space but not by playing an instrument, hence the field recordings.

While they both reported not wanting to disturb, or interrupt the interaction between acoustic guitar and morin khuur, it nevertheless provided a sonically dense soundscape to which BG attempted to integrate Mongolian overtone (throat) singing. This required him to use a number of vocal techniques which placed his voice between figure and ground like perspectives resulting in the voice moving between being a dominant line to being placed to the back of the sound mix. While it is out of the remit of this study to document the range of techniques in the Mongolian throat singing repertory, the two main styles of singing employed in this study range between a harsh low gravel like voice and a higher harmonic overtone achieved by the shaping of the larynx and mouth, and the shape, and placement of tongue. BG reported that when he used the low gravel voice it was “from a poem about a little village,” although he was quick to point out that any significance in the music to the poem was coincidental rather than any responsive but it is again evident that cultural meaning is frequently enmeshed in intercultural improvisatory dialogues. The overtones and throat singing provided a rich textural base to the improvisation, and morin khuur was the dominant voice in the study as foregrounded through modalities in melody, harmony, and rhythm within the interaction. The instrumental techniques that BG 207

employed centred around plucking, bowing, and finger pressure and glissando on strings. As the analysis reveals, the instrument has deep mythological and metaphorical significance in Mongolian culture, and many of the techniques used by BG illustrate these through the physical movement of the instrument. This was most clearly seen in his playing to signify musical motion through the metaphorical trajectory of a galloping horse as carved into the top of the machine head of the instruments neck. This has its roots in the playing techniques of the Daringanga Saaral (Eastern Mongols), when the musician ‘reaches under the lower string with all three fingers of the left hand, applying gentle pressure, laterally, to the top string with the tips of his fingers’ (Pegg 2001, p. 73). In this example, the player adjusts his physical technique to play the instrument in a gestural way to produce evocative, imitative sounds – in other words, transforming the symbolic into representative (Mills & Beilharz 2012).

5.5 Conclusion This chapter has outlined an evaluation of the case study analyses (Chapter 4) and critiqued the efficacy of the approaches and strategies, and instrumental gestures and techniques that networked cross-cultural musicians employ to interact at different stages of intercultural tele-improvisation. It describes the ways in which recurring patterns of sound form gestalts in the minds of networked musicians, and how direct manipulation created prototypes of causation in improvisatory dialogues. While these characteristics may share similarities to those of co-located improvisatory scenarios, without the signifiers of presence (eye contact, facial expression and body language), they illustrate the pervasiveness of conceptual metaphor in replacing these communication mechanisms in the minds of the musicians. The evaluation also shines a light on emergent social relationships between instrumentalists through their placement of sound within musical discourses and aural frames of reference. These points directly address the research questions in the ways in which musicians interact in tele-improvisation, how they perceive signification and meaning in tele-improvisation as well as highlighting the approaches and strategies that they develop during the different stages of interaction. Lastly, it demonstrates the ways in which the multimodal analytical framework foregrounds meaningful relationships in tele-improvisation as both actions of practice and conceptual experience.

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CHAPTER 6 - CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 6.1 Summary of Findings The aim of this thesis was to explore the ways in which networked cross-cultural musicians interact with one another in collective intercultural tele-improvisation. It sought to understand the social, and experiential qualities of tele-improvisatory engagement in nonvisual, dislocated and unfamiliar musical circumstances, and how networked musicians perceive signification and meaning in tele-improvised dialogues. An examination of the literature (Chapter 2) demonstrated the technological agenda that has driven much NMP research, and the paucity of knowledge about tele-improvisation as a practice. In doing so, it revealed that there are no known qualitative studies of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction, which as a first step has now been addressed in this thesis. This chapter will now outline the key findings of the research, and describe the practical and theoretical implications on future work. It will begin by answering the main research questions: 1. What are the ways in which networked of different cultures interact in teleimprovisation? 2. How do networked musicians’ of different cultures perceive signification and meaning in tele-improvisatory interaction? 3. What are the musical and cognitive approaches and strategies that networked musicians of different cultures develop to interact in tele-improvisation? To investigate these questions, an analytical framework that blended a social semiotic perspective with ideas from cognitive linguistics was developed (Chapter 3) to examine musical interaction, gesture, and reflective transcripts from case studies of dispersed crosscultural musicians improvising with the telematic music system eJamming. This multimodal approach captured emergent social relations in tele-improvisatory interaction and networked musicians’ perception of signification and causation in tele-improvised dialogues. The basic structure of the project was: •

Examine the literature to identify criteria for a qualitative analytical framework

•

Develop and refine framework through application to experimental data from pilot studies

•

Conduct case studies and apply the framework to the analysis of interaction 209

•

Evaluate networked musicians’ approaches and strategies to interaction in the analysis and produce findings informed by practice (step 2) and research (step 1 and 3).

6.2 Findings The main findings of this research are summarised in Chapter 4 (case study analysis) & Chapter 5 (evaluation). Chapter 4 presents a descriptive analysis of three case studies with selected audio-visual examples of improvisatory interaction between cross-cultural networked musicians. In line with the research objectives, it examined the ways in which dispersed musicians perceive significance in the interpretation and exchange of musical motifs (e.g. melodic, rhythmic, harmonic), as well as the creative and cognitive approaches and strategies for improvising in dislocated and dispersed networked interaction. Based on the criteria outlined in section 3.8.1, Chapter 5 describes an evaluation of the analysis looking specifically at the emergent stages of interaction and the approaches and longerterm strategies that networked musicians develop over the three case studies. It also highlights specific instrumental gestures and techniques used by musicians to achieve significant qualities of sound with reference to the experiential meaning. This section will now draw together these strands to answer the three thesis questions specified in chapter 1. 1. What are the ways in which networked musicians of different cultures interact in intercultural teleimprovisation? Interaction in intercultural tele-improvisation relies on “dialogical interplay” and collective engagement: The studies demonstrated that tele-improvisatory intercultural interaction occurs through an empathetic approach to cultural difference. This was observed in the interaction through what the author describes as reciprocal mimesis, where musicians contribute musical ideas (timbral melodic, harmonic rhythmic), which are exchanged and developed in dialogical interplay. It is not direct imitation or appropriation but a reciprocal commutation of musical material. Sequential patterns of call and response in the opening minutes of a section of improvisation seed core motivic material that are used to transition into simultaneous collective interaction throughout a particular section of the improvisation. This also illustrates the developing social relationships between participants; as the musicians become more familiar with each other, so simultaneity (overlapping sound) increases. This can be viewed as a necessary interactive approach when musicians are dislocated and unfamiliar with each other’s instruments, cultures and musical traditions. 210

