The Dissertation Journey

SECOND

EDITION

The

DISSERTATION

Journey A Practical and Comprehensive Guide to

Planning, Writing, and Defending Your Dissertation

CAROL M. ROBERTS

CORWIN A S A G E Company

Copyright © 2010 by Carol M. Roberts All rights reserved. When forms and sample documents are included, their use is authorized only by educators, local school sites, a n d / o r noncommercial or nonprofit entities that have purchased the book. Except for that usage, no part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information: Corwin A SAGE Company 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 (800) 233-9936 Fax: (800) 417-2466

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Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Roberts, Carol M. The dissertation journey : a practical and comprehensive guide to planning, writing, and defending your dissertation / Carol M. Roberts. — 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4129-7798-2 (pbk.) 1. Doctor of education degree—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Dissertations, Academic—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Report writing—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title. LB1742.R63 2010 808'.066378—dc22

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Contents

F o r e w o r d

viii

Kenneth R. Stevenson N e w to T h i s E d i t i o n

χ

Preface

xii

A N o t e to D o c t o r a l C a n d i d a t e s

xiv

A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s

xvi

A b o u t t h e A u t h o r P A R T I: Q U E S T S A N D Q U E S T I O N S 1. D o Y o u H a v e W h a t It Takes?

xviii 1 2

W h y Take T h i s J o u r n e y ? D o You H a v e W h a t It Takes to J o u r n e y to the P e a k ?

2 4

A v o i d i n g the H a z a r d s o f H i g h - A l t i t u d e C l i m b i n g Procrastination

5 6

E m o t i o n a l Barriers Writer's Block

10 11

W h a t A r e the Inner Essentials?

13

Summary

17

2. W h a t Exactly Is a D i s s e r t a t i o n ? W h a t Is a D o c t o r a l Dissertation? Typical Dissertation Structure Studies U s i n g Q u a n t i t a t i v e M e t h o d o l o g y : S a m p l e F o r m a t Studies U s i n g Qualitative M e t h o d o l o g y : S a m p l e F o r m a t Alternative F o r m a t s C o m p o n e n t s o f a Typical Dissertation Major S t e p s in the Dissertation P r o c e s s R o l e s a n d Responsibilities Summary



18 18 20 21 21 22 22 26 29 30



3. W h a t A r e the Ethical C o n s i d e r a t i o n s in R e s e a r c h ? Institutional R e v i e w B o a r d s

31

Rights of H u m a n Subjects

33

Ethical Issues in D a t a Collection

36

Ethical Issues in D a t a A n a l y s i s a n d Interpretation

38

Ethical Issues in R e p o r t i n g R e s e a r c h Findings

39

Ethics o f Writing U p R e s e a r c h

40

Other Ethical Considerations

42

R e c o m m e n d e d Websites

43

Recommended Books

44

Summary

44

P A R T II: P R E P A R I N G F O R T H E C L I M B 4. C h o o s i n g a D i s s e r t a t i o n Topic A p p r o a c h e s to C h o o s i n g a Topic



45 46 46

W h e r e to L o o k for Potential Topics

47

S o m e Criteria for Topic S e l e c t i o n

49

Replication Studies

51

Replication Studies D o s a n d D o n ' t s

52

Summary

52

5. C r e a t i n g Your D i s s e r t a t i o n T e a m



32

53

P e a k Principle: A l w a y s C l i m b Fully E q u i p p e d

53

Selecting a Dissertation A d v i s o r

54

Selecting the C o m m i t t e e

55

The Care and Nurture of Advisors and

Committee Members

56

H o w to A p p r o a c h a Potential A d v i s o r

59

W h a t If N o O n e A g r e e s to B e Your A d v i s o r ?

60

C h o o s i n g Outfitters a n d Bearers

(Other Specialized C o n s u l t a n t s )

60

W h e r e to L o c a t e Specialists

61

Summary

62

6. Dissertation S u p p o r t G r o u p s

63

Critical D e c i s i o n s

64

Strategies a n d Structures o f Successful S u p p o r t G r o u p s

64

Other Considerations

66

Summary

66

7. O r g a n i z i n g Y o u r s e l f

67

O r g a n i z e Your W o r k s p a c e

67

O r g a n i z e Your T i m e

68

Working Smart

70

Maintain Balance

72



Strategies for G e t t i n g a Life W h i l e Dissertating

73

Summary

74

P A R T I I I : B E G I N N I N G T H E C L I M B 8. U s i n g t h e I n t e r n e t a n d T e c h n o l o g y to C o n d u c t R e s e a r c h

75 76

C o n d u c t i n g Literature S e a r c h e s

77

O t h e r Helpful T e c h n o l o g y

80

U s i n g the Internet for D a t a C o l l e c t i o n

81

U s i n g Y o u r L i b r a r y ' s Electronic S e a r c h C a p a b i l i t y

82

U s i n g Y o u r Instructional T e c h n o l o g y C e n t e r

82

Additional Online Resources

82

Tips to K e e p Y o u S a n e a n d P r o d u c t i v e

82

Summary

84

9. R e v i e w i n g t h e L i t e r a t u r e Purpose and Scope

85 86

Preparation

88

Steps in C o n d u c t i n g a Literature R e v i e w

88

T e c h n i q u e s for Writing t h e Literature R e v i e w

106

A d v i c e o n Writing a Literature R e v i e w

107

Literature R e v i e w C h e c k l i s t

109

Summary

110

10. M a s t e r i n g t h e A c a d e m i c S t y l e

111

Qualities o f S c h o l a r l y Writing

111

C o m m o n Writing P r o b l e m s

113

Tips for G o o d Writing

114

Useful Verbs

120

Further Reading

120

Helpful Websites

120

Summary

121

P A R T I V : C L I M B I N G T O B A S E C A M P

122

11. W r i t i n g t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n

123

Problem Statement

124

Theoretical or C o n c e p t u a l F r a m e w o r k

129

Purpose Statement

134

Research Questions/Hypotheses

136

Significance o f the S t u d y

137

Delimitations

138

Assumptions

139

Definition o f Terms

139

O r g a n i z a t i o n o f the S t u d y

140

Summary

140



12. Selecting a n d D e s c r i b i n g t h e M e t h o d o l o g y

141

Selecting the M e t h o d o l o g y

141

Further R e a d i n g

146

D e s c r i b i n g the M e t h o d o l o g y

148

D a t a Collection P r o c e d u r e s

157

Data Analysis

158

Limitations

162

Checklist o f E l e m e n t s to I n c l u d e in the

Methodology Chapter Summary

163 165

13. H o l d i n g the P r o p o s a l M e e t i n g Before the M e e t i n g

166 166

D u r i n g the M e e t i n g

167

After the M e e t i n g

169

Summary

169

­

P A R T V: F I N A L P R E P A R A T I O N S F O R T H E P E A K 14. A n a l y z i n g a n d P r e s e n t i n g t h e R e s u l t s

170 171

U n d e r s t a n d i n g the D a t a

172

Writing the Introductory P a r a g r a p h

173

Tables a n d the N a r r a t i v e D e s c r i p t i o n

173

Presenting the F i n d i n g s

174

Further R e a d i n g

176

Summary

176

15. S u m m a r i z i n g a n d D i s c u s s i n g the R e s u l t s

177

Reflect o n F i n d i n g s

177

Chapter Organization

178

Summary

182

PART VI: F I N A L A S C E N T A N D

VIEW FROM THE TOP AND BEYOND

183

16. T h e Oral Defense: D - D a y

184

A Defense S c e n a r i o

185

Helpful Hints: P r i o r t o t h e O r a l D e f e n s e

187

D u r i n g the O r a l Defense

189

After the O r a l Defense

190

Summary

191

17. T h e N e x t P e a k

192

The Descent

192

Letting D o w n

193

Mount Analogue

193

Helping Others

194



Mentoring

194

Disseminating Your Study's Findings

194

Summary

198

Parting T h o u g h t s

199

A p p e n d i x A: S a m p l e D i s s e r t a t i o n T i m e l i n e — G a n t t C h a r t