Causation in tele-improvisation is expressed by manipulation of parameters of sound in melodic, rhythmic and harmonic interaction: Direct manipulation of sound parameters such as the timbre of a melody, meter of a rhythm, or the tonality of a harmonic phrase is used by musicians to affect causation in improvisatory dialogues. This includes characteristics such as texture (layers) and volume to increase intensity and expectation that replace visual signification of body language and facial expression in interaction. Musicians’ social and cultural backgrounds play a significant role in the expression and

interpretation

of

intercultural

improvisatory

interaction: The studies

demonstrated that participants from cultures with strong hierarchical social structures were likely to interpret interaction in a more structural way than those of more heterogenic cultures. While this was a recurrent issue, it was most clearly observed in the difficulties in the rhythmic synchronisation between the tabla and tanbur player in case study III. The tabla player trained in Indian classical music through the guru-shisha teaching style of master teacher to disciple, perceived the rubato playing of the tambour player as out of time, and not listening, or respectful of roles of each instrumentalist within interaction. The tanbur player on the other hand grew up in rural Kurdistan learning an instrument (with a large solo repertoire) in a familial communal setting in which performing music was a shared communal activity often marking social occasions. As he later remarked “I didn’t know I was a musician until I left my village, as it was just part of growing up” (Sayyadi, 2012). 2. How do networked musicians of different cultures perceive signification and meaning in tele-improvisatory interaction? Signification is polysemic with a central core of experiential meaning: Cross-cultural networked musicians perceive signification in intercultural improvisation with reference to specific social or cultural connotations that gain that meaning through experiential meaning potential in sound. While a melody type or rhythm cycle might have a particular social or cultural context, meaning within that context is expressed through embodied sound qualities that are universally perceptible. For example the regular simple duple meter at moderate tempo of a devotional rhythm cycle in Indian classical music is used to bring people together in a joint activity of temple worship. When played in the context of intercultural tele-improvisation, networked musicians’ experience the sense of social unison through the easily identifiable pulse even if the devotional content associated with that rhythm cycle is not known. 211

Embodied qualities in sound carry signification of expression and response in teleimprovisatory interaction: Without visual representations of co-located presence, indicative references of expression and response in tele-improvisation are also perceived in the embodied characteristics inherent in the physical production of sound. This was revealed in the analysis in examples such as a rising or falling harmonic and melodic progression to signify building tension and climax, which then transition to release and relaxation through the analogous experience of the release of physical tension. Similarly, timbre, aural perspective and volume also play crucial roles in portraying intention and response. Examples include musicians utilising parameters of sound such as higher volume, strident articulation and figure like perspective to lead interaction, or alternatively creating soft timbral sound, with a ground like perspective at a lower volume to position the player as an accompaniment in ensemble interaction. Context demonstrates that timbral attributes such as these can also be used to elicit emotive feelings of gentleness or melancholy in solo or duo performance. Musicians’ perception of interaction is schematically structured by conceptual metaphor: The studies show that networked musicians’ perceive their interaction through imaginative schematic structures enabled by conceptual metaphor. This was observed in the way that musicians’ described their interaction in parameters such as rhythm, motion, and timbre. Examples included perceiving height in timbre or melody through percussive, or high pitches that they perceived as requiring them to fit their musical response ‘underneath’, or tempo in rhythm that required ‘catching up to’. This also extended to musicians’ perception of the space of networked interaction, which revealed that they did not conceive of this in stereotypes of cyberspace but rather the activity SUBSTANCE of the music itself. This was observed in the reflective transcripts through the recurrence of the TELE-IMPROVISATORY LANDSCAPE metaphor in which musicians conceived their interaction. Due to experiential similarities between instrumental performance and speech, and the physical characteristics of verbalising a spoken phrase, or a musical note, there was also a consistency of conceptual metaphors in reflections pertaining to musical interaction that may not be applicable to other activities. As demonstrated further in the transcripts, the networked musical experience is an elusive concept, and by its nature engenders more visceral verbal accounts in which musicians call upon metaphor to describe their experiences, even if they are not conscious of it. In this sense conceptual metaphor provides a scaffold for cross-cultural musicians to be able to conceive and describe their networked experience. 212

3. What are the musical and cognitive approaches and strategies that networked musicians of different cultures develop to interact in tele-improvisation? Networked musicians of different cultures adopt a multi-idiomatic free improvisatory approach: In these studies, networked musicians engaged in first encounters in tele-improvisation with a non-prescriptive, multi-idiomatic approach. This provided a collaborative starting point for intercultural interaction in an environment of shared difference. Conceptual metaphor enables networked musicians’ approaches and strategies for longer-term interaction: Nearly all of the musicians’ verbalised schematic structures of experience based on conceptual metaphors when interacting in tele-improvisation. This was particularly evident when they encountered difficulties such as synchronising to an unfamiliar rhythm or integrating unknown harmonic structures. Conceptual metaphor enables the musician to perceive the problem and potential approaches to it. Distinct approaches and strategies are developed and employed by networked musicians’ based their temporal position within each stage of an improvisation: As documented in section 5.3 of evaluation, the studies demonstrated consistent stages of interaction across each improvisation. For example musicians’ recurring approaches to the beginning of an improvisation were long note durations, unmetered interaction and an attention to qualities of sound, which typify the strategy of initiating the interaction and establishing a harmonic centre. In the following, or development stage of the improvisation, approaches such as ostinato lines, establishing of metre, and developing homophonic texture leads to a strategy of developing movement and density in the music from which a melodic line emerges. Likewise it was observed that the end, or conclusion stage of a section was marked by descending melodic phrases, slowing tempo and return to a tonic chord. This emerges as a strategy to give closure to the section, or entire improvisation and framing musical form.

6.2.1 Additional Findings Networked musicians take time to adjust to the telematic audio system: The studies showed that while all the participants were given an introduction to the telematic audio system, it still took time for them to acclimatise to interacting with unfamiliar, dislocated collaborators with whom they could not see.

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This perhaps explains why all of the studies began tentatively and typically in dialogical interplay, which as previously stated was the prevalent mode of interaction throughout. It also illustrates the cognitive adjustments required of musicians to adapt to the dislocated presence of their collaborators, which they do through sound rather than sight. At each iterative stage, the focus musician became visibly more relaxed and reported his growing ease as his experience with the telematic system increased in each new case study. Cultural and ritual influences practice: The influence of cultural mythology and ritual were prevalent characteristics in the non-Western networked musicians’ improvisatory approaches. As highlighted in the analysis this was most clearly observed in the tabla, tanbur, and morin khuur players’ performances and corroborated in their verbal reflections. Examples include the ney player in case study II describing his instrumental techniques of breath and gesture as “a stance” to “create a certain atmosphere,” which with further scrutiny through the translator emerged as a reflection on the unification of the music and his personality, a Sufi mystical sense of annihilation in which one becomes the other. In the opening section of case study III, the tabla player performed a rhythm cycle associated with bhajans (devotional songs) that are simple duple rhythms used to bring people together in temple ceremonies. In case study IV, the morin khuur player referred to incorporating melodies based on Mongolian long songs, which are pentatonic melodies with deep associations with the environment, mythology and shamanistic practices. Interestingly, their Western collaborators were unaware of the significance of these culture specific characteristics within the interaction. However, as has already been outlined, it is the inherent experiential meaning of these characteristics in the music that act as signifiers to the group. The simple duple meter structure of a devotional rhythm cycle to bring people together in the beginning of an improvisation, or the breathy sound and field like perspective of the ney to create a sense of atmospheric distance, or strong pentatonic melody to drive the interaction. They all contain indexical qualities (sensory features) that are interpreted through experiential meaning.

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6.3 Implications, Ongoing and Future Work The contributions of this thesis have been presented in previous chapters. They include: •

A framework for the analysis of interaction in intercultural tele-improvisation

•

An evaluation of cross-cultural musicians’ approaches and strategies to teleimprovisation

•

A theory of intercultural interaction in tele-improvisation

The findings of this research provide a starting point from which to think about networked musician’s experience of intercultural tele-improvisation. However, with no known comparable studies, the theoretical and practical implications of this study will now be considered in the light of research in co-located intercultural improvisation.

6.3.1 Dialogical Interplay and Embodied Perception The model of dialogical interplay as a paradigm in which networked musicians interact needs to be revisited in order to understand how it contributes to an understanding of intercultural engagement in tele-improvisation. While it was described in the literature review in contradistinction to the views of Watson (2004) who views improvisation as essentially a competitive venture, and Peters (2009) who holds an even starker goal of combating any form of collective consensus, dialogical interaction is more multifaceted than its critics suggest. George E. Lewis himself describes it as more than just a musical approach but the “acknowledgment of interdisciplinary practice” promoting “dialogue and collaboration with workers in other fields” (Lewis 1996, see Stanyek 2004). Stanyek adopts this view and uses it as a framework to examine interculturalism in diasporic improvisation, through multiple disciplines such as ethnomusicology, cognitive science, anthropology and philosophy. The studies in this research show that there is also a cognitive component to dialogical interplay, which is useful to consider when applying it to tele-improvisation. While it emerges that it is not only a practical musical approach, it can also be viewed as a circulatory and reciprocal perceptual process whereby musicians’ re-experience their culturally embodied practice of perception (Iyer 2008). In other words signification is perceived through the embodied schematic structures that generate it, providing the networked musician with a powerful tool to construct responses 215

before a phrase, or rhythmic pulse is completed. The author describes this as embodied audiation where networked musicians are able to audiate their responses through embodied patterns of experience, e.g. the felt experience of timbre, or rhythm as particular characteristics of sound. In this light, the mental processes of pattern recognition are based on previous physical experiences of these sound qualities, not as Gordon argues a “competition between “stored” patterns in our brains and the actuality of what we are encountering in our environment” (Gordon 2001, p. 23). Casal and Morelli have a similar position when they refer to activating “the dialogic processes of the improviser’s mind, in particular the quicksilver heuristics involved in finding improvisational pathways within musical material through instrumental practice” (Casal & Morelli 2007, p. 2). It is this embodied relationship that musicians’ have with their practice (instruments, culture and environments) from which conceptual metaphor emerges and is transferred through significant qualities in sound, circumventing the traditional role of sight in co-located settings. Referring back to the multiple interpretations that a melody type or rhythm cycle might receive, the author agrees with Lakoff and Johnson that it is the conceptual structuring ability of metaphor to explain, “the systematicity of the polysemy, and correspondingly, the systematic polysemy provides the evidence of the existence of the metaphor” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 248).

6.3.2 Intercultural Interplay The findings presented in this research illustrate a theory of intercultural interaction in teleimprovisation that isn’t based on imitation, or appropriation of other, but rather what Stanyek describes as a “shared taxonomy of difference” (Stanyek 2004). As has been described, this instituted itself in the shared intercultural engagement of tele-improvisatory practices where representation and meaning is polysemic and experiential meaning potential provides significance to the interaction. On this view, the author diverges from the notion proposed by Binsbergen that intercultural research is, in its essence, exploitative, and necessarily leads to the “destruction of other” (Binsbergen 2003, p. 22). The unique scenario of dispersed consenting musicians’ linking to others over distance to exchange ideas, and learn new techniques is certainly a contemporary phenomenon but one of mutual benefit where cultures grow and become stronger through engagement with others.

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As Stanyek so eloquently puts it, “‘Interculturalism's very ontology rests on a presumption that boundaries can be breached but, at the same time, those boundaries are necessary for the continued existence of the intercultural gesture” (Stanyek 2004, p. 11). As most of the musicians in these studies lived in, and participated from locations outside of their country of origin, these boundaries had already been breached but were also being maintained through dialogical interplay that is part of their interaction with their host culture. This was shown in their willingness to participate through their own cultural musical practices at the same time as engaging with others.