200

A p p e n d i x B: S o u r c e of D a t a C h a r t

201

A p p e n d i x C: S a m p l e P a r t i c i p a n t Letter a n d Q u e s t i o n n a i r e

203

A p p e n d i x D: S a m p l e T a b l e — P r e s e n t i n g the R e s u l t s

210

A p p e n d i x E: D i s s e r t a t i o n C o n t e n t C h e c k l i s t

211

Bibliography

217

Helpful Websites

221

Index

222





Foreword

W

h e n I c o m p l e t e d reading The Dissertation Journey b y Carol R o b e r t s , m y first reaction w a s , " W h e r e w a s this b o o k 2 0 years a g o w h e n I started directing d i s s e r t a t i o n s ? " M y s e c o n d reaction w a s , " H e c k , w h e r e w a s this b o o k e v e n before then w h e n I w r o t e m y o w n d i s s e r t a t i o n ? " M y third reaction w a s , " E v e r y doctoral s t u d e n t in o u r d e p a r t m e n t n e e d s to read this b o o k . " A n d m y fourth reaction w a s , " S o d o e s e v e r y faculty member." Dr. R o b e r t s ' s b o o k p r o v i d e s insight into e v e r y a s p e c t o f d e v e l o p i n g a n d writing a dissertation. F r o m selecting a topic, to c h o o s i n g a c o m m i t ­ tee, to d e c i d i n g w h a t research a p p r o a c h to use, to the actual w r i t i n g a n d defense o f the dissertation, Dr. R o b e r t s provides clear a n d c o m p r e h e n ­ sive directions for a n y s t u d e n t faced w i t h the c h a l l e n g e o f w r i t i n g a dis­ sertation. I particularly appreciate h o w she m e t h o d i c a l l y takes students t h r o u g h e a c h c h a p t e r that will c o m p r i s e the dissertation, n o t o n l y pro­ v i d i n g an o v e r v i e w o f w h a t e a c h s h o u l d contain b u t also offering help­ ful suggestions a n d checklists to reinforce w h a t constitutes a g o o d dissertation. A really appealing c o m p o n e n t o f The Dissertation Journey is the infor­ m a t i o n p r o v i d e d to doctoral s t u d e n t s o n h o w to u s e t e c h n o l o g y to sup­ port d e v e l o p m e n t o f a dissertation. N o t o n l y d o e s Dr. R o b e r t s offer g o o d suggestions o n h o w to u s e the c o m p u t e r in w r i t i n g a dissertation, she provides a listing o f electronic a n d Internet sources s t u d e n t s c a n u s e to access research materials a n d articles. F u r t h e r m o r e , the section that Dr. R o b e r t s provides o n the ethics o f writing a dissertation is a m u s t read for a n y doctoral student. S h e r e m i n d s the reader o f c o p y r i g h t l a w s , clearly defines p l a g i a r i s m a n d h o w to avoid it, a n d highlights the i m p o r t a n c e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d o b s e r v i n g the rules g o v e r n i n g research o n h u m a n subjects. Finally, Dr. R o b e r t s p r o v i d e s a great c o n c l u d i n g section that focuses o n students' responsibilities o n c e the dissertation is d o n e a n d t h e y h a v e

vlii

Foreword

ix

g r a d u a t e d . S h e n o t o n l y e n c o u r a g e s t h e m to share their research find­ ings b r o a d l y b u t also c h a l l e n g e s the s t u d e n t s to u s e their e x p e r i e n c e to m e n t o r others u n d e r t a k i n g the rigors o f a doctoral degree. R e t u r n i n g to m y initial c o m m e n t s , I found The Dissertation Journey to b e a w o n d e r f u l l y useful tool to assist b o t h doctoral s t u d e n t s a n d g r a d u ­ ate faculty t h r o u g h the dissertation d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s . T h e w o r k is v e r y clearly written a n d a d d r e s s e s e v e r y a s p e c t o f dissertation writing. It is s o g o o d that I p l a n to h a v e all o f m y d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t s p u r c h a s e a n d r e a d the w o r k . It will s a v e t h e m , as w e l l as m e , a lot o f lost time, g n a s h ­ i n g o f teeth, a n d h e a r t a c h e . Dr. R o b e r t s is to b e c o n g r a t u l a t e d for a d d i n g this i m p o r t a n t w o r k to the field. T h e r e is n o d o u b t that, if doctoral s t u d e n t s a n d their advisors will u s e this c o m p o s i t i o n as a g u i d e in d e v e l o p i n g dissertations, the quality o f research in h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n across the c o u n t r y will b e immensely enhanced. Kenneth

R.

Stevenson

Professor, D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p a n d Policies U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h Carolina

N e w to This Edition

I

a m v e r y p l e a s e d to h a v e the o p p o r t u n i t y to w r i t e a s e c o n d edition of m y b o o k , The Dissertation Journey: A Practical and Comprehensive Guide to Planning, Writing, and Defending Your Dissertation. T h i s u p d a t e d a n d e x p a n d e d edition includes n o t o n l y n e w information that is vital to n a v ­ igating the dissertation process, it also includes an e x p a n s i o n o f previ­ ous topics for greater clarity a n d utility. N e w features a d d e d to this s e c o n d edition include the following: 1. A n e w c h a p t e r t i t l e d " W h a t A r e t h e E t h i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n R e s e a r c h ? " In this chapter, I discuss the central ethical issues i n v o l v e d in c o n d u c t i n g research relative to h u m a n rights, data collection, d a t a a n a l y s i s a n d interpretation, r e s p e c t for t h e research site, writing, a n d disseminating the research. 2. N e w i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e p r o c e s s , i m p o r t a n c e , a n d p u r p o s e o f d e v e l o p i n g a t h e o r e t i c a l or c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k . It includes responses to questions such as, " W h a t is a c o n c e p t u a l or theoret­ ical f r a m e w o r k ? " " H o w d o e s a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k differ from a theoretical f r a m e w o r k ? " " W h y d o y o u n e e d a c o n c e p t u a l or the­ oretical f r a m e w o r k ? " a n d " H o w d o y o u find a c o n c e p t u a l or the­ o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k ? " A l s o p r o v i d e d a r e e x a m p l e s from dissertations for greater u n d e r s t a n d i n g . 3. A c o m p l e t e l y r e v i s e d a n d u p d a t e d c h a p t e r titled " U s i n g t h e I n t e r n e t a n d T e c h n o l o g y to C o n d u c t R e s e a r c h . " Since m o r e and m o r e researchers u s e the Internet and technology for all phases of dissertation writing, I incorporated in this second edition n e w w e b b a s e d technologies. N e w information about search engines, evalu­ ating websites, and social n e t w o r k i n g o n the w e b is also included. 4. A c o m p l e t e l y r e v i s e d a n d e x p a n d e d c h a p t e r o n r e v i e w i n g t h e literature. I e x p a n d e d the steps in c o n d u c t i n g a literature r e v i e w ÷

New to This Edition from four to eight a n d a d d e d c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e detail to the

process. A n u p d a t e d list o f s e c o n d a r y sources a n d style m a n u a l s

w i d e l y u s e d in the social sciences is i n c o r p o r a t e d .