6.4 Practical Implications This study is a first step toward developing a broader theory of intercultural teleimprovisation. The findings have significant theoretical and practical implications for practitioners and researchers exploring tele-improvisation, as well as the fields of telematics, social semiotics, cognitive linguistics, improvisation and musicology. The specific musical and experiential issues encountered by cross-cultural networked musicians in the thesis case studies provide an understanding of how they experience and perceive their interaction in tele-improvisation, as well approaches and strategies they develop with a particular group of musical cultures in an intercultural improvisation session. The implications for each of the above fields are now considered: 1. Cognitive linguistics: original application of conceptual metaphor theory to a new domain requiring new metaphors, and schemas to describe tele-improvisatory perception and experience. Established image schematic metaphors, such as MUSICAL LANDSCAPE, SOURCE-PATH GOAL, MOVING TIMES can provide new insights into the intercultural tele-improvisatory experience. 2. Social Semiotics: Multimodal analytical framework for the analysis of intercultural telematic collaboration in music, education and business tele-conferencing, games design. It provides a structure in which to think about significance in telematic social relationships and the ways in which identity is expressed. 3. Telematics: While telematics is a large field, the implications of this framework and findings can be applied across a range of audio-visual networked music performance scenarios. As network music making reaches out across borders and cultures, these studies bring together knowledge of the creative and technological characteristics of networked 217

music performance with the inherent social and experiential components to telematic experience. 4. Improvisation and musicology: Perhaps one of the most significant implications that this research has is in the practice of improvisation, and the theoretical discipline of musicology. It illustrates a unique opportunity for musicians of different cultures and musical traditions to begin to understand and learn about how other musicians think in both co-located and networked improvisation, and the ways in which they conceptualise their play in improvisatory interaction. It illustrates not only general issues that cross-cultural networked musicians might encounter when interacting in tele-improvisation but also the specific problems and solutions that were encountered by the musicians whose cultures are represented in the research. The multimodal analysis and evaluation of intercultural tele-improvisation is a defining feature of the contribution made by this thesis. Mapping collaborative interaction to gesture and reflective experience provides a powerful tool to examine distributed interaction. Like the assumptions within the underlying social semiotic perspective, it is a tripartite analytical model that can be applied to different collaborative disciplines, combinations of cultures and/or creative telematic domains. Above all, it provides researchers and practitioners in these fields with an inductive practice led framework with which to analyse and evaluate intercultural group interaction that takes into account the social and experiential characteristics of collaborative group work.

6.5 Future Work As practice-led research inspired by the author’s experience of the questions that networked musicians were asking themselves, this study has made a novel contribution to the field of networked music performance. However there is still much to examine in future work. The diversity of culture specific improvisatory techniques and reflective experiences unveiled, demonstrates that cross-cultural musicians’ approach, and experience tele-improvisatory interaction in unique ways. What is required in future work is the development of a comprehensive taxonomy of intercultural tele-improvisatory interaction that integrates a sizeable number of world cultures and musical traditions. Additionally how levels of improvisatory experience with different cultures, instruments, and technology 218

might influence a musician’s approach. This should include studying specific conceptual metaphors across cultures to establish a greater understanding of the ways in which crosscultural musicians conceive tele-improvisatory interaction. While this study is now a starting point for such work, it should also be expanded to include studies of the effect of climate, season and circadian rhythms on a musician’s individual interaction, and the affect that that might have on collective tele-musical collaboration. As this study has focused on the experiential aspects of improvisatory interaction rather than any one musical component within it, there is also a need to examine these characteristics from a disciplinefocussed perspective. This needs to augment qualitative analysis of experience with quantitative methodologies for studying aspects such as the perception of timbre, and temporality in rhythm.

6.6 Conclusion This research project has demonstrated the development and application of a bespoke theoretical framework to the analysis and evaluation of intercultural interaction teleimprovisation. The four pillars on which the framework stands are social semiotics, musicology, cognitive linguistics and multimodal discourse analysis. In blending these related theoretical perspectives and methodologies, the research has been able to produce a comprehensive analytical outcome that would not have been possible without the integration of all four. Underpinned by a social semiotic perspective the musical analysis revealed the experiential basis of significance in dialogical interplay between improvising musicians. The basis of experiential meaning lies in the physical structuring of abstract experience enabled by conceptual metaphor. This cognitive linguistic approach provided a powerful tool in which to examine transcripts of networked musicians verbalised reflective experiences that were mapped to instances of improvisatory interaction. Drawing these strands together, multimodal discourse analysis examined the interaction from a global perspective that included the ways in which musicians used gesture in the production of sound. This provided a holistic view of the interaction from which the findings are based. This research has been driven by the author’s desire for a greater understanding of crosscultural tele-improvisatory experiences as well as the opportunities to learn new improvisatory techniques and practices enabled by telematic systems. It is therefore hoped

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that this framework will be helpful to improvisers and researchers, providing the opportunity to apply it to new combinations of cultures and/or creative telematic domains.

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APPENDIX A - PEER REVIEWED PUBLICATIONS Book Chapter & Journal Articles Mills, R. 2014, The Metaphorical Basis of Perception in Intercultural Networked Improvisation, in A. Abrahams & H.V Jamieson (Eds.), Cyposium: The Book, Brescia, Italy, Link Editions. Mills, R. & Beilharz, K. 2014, 'The Networked Unveiled. Evaluating Tele-Musical Interaction.' in L. Candy & S. Ferguson (eds), Interactive Experience in the Digital Age: Evaluating New Art Practice, Springer, London. Mills, R. & Beilharz, K. 2012, 'Listening Through the Firewall: Semiotics of sound in networked improvisation', Organisaed Sound, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 16-27.

Conference Papers Mills, R. 2010, 'Dislocated Sound: A Survey of Improvisation in Networked Audio Platforms', Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression University of Technology, Sydney, Sydney, Australia, pp. 186-91. Mills, R. 2011, 'Tele-Improvisation: Cross-Cultural Creativity in Networked Improvisation', Creative and Cognition, ACM, Atlanta, GA, USA 3-6 November 2011.

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APPENDIX B TRANSCRIPT

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SAMPLE

VIDEO

CUE

RECALL

Michael Hanlon Case Study IV Index MH: Michael Hanlon (guitar) RM: Roger Mills (researcher) 0:00 Audio Timeline (0:00) Video Timeline 0:00 Start 1:36 [over first minute and half of improvisation] MH: It’s nice, I’m louder than I thought I was. I felt everyone was just starting slowly, breathing slowly into it allowing it to develop. RM: your listening to the percussive sounds that Martin was doing in Max/MSP, and Herve and Bukhu were scraping out various textures on the bow, but you come in with quite melodically in comparison. MH: I started a note that worked and staying down low, which felt like the beat of the piece as it started, kind of searching around still at the beginning. RM: Can you make any comparison to the other sessions in the way that they started ? MH: I can’t remember exactly how they started but I think they were similar in that I was feeling my way around where the piece might go, and what I would start to do. I was playing acoustic guitar this time, so I was less reliant on FX and playing a bit more percussive this time. RM: I’m just curious about the textural nature of the beginning of this, initiated by the other instruments. Compared to the others where you were playing with musical instruments, they had more harmonic beginnings ?

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MH: I think last time I started some of the textures as I had the ability to be more washy with the FX pod. This time Martin took that role on, which was good and everyone else seemed to feel their way over the top of that. RM: Going back to what we were talking about earlier with networked space, did you you visualize anything as these sounds started and people started to play, were there any images in your mind, or any feelings about the improvisation and the way it had started and where that might lead you. MH: The only visualisations I think I had were of the other musicians spaces, my imagining of them in their spaces and what they might be doing. It started just like a slow wave and I thought I “oh I like this and musically I’m going to enjoy this”. RM: Can you explain what you mean about a wave ? MH: A slow building wave just gently building. It’s a good analogy because as it goes on it gets bigger and ends up crashing on the shore. RM: So you were thinking about this metaphorically as a wave of water MH: yes definitely water metaphor. As an old surfer I often dream about waves and surfing all the time. So musically dreaming in music is important and I definitely see it as a slow building wave out deep and it coming into shore. 6:40 clip restarted 7:25 stopped MH: I like the noises that Martin was making here, just before the little phrases might have been coming to a conclusion. I liked the way he did that, whether he did it intentionally or not it just broke the flow of things (3:46) with a big noise like that one thee. It could have rolled out for another few bars in my understanding of the pieces and I really liked the way that happened and it and it happened a fair bit during the session. You will notice that he will do a noise that was discordant, which takes you by surprise, I loved it though, and everyone would back off a little bit and changed tack. RM: Is this the first time you have worked with an electronics improviser ? MH: Well, yes definitely in a live performance. I enjoyed the way he broke things up. I was playing a chordal melody and there was some nice kind of tinkly’s going on, Bukhu playing

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the stringed instrument [horse fidle] and then suddenly “dddrrrrgghhh”, and in came this discordant noise. 9:29 Clip restarted RM: Nice little chord change there (5:29) do you remember what that change was ? MH: A minor to G on the bass. I didn’t do many chord changes last night. MH: That’s great isn’t it ? 13:15 clip stopped RM: Is that you and Bukhu playing that ostinato there ? (7:20) MH: I think it’s just me picking really fast. 15:09 Herve was quite loud there, did that take you by surprise at all ? MH: I think it took me by surprise a little bit but it was good, it fitted into the piece. I remember a couple of times thinking “oh Brian Eno” all over that when he was playing. I have an album that sounds a little bit like that, but it was great. I thought I recognized a couple of his effects or I thought I might of, with my technology head on. I thought he was using a Zoom such and such there, I just thought I recognized the sound. 16:02 Video restarted MH: A bit of interplay going on there (8:43) between Bukhu and Herve 17:18, so many bits I would like to capture and continue to work on. Particularly this bit here. Gong played by Martin with Bukhu 17:59. Has he got an effect on that ? [bukhu throat singing] RM: No, that’s just his voice. MH: It’s incredible ! 18:36 Video stopped (10:40) MH: I remember thinking this is sounding great. I really loved the low noises that the electronic musician Martin was making, which I felt would allow me to make a melody on top. I thought the piece was really strong here, everyone had a lot of space and fitting together really well.

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RM: 19:26 Clip Restarted MH: I was aware not to play here (11:21) I thought sometimes I was playing a bit much so just tried to back off a bit. But you know guitarists, it didn’t last long [laughs] 22:04 Stopped RM: Your facial expression is saying something, what are you thinking ? MH: I was thinking “wow he’s going up and up and up, this is great” and I was thinking this is great and I looked at Michael [student assistant behind video camera] as if to say fantastic isn’t this great playing. I stopped just to let him..I just wanted to let this one go. It was just like “wow”, I was just really enjoying the moment, building, building, building, probably took a bit longer than I thought but it was a nice piece f music. 23:07 (13:53) clip 1 RM: I noticed that in your interaction with the other musicians you seem to be playing little riffs or cells that… MH: keeps a rhythm as well as a melody. I like the percussive nature of the acoustic guitar by playing a riff in time you can emphasize on a note or two you can establish a beat. RM: so this is more of a feature of your acoustic guitar playing in comparison to the electric. MH: Yes it’s something I enjoy doing on the acoustic guitar, more so than the electric, especially with effects. But that was definitely that piece of music, and that that was the end. I remember thinking I’ll start something and see what happens. I remember changing the key completely and thought I would get in before anyone else did. I often hold back but thought I would set out and start something and see what happens. Right here I moved to G minor, it looks like, and was I interested to see if the others would follow. RM: That seemed to be the way the improvisation worked throughout, where sections built to a climax and then they would come back down to a single line, or one of you playing textually. MH: Yes I think we all knew or felt that that was going to happen there.I don’t think I was alone in thinking that this was the end of this piece here.

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RM: In the last VCR session you talked about ways that you conceptualized the improvisation by quizzing yourself about whether you thought of it as one whole piece, or a series of smaller segments that you felt could be explored more. How does this compare to those sessions, is this more of a whole or small segments like the others ? MH:I think they were small segments and I was comfortable with that, having done it before. I felt was playing with experienced improvisers and felt comfortable and privileged to be playing with them. I was wondering whether it should be a 40 minute piece but felt comfortable that we were exploring fluid bits of music that did have a start, a middle and end, perhaps with frayed edges. RM: Would you then say that it was the same as the others ? in terms of these small segments within a greater whole ? MH: Yes I do but because I was relaxed with that by now, it probably rubbed off on my playing. Like here, I felt comfortable starting something completely different, which still could be part of the piece but it definitely felt like an end and start. RM: I’m curious about whether you conceive it as a whole piece with sections just or sections ? MH: I conceived it in sections, obviously as one session of players with half a dozen pieces of music, that loosely join together. RM: There has been recurring motifs in all the other sessions, and I would be interested if you recognize that in this improvisation and where they come back if they do ? MH: I don’t recall it as happening as much. It doesn’t mean it didn’t, but I don’t remember now. I remember in previous sessions that we would often fall back into a motif to bring it back into something again, or if I felt like the piece was not going in a direction that I was comfortable with, or I just thought I had to use that tool to bring it back RM: So it’s to do with how comfortable you are with the improvisation ? MH: It also has a lot to do with the musicians as well. I was just part of 4 and they all played their role, but like I said, I felt comfortable within it. I mean the idea of bringing a motif back is very common in classical music, and the chorus in pop music is possibly the same thing, and improvising a motif but I don’t remember it happening with this one at all.