5. A t h o r o u g h u p d a t e of all w e b s i t e s a n d r e f e r e n c e s , i n c l u d i n g n e w e d i t i o n s of w o r k s .

xi

Preface

T

oday, colleges a n d universities offer m a s t e r ' s a n d doctoral degrees in increasing n u m b e r s . M a n y s t u d e n t s enroll in t h e s e p r o g r a m s , a n d in m a n y cases, t h e y d o n o t receive appropriate g u i d a n c e a n d s u p p o r t in conceptualizing, c o n d u c t i n g , a n d writing an original research study. T h i s is e v i d e n c e d b y an e s t i m a t e d 4 0 % to 5 0 % o f doctoral students n a t i o n w i d e w h o c o m p l e t e their c o u r s e w o r k b u t n o t the final act o f writ­ ing their dissertation. T h e y b e c o m e A B D s (all-but-dissertation). T h i s represents a t r e m e n d o u s w a s t e o f time, m o n e y , a n d energy.

In reviewing the literature, I discovered v e r y few useful, comprehen­ sive b o o k s that guide m a s t e r ' s or doctoral students through the formida­ b l e and d e m a n d i n g process o f crafting a high-quality research study. This b o o k offers the practical guidance often lacking in doctoral p r o g r a m s and in the literature about planning, writing, a n d defending a dissertation. Doctoral students n e e d to (1) get a clear picture o f w h a t it takes to write a high-quality research study a n d see it as doable; (2) understand it as a psychological and h u m a n relations venture as m u c h as a research exer­ cise; (3) feel e n c o u r a g e d and supported in their efforts; (4) experience the process as a satisfying, rewarding, a n d exciting journey; a n d (5) finish!

xii

I wrote this b o o k to satisfy the existing need for a clear, concise, cut-to­ the-chase guidebook for completing a doctoral dissertation. The Dissertation Journey provides a step-by-step guide o n h o w to plan, write, and defend a dissertation. Its structure parallels the dissertation process and presents detailed information about the content and process from conceptualizing a topic to publishing the results. It addresses the psychological and emotional barriers students confront and provides up-to-date information o n using the computer and the Internet in the various stages of dissertating. T h e style is personal, informal, and conversational—much like a coach talking oneon-one with a student. To enhance learning and clarify concepts, I included a myriad of examples together with helpful hints, checklists, and quotations. Since writing a dissertation can b e a bewildering and overwhelming experi­ ence for students, I use the metaphor o f climbing a mountain for inspiration and to maintain interest and motivation to persevere in spite o f obstacles.

Preface

F o r the p a s t 2 2 y e a r s , I h a v e h a d the o p p o r t u n i t y to teach doctoral s t u d e n t s at the U n i v e r s i t y o f L a V e r n e — a p r e m i e r doctoral p r o g r a m in California k n o w n for its i n n o v a t i v e a p p r o a c h to e d u c a t i n g leaders. T h e faculty p r o v i d e s a relevant, practical, a n d high-quality p r o g r a m focused o n h e l p i n g students s u c c e e d in c o m p l e t i n g their dissertation. T h e o n e to-one c o a c h i n g , g r o u p tutorials, v i d e o s , o n l i n e d i s c u s s i o n s , w e b i n a r s , a n d research s e m i n a r s are e x e m p l a r y t e c h n i q u e s for t e a c h i n g the disser­ tation process. A s a result, o u r s t u d e n t s ' g r a d u a t i o n rate is 8 1 % — a l m o s t twice that o f the n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e . The Dissertation Journey: A Practical and Comprehensive Guide to Planning, Writing, and Defending Your Dissertation incorporates m a n y approaches and techniques taught in the University o f La Verne's doctoral program. These techniques, plus the insights and k n o w l e d g e I gained from years o f expe­ rience teaching and guiding dissertation students, serve as a valuable road m a p for the dissertation j o u r n e y and, hopefully, m a k e the task m o r e understandable, easier, m o r e enjoyable, and less time-consuming. This is not a complete w o r k o n writing dissertations, nor could it be; the scope w o u l d b e overwhelming. T h e b o o k does not include detailed information o n certain aspects of academic research, such as design a n d methodology, data analysis techniques, or writing style a n d mechanics. I reference appropriate b o o k s that concentrate on these technical areas. T h i s b o o k is g e a r e d t o w a r d the specific n e e d s a n d c o n c e r n s o f d o c ­ toral s t u d e n t s as t h e y p r o c e e d t h r o u g h e a c h step o f the dissertation process. It focuses p r i m a r i l y o n the social sciences; h o w e v e r , g r a d u a t e students in m o s t a c a d e m i c disciplines desiring to c o m p l e t e a research s t u d y s h o u l d find the b o o k ' s c o n t e n t useful a n d applicable. Generally, the steps for w r i t i n g a thesis a n d a dissertation are m u c h the s a m e regardless o f the topic or discipline; t h e y v a r y p r i m a r i l y in s c o p e a n d complexity. G r a d u a t e faculty i n v o l v e d w i t h s t u d e n t research s h o u l d also find the b o o k ' s ideas a n d s u g g e s t i o n s beneficial. It eliminates the n e e d to a n s w e r o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n t h o s e q u e s t i o n s that s t u d e n t s rou­ tinely ask. Universities v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y in their dissertation require­ m e n t s a n d p r o c e d u r e s . In addition, there is c o n s i d e r a b l e diversity a m o n g the preferences o f a d v i s o r s a n d d e p a r t m e n t s w i t h i n a university. T h e s u g g e s t i o n s offered in this b o o k s h o u l d n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d final, n o r s h o u l d they p r e e m p t the j u d g m e n t a n d o p i n i o n s o f research a d v i s o r s and committees. R e s e a r c h i n g a n d w r i t i n g a thesis or dissertation s h o u l d b e an enjoy­ able a n d r e w a r d i n g e x p e r i e n c e — o n e s t u d e n t s c a n c o m p r e h e n d a n d m o s t o f all c o m p l e t e . T h e r e is a better w a y t h a n letting half or m o r e o f o u r n a t i o n ' s doctoral s t u d e n t s b e c o m e A B D s . It is m y h o p e that this b o o k , w i t h its straight talk, step-by-step g u i d a n c e , a n d practical a d v i c e , will m a k e the j o u r n e y to " d o c t o r " s m o o t h e r a n d , in the process, h e l p b e a t the o v e r w h e l m i n g o d d s o f A B D i s m .