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RM: I remember case study 1b lets say with the ney player, there was a recurring motif that you indicated recurred when you both felt that that part of the improvisation had come to a close, and that that motif was something to hold onto or cling onto to generate the next part. MH: Am I right in thinking the motif was played by the ney player ? RM: You interacted with it, and sometimes you mirrored it. It also happened in the last one with Peyman in case study 3, a motif that you actually started and he ended up repeating a couple of times MH: I do remember that now. It’s interesting that you mention it as I haven’t really thought of it until you said it just now. I don’t really recall a similar motif to those, last night. In actual fact it was more sounds, probably because of what Martin was playing electronically it was more sounds rather than a riff for example. Perhaps the motif might have been the quality or nature of the sounds. The whole session started with Martin’s noises, and I think it happened a couple of times in this. It’s interesting I don’t think there was a riff and perhaps we didn’t feel like we needed to cling onto anything. RM: Maybe one will occur as we are watching this for the first time. 32:02 Clip Restarted RM: What key are you playing in here ? MH: G minor, [looked quizzically after a dissonant note] that kind of worked ? I was trying not to go to obvious “song-writer” chords from G minor. MH: We fluked that didn’t we, very nice. 33:12 Clip stopped RM: you stepped up first and Bukhu went with you, and then he stepped up further and you followed him. MH: I went after him, I wonder if he went on the same timing as we did last time. RM: It’s certainly a coincidence or synchrony in the way that you both changed together. MH: Well we had just done it before though, when we both went up. He is very good at that and he heard and knew where it was going to go. It was right on it but there is a

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definite timing to the piece there, and it looked like I didn’t go that time just to confuse him. RM: You didn’t go with him ? MH: I stepped up afterward. 34:09 Restarted (1:08 clip 2) 35:05 over music MH: Fantastic depth to those sounds [played by Martin] RM: Do you remember what chords you are playing here ? MH: they were just notes down the G minor scale. Is that water in the background or sax ? It is water, sounds great (3:24 Clip 2) 36:40 MH: Bit of play between Bukhu and myself. RM: Do you remember what notes are ? MH: It started in D. [Bukhu throat singing and playing horse fiddle while others are laying back] MH: He’s singing and playing. 39:40 over music MH: Got helicopters coming in [laughs] 41:00 MH: Bukhu is great, he plays beautiful melodies (9:04 clip 2) RM: Is Bukhu playing that ostinato line ? MH: yes 44:11 RM: What are you doing there ? [looks at camera as if to wake up] 228

MH: I noticed Michael [student assistant camera operator] again, and he was getting a bit sleepy, and so was I, and we just made a bit of a facial expression / joke. Not a comment on the music. Another one of those moments I guess I came out of it and saw Michael and realized he was there again. I thought to myself, maybe try something new to pick the pace up a bit there. I don’t know if we did but I remember thinking that Michael might have had a big day as he was closing his eyes and really getting into the music and just relaxing. After we did that he picked up and sat up and started tapping his feet along as if to say “it isn’t boring the hell out of me” [laughs]. RM: I wonder if someone being in the room influences you in any way ? I mean the last session with Peyman and Shaun tabla player, you were by yourself, the 1st one with the Chinese musician Qui you had Ben Carey in the room with you, the 2nd one with Sina [ney player] you were by yourself and this one with Michael Carr. So would you say you are aware of the camera ? Are you aware of the camera operator being there ? MH: I am more aware of the camera operator, the camera is just another piece of equipment like a microphone. Sometimes I am aware of the camera but not overly, you know, make sure my fly is not undone [laughs] but with a person in the room you do interact. RM: is it like an audience ? MH: perhaps, I didn’t really think of it like that. He was being professional about it and I was trying to be professional about it as well. But sure playing with someone in the room and wondering if he was a guitar player, and thinking “oh that’s a bit average or that’s a nice piece of playing” I guessed he was musical but at the time I didn’t know what he did. RM: So did it detract in way ? MH: I don’t think it detracted from it, but it surely influences me in some way. I remember thinking after we had been drifting off with the music whether I did it because we were dreamy, or it allowed me to think to try to do something new, I remember consciously thinking I will try something more up-tempo. 47:35 Video restarted 48:40 RM: interaction between you and Bukhu

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MH: yes, he’s good at that. (12:58 – clip 2) 50:01 MH: Creeps up on you those sounds RM: Bit funky here ? MH: [Laughs] 50:30 MH: I was conscious of trying to keep on the beat here to let him do his thing. It’s pretty straight in its timing but the accents are falling on different measures. 54:36 clip stopped RM: I just wanted to ask you about Herves sax and the effect he had on it. Did that have any impact on the way you interacted with ? MH: Not really, it didn’t throw me. I was mainly sticking to rhythm and I had a key I was playing around in B. No it didn’t throw me. RM: Were you able to tell which instrument was which ? MH: No, not all the time. I wondered sometimes who was playing. 56:12 clip stopped MH: That was a pretty obvious ending, maybe they had done that before, Martin slowed his beat down and there was a nice sigh [bukhu] and that was the end of that and then we moved on. MH: [laughs] RM: What did you think of the scratchy stuff ? MH: I thought it was great, he was scratching away and I was interested in where it could go. I never really think of anything as good or bad. RM: I mean what it might have provoked in you to play. MH: to try something different

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RM: What are those two chords MH: A minor and B Clip stopped 1:01:23 RM: It’s quite unusual singing, any comments on your interaction here ? MH: It is, but it isn’t that strange to me, the last “Guilt Trip” album [with members of The Church] we were trying to imitate that form of vocalization. We couldn’t really do it, so the idea of it didn’t throw me. I remember thinking he’s good at it. It’s a bit like a didgeridoo. I said that to him afterwards and then he imitated a didg but said he couldn’t do the circular breathing [laughs] MH: It’s like it is filtered with all the bottom end taken out of it. It’s amazing. (11:18 clip 3) 01:02:42 [over music] I remember having a look at the clock then thinking that we were going to end there. I like that noise, it’s great drum sound. [bodhran] RM: The rhythm is so synchronized the way everyone is responding to it. MH: It’s interesting that the sound of the Irish drum and everything becomes a bit Irish in feel playing in ¾ and almost takes the way we are playing into a jig. I don’t think I knew he was playing that instrument until later when we talked about it, because it is kind of affected I didn’t know who was making that sound. I thought Herve was just playing sax. Actually I didn’t know he was laying all those instruments, I thought he was quite restrained throughout the jam and that he was picking his moment when to play sax. RM: Yes he had Tibetan bowl, and Bodhran and sax. MH: I thought it was Martin that was playing that and upon reflection it is kind of Irish jiggy it was the Irish drum. RM: I’m curious to know whether the sound of the bodhran or if it carries the sense of a celtic sound and took it in that direction ?

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MH: I think it was the rhythm more than the sound. I didn’t know it was that drum, but it’s got that rhythm and maybe when you do play that instrument, you pick it up and you play it in a certain way. RM: I wonder what the meter of Jigs are, I think they are ¾ or 6/8? MH: I think they are in ¾ or 6/8 Clip 4 of 4 clips MH: we’re all trying to wind up there [laughs] I look at the clock RM: so you are aware of the time there ? MH: yes a little RM: Rubbing your eyes MH: yes, I was tired, coming back to reality. It was a good improvisation I enjoyed it.

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APPENDIX C - MEMOS This section contains sample memos taken through the recording, VCR and transcription stages of the research. The researcher sketched notes as needed and when relevant to a thinking stream, rather than following a uniform approach. Memo note taking was used to facilitate an ongoing observation and questioning of the data throughout each stage. It also provided a context that helped galvanise a thinking process from the recording stages, reflective video cue recall sessions, the transcribing of the music and text to writing up the analysis and evaluation. Most are brief sentences or short descriptive paragraphs of observations during the data gathering stages. Case Study II - Memo Musicians locations: UTS building 3, sound studio (level 3) and media lab (level 4). Michael Hanlon performing from studio lab 3.4. 37 and Sina Taghavi from studio floor 3.3.10. Technical assistance: media lab coordinator William Lawlor (based in room 3.310). Translation: Omid Tofigian Researcher is moving between floors to help musician’s set up and get comfortable. Observations Sina is taking a while to get comfortable with the sound levels…. have just heard the headphones levels set by the studio technician, which are already quite loud. I wonder if it is just that he is not used to recording studio settings and more familiar with monitoring his levels acoustically. Left to help Michael in upstairs studio lab. Everything plugged in and he’s just done a final tune on the guitar and is ready. As a studio based recording artist he is very familiar with headphone monitoring. Very clinical lab setting but he seems happy. Set the camera recording to go back to studio floor and arrived to find both Michael and Sina already improvising together and I just started the camera rolling. They are both engaged so I will leave it running for now. The interaction is very sequential almost conversational. Stopped it when it came to a rest as we to record a hand clap to sync the two clips later. I go in and speak through the mic and introduce them both and they were quickly onto talking to each other. They seemed to have developed a relationship from their short time playing already. 233

Michael asks about what keys Sina plays in, which Sina might have misunderstood, thinking Michael means key pads, which of course he doesn’t have on a ney. The improvisation gets under way and there a few tuning issues and wonder how/if they will resolve. Feels like they are aware and discovering each others ranges but there are some keys that don’t work. Sina is playing quarter-tones. They sound like they are slowly starting to attenuate their tuning, its almost like they can feel where it starts to go out and they are stretching notes in or trying to avoid those tonal spaces. I kind of know that feeling playing trumpet. Must ask them about how they felt about this. Case Study IV – Memo Musicians locations: UTS building 3, sound studio (level 3) and media lab (level 4). Guitarist Michael Hanlon performing from studio lab 3.4. 37, and horse fiddle player Bukhchuluun Ganburged from studio floor 3.3.10. Technical assistance: (set up) media lab coordinator William Lawlor and first year music student (based in room 3.4. 37 with Michael Hanlon). Researcher is moving between floors to help musician’s set up and get comfortable. Observations As this is the largest of the case studies with musicians at two international networked locations (Sheffield, UK and Braunschweig, Germany) there is a lot of additional sound and line level checking to do. Herve Perez in Sheffield came online late so hasn’t had much of an opportunity to check his levels and effects units. I think he is a little perturbed at this. It is also getting late here in Sydney, and I get the sense that the musicians want to get playing before their energy runs out. The time of day and human rhythms that occur during these periods appears to impact the ways in which participants respond creatively, although this is likely to be shaped by factors such as their activities during the day and how fatigued they are. I know many musicians feel more inspired in the late evening, so it doesn’t necessarily follow that night-time networked playing will be detrimental to the collaboration. While sound checking, the musicians have begun communicating musically, and again like the previous studies they appear to be gathering thoughts and ideas about their collaborators sound, pitch ranges and idioms that will be building a picture in their minds

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as to the collaborative potential. This starts as unmetered long note durations and an attention to timbre. In this study the improvisation seems to be gaining an almost compositional form straight away with chord sequences being played by Michael that trigger distinct melodic progressions by Bukhu (Bukhchuluun) on horse fiddle that feels quite orchestrated. This is emerging out of quite a lot of call and response between both musicians, I wonder how they are thinking about this as it occurs. I must ask about this in the VCR sessions. At 8 mins in, Martin in Germany hits the amplified gong, which triggers a real sense of movement in the playing and seems to focus it in a new direction. This is also the moment Bukhu joins with some low growly throat singing, giving it a dark, harsh feeling.

VCR Transcription Memo The transcription of networked musicians verbalised experiences from the VCR sessions were written in Google word, which allowed text to be highlighted and memos written in the margins as the data was transcribed. This provided an opportunity to develop an overview of what was emerging in the interaction between musicians as the audio recordings were transcribed. It also allowed the researcher to revisit the data and recall these initial impressions as the analysis progressed. It also allowed this to be shared with thesis supervisor.

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APPENDIX D BIOGRAPHIES

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PARTICIPANT

MUSICIAN

Michael Hanlon - Guitar (focus musician) Michael Hanlon is a professional musician with over 20 years experience working as a guitarist, music producer and educator. He performs in both solo and collaborative ensembles, most recently with Russell and Steve Kilbey from the Australian Indie band The Church, releasing an improvisatory album under the moniker of Guilt Trip in 20012. Hanlon has also released four solo albums and scored music and sound design for Australian and international film releases, gallery sound installations and radiophonic works. Sina Taghavi - Ney Sina Taghavi is a Persian ney player from Zanjan, Iran. He has been playing ney for ten years under the tutelage of his father and renown Persian ney player Jalal Taghavi, as well as attending master classes at Kinani Nezhad, Tehran. Drawing on his extensive knowledge of the traditional repertoire of the ney, Taghavi’s interest is in performing improvised music in cross-cultural contexts. Since arriving in Australia in 2009, Taghavi has been teaching and performing in Sydney and Melbourne where he now lives. Martin Slawig – Percussionist and Sonic Artist Martin Slawig is a musician and audio-visual artist with 20 years experience performing and exhibiting his work internationally. Slawig has studied percussion in Togo (West Africa), Cuba, and at the International School of Percussion in Munich and holds a pre-diploma in electrical engineering. He has experience in the fields of Jazz, Latin, and African music and has toured internationally with groups such as Drummers Communicate, Havana, Hamid Baroudi among others. A self proclaimed autodidact in digital media and programming, Slawig works with custom built instruments, objects, field recordings and computer programming for realtime processing (Max/MSP Jitter). This includes custom built instruments, objects, field recordings and computer programming for real-time processing for sound and video installations as well as stage design for theatres. He has presented guest lectures and workshops include UdK Berlin; University of Bayreuth; School of Visual Arts, Windsor, Canada; University of Western Ontario, Canada.