xiii

A Note to Doctoral

Candidates

G

reetings! Y o u are e m b a r k i n g o n a n e w a n d exciting j o u r n e y — obtaining a doctoral degree. T h i s j o u r n e y requires c o m p l e t i n g a

dissertation, the p i n n a c l e o f a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t . In m a n y w a y s , the

j o u r n e y is like c l i m b i n g a h i g h m o u n t a i n ; it is a l o n g a n d a r d u o u s trek— n o t for the fainthearted. It is fraught w i t h h a z a r d s a n d obstacles a l o n g the p a t h that c a n d a m p e n y o u r spirit. H o w e v e r , it also offers i n c o m p a ­ rable opportunities for p e r s o n a l a n d professional growth. R e a c h i n g the s u m m i t o f a m o u n t a i n symbolizes the process y o u g o through to c o m p l e t e y o u r dissertation. T h e c l i m b tests y o u r mettle and challenges y o u r resolve, b u t o n c e y o u c o m p l e t e it and experience the magnificent v i e w from the top, y o u realize the rewards far o u t w e i g h the effort. T h e exhilaration a n d pride o f a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , the fulfillment that results from contribution, a d e e p e r self-awareness, a n d greater confi­ d e n c e in yourself as a scholar are just a few o f the r e w a r d s that await y o u . I r e m e m b e r well the experience o f seeing m y o w n dissertation as a l o o m i n g m o u n t a i n before m e — m a s s i v e a n d a w e s o m e — w i t h the a c c o m ­ panying feelings o f doubt a n d apprehension. I learned, as y o u will, that journeying to the p e a k is m o r e than an intellectual pilgrimage, it is also an emotional and psychological one. It requires c o m m i t m e n t , perseverance, stamina, and mental toughness—more than y o u ever thought y o u had. Completing a dissertation changes your life. I discovered that m y primary reward w a s not so m u c h the exhilaration of standing o n top of the mountain at journey's end, but rather w h o I b e c a m e as a result o f the climb. Only b y taking yourself to the limit can y o u k n o w w h a t you're m a d e of. "It is not the mountain w e conquer, but ourselves" (Sir E d m u n d Hillary, one of the first m e n to reach the s u m m i t of M o u n t Everest). I wrote this b o o k to help m a k e y o u r j o u r n e y to the s u m m i t a satisfy­ ing and rewarding one. In these pages, I speak to y o u informally as an xiv

A Note to Doctoral Candidates advisor and friend about the entire dissertation process. Plus, I s p e a k about those critical issues related to the personal a n d social side o f dissertating management,

(organization, human

time

relations,

etc.). T h e material p r e s e n t e d in this b o o k represents y e a r s s p e n t guiding dissertation students, d i a l o g u ing w i t h faculty c o l l e a g u e s , a n d r e s e a r c h i n g the literature o n this topic. P l e a s e r e m e m b e r that t h e ideas a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s p r o v i d e d s h o u l d b e u s e d o n l y as a g u i d e . Your advisor a n d c o m m i t t e e are the u l t i m a t e s o u r c e s o f information a n d o p i n i o n a b o u t y o u r dissertation. It is m y h o p e that y o u c a t c h s u m m i t fever a n d b e c o m e utterly m o t i v a t e d to r e a c h the top. D o b r i n g a spirit o f a d v e n t u r e to this journey, a n d b y all m e a n s , enjoy the c l i m b ! W a r m e s t r e g a r d s a n d g o o d luck!

xv

Acknowledgments

N

o o n e c l i m b s a h i g h m o u n t a i n alone. E x p e r i e n c e a n d expertise, s u p p o r t a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t are all n e e d e d . I a m i n d e b t e d to many-

p e o p l e w h o p r o v i d e d these necessities, w h i c h h e l p e d m a k e this b o o k a reality. I a m m o s t appreciative o f the assistance a n d contributions o f m y p r o f e s s i o n a l c o l l e a g u e s in the U n i v e r s i t y o f L a V e r n e ' s D o c t o r a l P r o g r a m in O r g a n i z a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p , w i t h w h o m I h a v e w o r k e d for the past 22 years. T h e y freely share their w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e , from w h i c h I learn so m u c h . I w o u l d like to acknowledge and thank Drs. William Bearley, Donald Clague, J a m e s C o x , T h o m a s Harvey, William Paulo, and Barbara Peterson. T h r o u g h their insightful presentations at doctoral seminars, faculty exchanges, and personal coaching, they provided foundational information on preparing the core chapters of the dissertation (Chapters 1 through 5). M a n y of the ideas expressed in these five sections of the b o o k encapsulate the collective w i s d o m of these talented individuals, w h o , over the years, contributed greatly to the quality of our doctoral program and to m y o w n intellectual growth and development. I also give special t h a n k s to M a r y T o w n s e n d , D o n n a Bentley, C l i v e H o u s t o n B r o w n , D o n a l d H a y s , a n d L a r r y K e m p e r , w h o p r o v i d e d feed­ b a c k a n d constructive s u g g e s t i o n s for i m p r o v i n g this w o r k . F o r the sec­ o n d edition, I w i s h to t h a n k D o n n a Bentley, Librarian at the U n i v e r s i t y of L a Verne, for h e r v a l u a b l e help in revising a n d u p d a t i n g the Internet and t e c h n o l o g y resources. I also appreciate the s u p p o r t a n d e n c o u r a g e ­ m e n t to p u r s u e this project g i v e n b y D r s . B a r b a r a Poling, D e p a r t m e n t Chair, a n d L e o n a r d Pellicer, D e a n o f the C o l l e g e of E d u c a t i o n a n d Organizational L e a d e r s h i p at the U n i v e r s i t y o f L a Verne. I also w a n t to t h a n k those doctoral students w h o m I h a v e h a d the privilege o f instructing—and particularly those w h o invited m e to chair their dissertations a n d serve o n their committees. T h e y helped m e u n d e r ­ stand the unique challenges associated with conducting high-quality xvi

Acknowledgments research a n d p r o v i d e d m a n y helpful c o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s that are i n c o r p o r a t e d in this b o o k . M y greatest debt is to m y h u s b a n d , E d w a r d , w h o gives m e the l o v e a n d confidence to l e a v e " b a s e c a m p " for the m a n y p h y s i c a l a n d i n w a r d c l i m b s I c h o o s e to m a k e .

The contributions of the following reviewers are gratefully acknowledged. M a r t h a A. A l c o c k

Larry E. Decker

Professor o f E d u c a t i o n

C. S. M o t t Professor o f

Capital U n i v e r s i t y Columbus, O H

Community Education F l o r i d a Atlantic U n i v e r s i t y Boca Raton, F L

B e t t y J. Alford A s s o c i a t e Professor

R o x a n a DeliaVecchia

S t e p h e n F. Austin State University

Assistant Dean

Nacogdoches, T X

College of Education, Towson Towson, M D

Jim Allen Professor o f E d u c a t i o n a l Psychology

Sarah Edwards A s s i s t a n t Professor

Thelma P. Lally School of Education

Teacher E d u c a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t

T h e C o l l e g e o f Saint R o s e

U n i v e r s i t y o f N e b r a s k a at

Albany, N Y

Omaha Omaha, NE

Robert B . Amenta Director o f E d u c a t i o n Administration

Douglas Fisher A s s o c i a t e Professor

California L u t h e r a n U n i v e r s i t y

S a n D i e g o State U n i v e r s i t y

Thousand Oaks, C A

San Diego, C A

Sharon Toomey Clark

M a r g a r e t A . (Peggie) Price

Educational Consultant

A s s i s t a n t Professor in

Clark & Associates Claremont, C A

C u r r i c u l u m a n d Instruction Texas Tech U n i v e r s i t y Lubbock, T X

Michelle Collay School Coach B a y A r e a Coalition for E q u i t a b l e Schools Oakland, C A

xvii

A b o u t the Author C a r o l M . R o b e r t s is a professor in the University of L a V e r n e ' s D o c t o r a l P r o g r a m in O r g a n i z a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p , w h e r e she advises doctoral

students,

chairs dissertations, a n d teaches research plus a variety o f courses focused o n leading organizations. Carol is a speaker, consultant, a n d s e m i n a r leader specializing in organizational a n d t e a m d e v e l o p m e n t , strategic planning, conflict resolution, coaching, a n d personal mastery. S h e has b e e n a trainer for the California School L e a d e r s h i p A c a d e m y a n d the California S c h o o l B o a r d s Association. S h e received h e r doctoral d e g r e e in p l a n n i n g , policy, a n d

administration

from

the

University o f S o u t h e r n California. Carol served o n the E x e c u t i v e B o a r d for the S o u t h e r n C o u n t i e s W o m e n in Educational M a n a g e m e n t a n d w a s a w a r d e d its W o m a n o f the Year award.

xviii

PART I Quests a n d

Questions

L i v e s o f great m e n all r e m i n d us

W e c a n m a k e our lives s u b l i m e ,

A n d , departing, l e a v e b e h i n d u s

Footprints o n the sands o f time.