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Hervé Perez – Multi-Instrumentalist Hervé Perez is an accomplished improviser, sound and visual artist who has over 20 years experience writing and performing music with the soprano saxophone. He also performs with an assortment of other electro-acoustic acoustic instruments and field recordings. He has worked as a musician for stage and screen in both his native France as well as the United Kingdom, where he now lives. His work is influenced by electro-acoustic, contemporary music, experimental electronics, free improvisation, immersive sound art and ancient techniques of sound therapy. Shaun Premnath - Multi-Instrumentalist Shaun Premnath is a multi-instrumentalist and improviser with over 10 years experience in performing on tabla, voice and piano. He has studied classical tabla and Hindustani voice under the tuition of the acclaimed and award winning tabla player, Bobby Singh and the late Dr. Arun Apte, a student of the late Pt. Jitendra Abhisheki respectfully. Shaun has performed at various functions for Hindi Festivals, radio voice recitals as well as providing music for theatrical productions and concerts. Peyman Sayyadi - Tanbur Peyman Sayyadi is a Tanbur player, vocalist and art-whistler; a Kurd from Iran, performing Kurdish and Persian traditional and folklore music. Being exposed to a diverse range of genre of music from early childhood as well as the complex society of Iran has made his music distinct and also deeply affected by the geography. Music Awards include: first prize, Tehran Tanbour players Soroorde Mahale Festival and he came in University Students Music National Festival, Tehran. Bukhchuluun Ganburged - Morin Khurr (Horse Fiddle) and Khuumii (harmonic Throat singing) Bukhchuluun Ganburged is a Mongolian musician and throat singer who plays a range of traditional and indigenous instruments. He is an accomplished improviser and has toured internationally with the Khan Bogd and Morin Huur Ensemble. Bukhchuluun completed a Masters in music at the conservatory of music and dance of Ulaanbaatar. He composes and improvises with Morin Khurr (Horse Fiddle) and Khuumii (harmonic Throat singing). Recent performances include ABC Radio National and the Sydney Opera House, as well as numerous international folk festivals. 237

APPENDIX E - TRANSLATORS Aref Toloei (Musicologist) Aref Toloei is a musician, composer and educator holding a degree in Persian Music from the University of Tehran and a Masters in Improvisation from Macquarie University Sydney. As a specialist Tar player he has also studied the music and theory of Iranian classical music with master musician Daroush Pirniakan. He has lectured and tutored in performance at the Chavosh Institute, Tehran, Tehran Beheshti University, Amir Kabir University, Fakhredi Aasad Hall in Gorgan, Chaloos Theatre Center and Tehran Eshragh Cultural Centre. Dr Omid Tofighian (Farsi) Dr Omid Tofighian holds a Doctorate in Persian Art History and is a research assistant for an ARC funded project headed by Prof. Rick Benitez (USyd) and Honorary Associate in the Department of Philosophy, University of Sydney. He completed his PhD in Philosophy at Leiden University, the Netherlands, and graduated with a combined honours degree in Philosophy and Studies in Religion at the University of Sydney. Over the past ten years he has lived variously in the UAE where he taught at Abu Dhabi University; Belgium where he was a visiting scholar at K.U. Leuven; the Netherlands for his PhD; and intermittent periods in Iran for research. During this time he has organized numerous art and cultural events focusing on cultural awareness and social justice. He currently teaches/researches at the University of Sydney and is a member of the Religion, State and Society Network (headed by Assoc. Prof. Lily Rahim [USyd]). Zaya Khanchiimaa (Mongolian) Zaya Khanchiimaa specialises in Mongolian and Russian translation to English in immigration, law and international trade and logistics. She holds a Graduate Certificate in Australian Migration Law and Practice, and a Master of Business in International Trade. Khanchiimaa works on major assignments for a wide range of intergovernmental negotiations including interpreting at the highest level of government official visits, as well as undertaking complex projects as simultaneous interpretation at multilingual conferences and court rooms. Silke Motschiedler (German) Silke Motschiedler is a German to English translator and Doctoral student at the University of Technology, Sydney studying sociology in health. She holds a Bachelor of Management 238

in Sports and Exercise Science (1st Class Honours), which informs her sociology research of technology and embodiment in spaces of human physical training and exercise.

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APPENDIX F - ETHICS Ethics applications were lodged and granted through Creative and Cognitions Studios ethics process in line with UTS HREC guidelines. Pilot Case Studies UTS HREC REF NO. 02 2010-072P UTS HREC REF NO. 06 2010-304P Case Studies UTS HREC REF NO. 04 2012-1

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APPENDIX G - DVD TRACK LISTING The DVD that accompanies this thesis contains the multiscreen audiovisual clips referred to in the case study analysis and evaluation from Chapters 4 & 5. Please view the selected clips from the case study menu when reading the descriptive analysis, and evaluation of each case study excerpt. Full-length multiscreen clips of the case study performances and transcription tables are also provided as additional context to selected excerpts. These can be viewed and downloaded from the data page of the project website http://telesound.net/data/ by entering the password - thesis.

Section 4.2 - Case Study II Excerpt 1 – 0:00–9:31 Excerpt 2 – 0:00–1.52 Excerpt 3 – 0:00–3:44

Section 4.3 - Case Study III Excerpt 1: 0:00 – 9:31 Excerpt 2: 0:00 – 6:23

Section 4.4 - Case Study IV Excerpt 1: 0:00 – 4:38 Excerpt 2: 0:00 – 8:08 Excerpt 3: 0:00 – 4:19

Section 5.3.4 - Evaluation (Additional Excerpt) 0:00 – 0:19 241

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