—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

1

1 Do You Have What It Takes? Why Take This Journey? Throughout the ages, p e o p l e h a v e p u r s u e d the u p p e r limits of their capabilities. T h e y h a v e a n s w e r e d the call to adventure, learning, and high achievement. C o m p l e t i n g the dissertation j o u r n e y is an adventure in learning and personal growth, the o u t c o m e of w h i c h can result in extraordinary a c c o m p l i s h m e n t a n d contribution. Unquestionably, obtaining an E d D or a P h D is the s u m m i t o f academia—the highest degree any university c a n bestow. T h i s j o u r n e y to The heights by great men reached

" d o c t o r " is difficult, with obstacles and

and kept were not obtained by

d e m a n d s along the w a y ; however, once

sudden flight, but they, while their companions slept, were toiling upward in the night.

completed, the pride and exultation are a

life-long affirmation, A doctorate usually requires c o m -

-Longfellow

pletion o f a dissertation that d e m o n -

strates y o u r ability to plan, conduct, write, a n d defend an original research study. In m a n y w a y s , the dissertation process is a j o u r n e y n o t unlike c l i m b i n g a difficult mountain. T h e j o u r n e y is a r d u o u s a n d long, usually three to five years from b e g i n n i n g to end, and it is e a s y to b e c o m e frustrated, exhausted, and discouraged. It is grueling—definitely not for a n y o n e w h o lacks c o m m i t m e n t or perseverance. T h o s e w h o successfully scale the p e a k are those willing to put in long h o u r s a n d h a r d w o r k . 2

Do You Have What It Takes? W r i t i n g a d i s s e r t a t i o n is a p e r s o n a l t r a n s f o r m a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e a n d c a n b e a p e a k e x p e r i e n c e — o n e o f t h o s e life-fulfilling m o m e n t s . A b r a h a m M a s l o w ( 1 9 6 8 ) referred to t h e m as " m o m e n t s o f h i g h e s t h a p p i n e s s a n d f u l f i l l m e n t " (p. 7 3 ) a n d a d d e d , " A p e a k e x p e r i e n c e is felt as a s e l f - v a l i d a t i n g , self-justifying m o m e n t w h i c h c a r r i e s its o w n i n t r i n s i c v a l u e w i t h i t " (p. 7 9 ) . H e c l a i m e d t h a t t h e w o r t h o f t h e e x p e rience m a k e s the pain worthwhile. Robert Schuller (1980) also talked a b o u t p e a k e x p e r i e n c e s in h i s b o o k The Peak to Peek Principle. H e called a peak experience "an experience of success, achievement, and accomplishment w h i c h feeds your self-esteem, w h i c h then e x p a n d s y o u r s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e " (p. 9 9 ) a n d a d d e d , " I t ' s a n e x p e r i e n c e that l e a v e s y o u w i t h an a w a r e n e s s that y o u are m o r e t h a n y o u e v e r t h o u g h t y o u w e r e " (p. 113). These positive, uplifting, and inspiring words speak to the high accomplishment of completing a doctoral dissertation. M a n y high points and joys happen along the dissertation journey—some simple, s o m e exhilarating. Moments such as realizing you really do have a researchable topic, having your proposal accepted, obtaining an acceptable questionnaire return rate, and creative moments and intellectual insights are all triumphs along the path. Research has revealed that the The instant your advisor calls y o u "docattitude you have at the beginning of tor," the ecstasy of walking to " P o m p and a task determines the outcome of that Circumstance" at graduation, and w h e n task more than any other single factor. For example, if you believe you your doctoral hood is placed over your will be able to succeed at a particular h e a d are self-fulfilling, unforgettable undertaking and you approach the moments that m a k e the hard w o r k and endeavor with a sense of excitement sacrifice worthwhile. and joyful expectation, your chances

Unfortunately, there is a m y t h o l o g y of achieving success are much higher that supports a negative v i e w that c o m than if you face the task with dread pleting a dissertation is d r u d g e r y a n d and apprehension. demeardng, consisting only of a series -Abascal, Brucato, and of h o o p s to j u m p through a n d hurdles Brucato (2001, p. 39) to o v e r c o m e . Students w h o a d o p t this m i n d s e t s p e n d m u c h o f their t i m e w h i n i n g and "awfulizing" their experiences. T h e y b e m o a n their plight and feel tormented throughout the entire process. It is a truism that c o m pleting a dissertation is h a r d work, time-consuming, frustrating, and, at times, frightening—this is a given. It takes a g o o d deal of self-discipline and c o u r a g e to undertake a project of this magnitude. W h a t m a k e s the difference b e t w e e n a p e a k experience and a "heartbreak hill" experience? Attitude. Attitude is everything! O n the m o u n t a i n and in life, our attitude m a k e s or breaks us. If y o u think y o u can do it, then y o u can.

3

4

Quests and Questions

Approaching the dissertation journey with a spirit of adventure, optimism, and a can-do attitude helps ensure that y o u will succeed and achieve a peak experience in the process. Climbing a mountain peak is a powerful metaphor; it represents the path to growth and transformation. T h e obstacles encountered along the w a y e m b o d y The primary reward is not the goal but what you become as a result of doing all that was necessary to reach

the challenges that help expand your thinking and your boundaries. T h e risks are substantial, the

sacrifices great.

However, the v i e w is magnificent from

the goal. - D a v i d McNalley

the top, and it is reserved for those courageous adventurers w h o dare to challenge their o w n limits. Ultimately,

though, it's the journey itself that results in "self-validative delight," not just standing at the top. O n c e y o u are there, y o u will not b e the s a m e person or ever again look at the world in the s a m e light. With h a r d w o r k a n d p e r s e v e r a n c e , " I ' l l see y o u at the top."

Do You Have What It Takes to Journey to the Peak? R e m e m b e r the travelers o n the yellow brick road? T h e y w a n t e d to get to the E m e r a l d City, yet each h a d to b e transformed in order to get there. T h e y n e e d e d three things to find their w a y : brains, heart, and courage. You will n e e d the m e r g i n g of these s a m e three things to successfully c o m plete y o u r dissertation journey. C o g n i t i v e ability is necessary b u t n o t sufficient. Certainly, y o u m u s t put all y o u r intellectual p o w e r s to w o r k in conducting your study and analyzing its results. S u c h p o w e r s d o m a k e for easier climbing. However, it's y o u r heart—the spirit and passion y o u bring—that sustains y o u for the long haul. T h e third critical n e e d is courage—the ability to dig deep into yourself a n d persevere w h e n the going gets tough and y o u w a n t to quit. You will find that w h e n y o u think y o u cannot g o another step, there is an u n t a p p e d and astonishing reservoir of sustenance that can pull y o u through—mind over matter. A n s w e r i n g the following questions h o n e s t l y can h e l p y o u better u n d e r s t a n d w h a t it takes to c l i m b the dissertation m o u n t a i n — t h a t final challenge to o b t a i n i n g y o u r doctorate. J u s t r e m e m b e r that y o u can, a n d p r o b a b l y will, a c c o m p l i s h m o r e u n d e r s o m e t i m e s a d v e r s e conditions than y o u m a y b e l i e v e .

1. What Are You Willing to Sacrifice? T h e r e is n o true s u c c e s s in a n y large-scale e n d e a v o r

without

sacrifice. Self-denial is the n a m e of the g a m e . A r e y o u willing to g i v e u p

Do You Have What It Takes?

momentary pleasures for your long-term goal? To burn some midnight oil? Completing the dissertation is a demanding task and takes time, money, and energy, which can affect all aspects of your life. It can cause strained relationships with your spouse, partner, children, friends, and work colleagues. It can affect your work assignment, causing conflicts between time spent doing your dissertation and time spent doing your job. Be realistic about the financial costs connected with conducting a research study, such as typing, copying, library expenses, consultants, travel, postage, telephone calls, computer costs, and so on.

2. How Much Are You Willing to Endure? The path is fraught with difficulties and obstacles. Can you face them without becoming discouraged? Are you prepared for the stress that accompanies emotional setbacks and extra demands on your time? The That which we obtain too easily, we dissertation process is often obscure and esteem too lightly. perplexing, requiring a high level of -Thomas Paine tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty. It means often working outside your comfort zone. Are you willing to risk the unknown and to be teachable? If not, you can wander around aimlessly in the foothills of confusion and frustration. Are you willing to learn as you go? It is important to recognize the downsides, the consequences, and the risks of taking the dissertation journey. If you believe that you have what it takes, you can climb the mountain, stand on the top, and feel the joy of high achievement.

Avoiding the Hazards of High-Altitude Climbing Climbing real or metaphoric mountains can be hazardous to your health. It can sap your energy and weaken your resolve to endure to the top. As mountaineers must be mindful of potential avalanches, crevasses, high winds, falling rocks, and storms, researchers, too, must be aware of the dissertation hazards along their path. These hazards can hinder progress in completing your dissertation. Dissertating is not just an intellectual endeavor but also a psychological one, to which most graduates will attest. It is truly a personal pilgrimage— one that tests your stamina, self-confidence, and emotional resilience. The only way you will ever become a doctor is to willingly struggle against the obstacles that get in your way and to do so without quitting. Be forewarned. You will want to quit, but quitting and wanting to quit are very different things. The inner resources you bring to the task keep you on the path. These inner resources are discussed later in this chapter.

5

Quests and Questions

6

Being aware of the hazards of dissertating helps you select suitable routes and make adjustments to overcome the risks. Make no mistake, dissertating is high-altitude climbing! Three hazards of this highaltitude climbing that you should be aware of are procrastination, emotional barriers, and writer's block. The next sections describe these hazards and provide some strategies for dealing with them.

Procrastination To procrastinate means to put off intentionally and habitually doing something that should be done. It is a habit that steals away some of life's greatest opportunities, yet it is a habit most of us possess. Many books deal with overcoming procrastination, yet we seem to either put off reading them or fail to heed their advice. This habit, quite common among dissertation students, can result in an ABD (all-but-dissertation) status rather than an EdD or PhD. This amounts to aborting the climb to the peak and settling for heartbreak hill. I am acutely aware of the whole complex of dazzling excuses proffered by dissertation writers. With my doctoral students, I found that dissertation avoidance is often elevated to an elegant art form. Certainly, there are occasionally excellent reasons for putting off working on your dissertation. Emergencies, interruptions from others, and acts of God happen to all of us from time to time. However, Putting off an easy thing makes it the students I worry about are those hard, and putting off a hard one who keep themselves from starting or makes it impossible. continuing because they fear the -George H. Lonmer unknown, lack the self-confidence to move ahead on their own, or engage in irrational thinking, such as awfulizing. They convince themselves the task is awful, horrible, and unbearable. But putting it off only postpones the inevitable. It is critical that you learn to recognize those signs that indicate you are putting off working. There are two physical laws that apply equally well to people and objects with regard to the habit of procrastination. They are Newton's law of inertia and Parkinson's Law.

You and the Law of Inertia The law of inertia states the following: A body in motion tends to stay in motion; a body at rest tends to stay at rest. In other words, it takes greater force to get a body moving than it does to keep it moving, and when it gets moving, it takes less force to keep it moving than to stop it. Physical inertia is regulated by outside forces, but the real

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Do You Have What It Takes? c h a n g e s in o u r life's attitudes a n d habits c o m e from within. A s W i l l i a m J a m e s said, " T h e greatest d i s c o v e r y o f m y g e n e r a t i o n is that a p e r s o n can alter his life b y altering h i s attitude o f m i n d . " T h o s e w h o s u c c e e d d o so b e c a u s e w h e n t h e y h e a d t o w a r d a specific destination, t h e y k e e p g o i n g until t h e y r e a c h it. It's h a r d to stop t h e m . People w h o procrastinate find m a n y excuses for n o t m o v i n g up the mountain. Certainly, s o m e excuses are quite legitimate—a family or health crisis, and so on. B u t y o u cannot b e productive if y o u allow yourself to procrastinate for long periods o f time. To o v e r c o m e inertia, y o u m u s t get started and build m o m e n t u m . Decide to do it now. O n c e y o u realize that inertia is a n o r m a l part of our h u m a n experience, it is easier to deal with. A habit d e v e l o p s w h e n y o u t a k e action so m a n y t i m e s that it b e c o m e s a u t o m a t i c . H o w d o e s o n e b r e a k the procrastination habit? I found that t h e b e s t w a y is to d e v e l o p the reverse habit—refuse to procrastinate. If y o u refuse to p r o c r a s t i n a t e often e n o u g h , then that also b e c o m e s a habitual response. H e r e are s o m e strategies to h e l p reverse the habit o f procrastination. /. Challenge Your Excuses Through the years, I witnessed a variety of creative excuses offered b y d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t s to t h e m s e l v e s a n d to m e , t h e i r advisor. If y o u d o n ' t c h a l l e n g e t h e e x c u s e s y o u u s e , y o u m a y r e m a i n in s t a t i o n a r y i n e r t i a , u n a b l e to m a k e t h e f o r w a r d p r o g r e s s y o u d e s i r e . O n e c o m m o n e x c u s e is t h a t " I h a v e n ' t r e a d e n o u g h to w r i t e y e t . " A r g u e w i t h y o u r s e l f that w r i t i n g h e l p s clarify y o u r t h i n k i n g , a n d b e s i d e s , first drafts d o n ' t h a v e to b e perfect. F i r s t drafts a r e first drafts; t h e y are a l w a y s i m p r o v e d w i t h r e r e a d i n g . I f o n e o f y o u r e x c u s e s is t h a t y o u " n e e d d e a d l i n e s to w o r k effectively," a r g u e w i t h y o u r s e l f t h a t w a i t i n g u n t i l t h e d e a d l i n e to g e t s t a r t e d r e s u l t s in u n d u e stress a n d l e a v e s y o u tired, u n c r e a t i v e , a n d i r r i t a b l e . It c a n a l s o affect t h e q u a l ity o f y o u r w r i t i n g . C o n d u c t i n g i n n e r d e b a t e s a b o u t a n y " l o g i c a l " e x c u s e k e e p s y o u from stalling.

EXERCISE Here is an excellent exercise to help you learn about your excuses. It was developed by Stan Hibbs ([email protected]) and reprinted in the All-ButDissertation Survival Guide located at www.ecoach.com. He asks that you write out every excuse you make for not working on your dissertation. Then write a rebuttal for each excuse. He gives the following examples: (Continued)

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Quests and Questions

(Continued) Excuse: Rebuttal:

I don't have time. My time is limited, but I can always get started and get something done. I'll feel so much better if I do.

Excuse:

I'm just not up to it today.

Rebuttal:

I don't feel very excited about working on it today, but I'll feel great if I make some progress.

Excuse:

I've got a lot of errands to run.

Rebuttal: Yes, there are some things I could do, but that's not going to get me my doctorate. I'll go on the errands after I make some progress today. Once the rebuttal list is complete, write each one down on a separate 3" χ 5" index card. Carry these cards with you to use as flash cards to memorize your rebuttals. It's much harder to procrastinate when your excuses don't work anymore.

2. Develop a Do It Now! Habit This self-motivator w a s r e c o m m e n d e d b y W. C l e m e n t S t o n e (1962) in The Success System That Never Fails. H e c l a i m e d it sparks y o u to action. H e r e ' s w h a t y o u do: R e p e a t Do it now! to y o u r s e l f 5 0 times or m o r e in the m o r n i n g a n d evening, a n d w h e n e v e r it o c c u r s to y o u throughout the day. T h i s imprints it indelibly in y o u r s u b c o n s c i o u s . E v e r y t i m e y o u m u s t do s o m e t h i n g y o u d o n ' t feel like d o i n g a n d the self-starter Do it now! flashes in y o u r m i n d — i m m e d i a t e l y act (p. 9 3 ) . T h e Do it now! habit also helps w h e n y o u ' r e in the dissertation gloomand-doom state. Consider adopting Denis Waitley's (1987) personal motto, "Stop Stewing and Start D o i n g . " H e said, " I can't b e depressed and active at the s a m e t i m e " (p. 147). Nothing is so fatiguing as the eternal hanging on of an uncompleted task. ....... , -William James

A n o t h e r t e c h n i q u e to a c q u i r e this self-starting h a b i t is to p o s t a s i g n that s a y s Do it now! a r o u n d y o u r h o u s e a n d J

J

desk. It h e l p s j o g y o u r m e m o r y .

3. Divide and Conquer M o u n t a i n s are o v e r w h e l m i n g and, in their entirety, intimidati n g . T h e y c a n ' t b e c o n q u e r e d all at o n c e . I n t e c h n i c a l c l i m b s , w e m o v e up the mountain in a series of pitches—one hand and toe h o l d at a t i m e u n t i l w e s t a n d s p e n t b u t e l a t e d o n t h e t o p . L o o k i n g at t h e e n t i r e d i s s e r t a t i o n c a n a l s o b e o v e r w h e l m i n g . T h i n k o f y o u r

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Do You Have What It Takes? dissertation as a m o u n t a i n with . . . r 11 i. ι j - j. s t a i r s — a set o f s m a l l s t e p s l e a d i n g t o ., τ, . . . ; . , , · . t h e t o p . It is i m p o r t a n t t o b r e a k it d o w n into small, achievable goals

The journey of a thousand miles , . ; , ., begins and ends with one step, -LaoTse

a n d t a k e it s t e p b y s t e p . O n e strategy is to m a k e a c o n t r a c t w i t h y o u r s e l f that states specific goals, establishes c o m p l e t i o n dates, a n d offers r e w a r d s for attaining y o u r goals. It is i m p o r t a n t that y o u w r i t e these c o m p l e t i o n dates o n y o u r a p p o i n t m e n t calendar. T h e r e ' s a w o n d e r f u l feeling o f exhilaration that g o e s a l o n g w i t h a c c o m p l i s h m e n t . It g i v e s y o u a n e w b u r s t o f e n e r g y to k e e p m o v i n g . 4. Remove the Reward Procrastination s h o u l d n o t b e a p l e a s a n t e x p e r i e n c e . If y o u procrast i n a t e b y s o c i a l i z i n g o r g e t t i n g a c u p o f coffee, s t o p it! P r o c r a s t i n a t e in u n p l e a s a n t c o n d i t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , l o c k y o u r s e l f in y o u r office— n o visitors, n o coffee. W h e n t h e e n j o y m e n t g o e s away, s o will y o u r procrastination. 5. Discipline Yourself If y o u really d o n ' t w a n t to w r i t e , p r o m i s e y o u r s e l f y o u ' l l w r i t e for 15 m i n u t e s . Set a timer, a n d w h e n it rings, d e c i d e if y o u will w o r k for 15 m o r e m i n u t e s or quit. Often the h a r d e s t part is starting. T h i s strategy ° h e l p s y o u b u i l d that m o m e n t u m to o v e r c o m e inertia. r

O

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^ , . . . . , Dreams are what get you started. i p | i n e is what keeps you going.

Disc

-Jim Ryan, Sportsman

You and Parkinson's Law P a r k i n s o n ' s L a w is a r e a d y - m a d e e x c u s e . It states, " W o r k e x p a n d s to fill the t i m e available for its c o m p l e t i o n . " T h i s l a w applies especially to dissertation writers. M o s t doctoral c a n d i d a t e s h a v e families a n d h o l d full-time j o b s . It is so e a s y for other w o r k (job a n d family obligations) to fill all the available time, l e a v i n g n o t i m e to w r i t e the dissertation. C o m p e t i n g d e m a n d s for y o u r t i m e are a l w a y s p r o b l e m a t i c , a n d let's face it, i m m e d i a t e gratification a n d family fun are m o r e s e d u c t i v e than confronting y o u r dissertation m o u n t a i n . S o h o w d o y o u o v e r c o m e P a r k i n s o n ' s L a w ? I n v o k e the P r e m a c k principle. T h e P r e m a c k principle, often called grandma's rule, states that a high-frequency activity c a n b e u s e d to reinforce low-frequency b e h a v ior. A c c e s s to the preferred activity is c o n t i n g e n t o n c o m p l e t i n g the

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Quests and Questions

low-frequency behavior. G r a n d m a k n e w this s i m p l y as, "Before y o u c a n w a t c h TV, y o u h a v e to h e l p w i t h the d i s h e s . " T h i s is a s i m p l e b e h a v i o r a l principle b e h i n d the " w o r k first, p l a y s e c o n d " m a x i m . W h a t is it y o u m o s t like to d o ? Surf the Internet? W a t c h T V ? S h o p ? C o m p l e t e a dissertation task, then d o s o m e t h i n g y o u really enjoy. F o r e x a m p l e , "Before I can w a t c h TV, I h a v e to revise m y questionnaire." O r " I f I c o m p l e t e C h a p t e r 1, I c a n see a m o v i e o n the The best way to break a habit is to

w e e k e n d . " Disciplining y o u r s e l f in this

drop it.

w a y k e e p s y o u o n task a n d k e e p s y o u r - L e o Aikman

m o m e n t u m in h i g h gear. Y o u will c o m plete y o u r dissertation in record time.

Emotional Barriers Students often describe their experience o f writing the dissertation as a roller-coaster ride, with definite ups and d o w n s associated with each phase of the process. T h e y refer to the d o w n times as the dissertation doldrums, where they feel discouraged, depressed, frustrated, and anxious. T h e y even doubt their ability to complete the project. These feelings are predictable for anyone trying to achieve a h i g h goal; however, these negative emotions can easily overpower you. If y o u don't address them, they will immobilize you, sap your energy, and keep y o u from achieving your goal. W h e n things go well, y o u are elated and y o u soar o n cloud nine. These feelings of exhilaration provide the m o m e n t u m to "keep o n keeping on." T h e ups and d o w n s of dissertating—the pains and the joys—are experienced b y all writers. It's part of the dissertation process and to b e expected. Here are s o m e strategies to help y o u deal with the dissertation doldrums:

1. Reflect on Your Reasons for Obtaining Your Doctorate S o m e t i m e s y o u question y o u r o w n sanity for undertaking this m a s sive project. You w o n d e r w h y y o u continue to torture yourself in this way. W h e n y o u h a v e these feelings, take time to reflect o n the reasons y o u decided to enroll in a doctoral program. M o r e than likely, they are still valid and should serve to reinforce y o u r c o m m i t m e n t a n d motivation to stay on track. Take time to reflect on these reasons, write t h e m d o w n , and visualize y o u r life after graduation a n d a title after y o u r n a m e .

2. Establish a Support Committee W h e n the going gets rough, y o u m a y reach an impasse in your progress. That's w h e n y o u assemble a support committee—those w h o

Do You Have What It Takes? believe in y o u and h a v e y o u r best interests at heart—friends, mentors, and family m e m b e r s . You might ask your m o t h e r to chair this committee. These are your cheerleaders and confidants w h e n you're down; they share your joys and b a d days a n d provide regular p e p talks to o v e r c o m e your discouragement. T h e y also let y o u k n o w w h e n y o u are indulging yourself in complaining and offer y o u e n c o u r a g e m e n t rather than pampering.

Writer's Block All dissertation writers experience w r i t e r ' s b l o c k at s o m e point during the process. It's that longing to b e a n y w h e r e b u t in front o f the computer. W h e n this happens, everything else in y o u r life takes priority over writ­ ing. Taking the d o g for a w a l k , cleaning y o u r closets, running errands, w a s h i n g clothes, a n d e-mailing friends appear crucial. W r i t e r ' s b l o c k can b e caused b y a n y n u m b e r o f factors: lack o f confidence, fear, time con­ straints, n o outline, personal issues, frustration w i t h y o u r topic, perfec­ tionism, weariness. It is important to identify the obstacles that stifle y o u r writing. In other w o r d s , take time to fall b a c k a n d regroup. Unfortunately, there is n o m a g i c formula to keep y o u in the writing groove, b u t here are s o m e strategies that m i g h t help y o u keep the w o r d s flowing.

1. Change the Mode of Putting Down Words If y o u ' r e s t u c k o n the c o m p u t e r , try a dictation m a c h i n e or w r i t i n g b y h a n d , or c h a n g e w h e r e y o u w r i t e — g o outside, to a friendly coffee s h o p , or to the library.

2. Get Some Physical Exercise Get outside a n d w a l k ; m o w the l a w n . P h y s i c a l activity o f the p l e a s ­ ant a n d slightly m i n d l e s s k i n d c a n precipitate creative thinking.

3. Make Two Lists T h i s exercise h e l p s y o u get a h a n d l e o n the root o f y o u r b l o c k . W h e n e v e r y o u are trying to write y o u r dissertation b u t find y o u r s e l f b l a n k - m i n d e d a n d w o r d l e s s , w r i t e t w o lists labeled as follows: 1. I o u g h t to w r i t e X b e c a u s e . . . 2. I refuse to w r i t e X b e c a u s e . . . T h e s e c o n d list will b e m o r e i n f o r m a t i v e than the first in that it b r i n g s to y o u r c o n s c i o u s m i n d the refusals that m a y b e lying at the s u b ­ c o n s c i o u s level. Y o u c a n t h e n t a k e steps to o v e r c o m e y o u r refusals.

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Quests and Questions

4. Cluster Your Ideas T h i s is the old p s y c h o l o g y g a m e w h e r e o n e p e r s o n s a y s a w o r d a n d the s e c o n d p e r s o n r e s p o n d s i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h the v e r y n e x t w o r d that c o m e s to m i n d . First, w r i t e y o u r subject o n p a p e r a n d circle it. T h e n , write d o w n the v e r y n e x t thing y o u think o f a n d circle that. D r a w a line c o n n e c t i n g these t w o circles. N e x t , write d o w n w h a t y o u t h o u g h t o f as y o u w r o t e the s e c o n d w o r d a n d d r a w a line c o n n e c t i n g it to the previ­ ous w o r d . F o l l o w this p r o c e s s until y o u h a v e e x h a u s t e d y o u r brain! Write d o w n e v e r y t h i n g that c o m e s to y o u r m i n d n o m a t t e r h o w far out. After y o u c o m p l e t e the entire p r o c e s s , y o u will b e a m a z e d at the w o r d s that p o p p e d out. A similar m e t h o d that w o r k s for m y students is to cluster ideas using sticky notes. In the center o f a large poster-size paper, write y o u r subject a n d s u r r o u n d it w i t h large circles. T h e n w r i t e all ideas c o n n e c t e d w i t h the subject o n sticky n o t e s a n d p l a c e t h e m inside the circles. If desired, y o u c a n t h e n u s e extra-small colored tags to a d d ideas to the larger notes. T h e b e a u t y o f this m e t h o d is that y o u c a n m o v e the sticky notes a r o u n d as necessary. T h i s m i n d - s t o r m i n g t e c h n i q u e w o r k s w e l l w i t h groups w o r k i n g together. It a l l o w s individuals to b u i l d o n ideas generated b y others, t h e r e b y o b t a i n i n g a b r o a d e r perspective o n the subject.

5. Write a Crummy First Draft Perfectionists c r i n g e at this thought. J u s t k n o w that n o o n e , h o w e v e r gifted, c a n w r i t e an a c c e p t a b l e first draft. Y o u d o n ' t h a v e to w r i t e s o m e t h i n g good initially. T h i n k i n g t h a t you do only causes self-disparagement and self-recrimination. R e m e m b e r , first drafts a r e o n l y first drafts a n d a r e for y o u r e y e s only. L e t t h e m b e s k e t c h y t h o u g h t s , r a m b l i n g s e n t e n c e s , c l u m s y word patterns using poor grammar, and so on. Just get everything out of your brain and onto paper. D o n ' t obsess and p o n d e r ideas too l o n g . D o n ' t j u d g e it, j u s t write it. G e t t i n g y o u r i d e a s o n p a p e r g e t s y o u m o v i n g . Y o u n o w h a v e s o m e t h i n g to w o r k o n a n d r e v i s e . A c c e p t t h e fact t h a t y o u w i l l b e w r i t i n g s e v e r a l drafts, a n d t a k e t h e p r e s s u r e off t h e first o n e b y c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n l y o n y o u r i d e a s . M o s t w r i t e r s a g r e e t h a t i t ' s e a s i e r to r e v i s e t h a n to c r e a t e . W r i t i n g is a c o m p l e x a n d s l o w p r o c e s s , s o d o n ' t e x p e c t it t o f l o w effortlessly. F e w w r i t e r s w r i t e o n l y w h e n t h e y feel i n s p i r e d . I f y o u w a i t for i n s p i ­ r a t i o n , o r w r i t e o n l y w h e n y o u feel l i k e it, y o u r c h a n c e s o f c o m p l e ­ tion are nil. A l t h o u g h all o f the p r e c e d i n g s u g g e s t i o n s are useful, o v e r time y o u will w o r k out y o u r o w n b e s t w a y s a n d m e a n s for m o v i n g on.

Do You Have What It Takes?

What Are the Inner Essentials? The Backpack "Ten Essentials" To k e e p a n y c l i m b safe a n d e n j o y a b l e , p r e p a r a t i o n a n d g o o d j u d g m e n t a r e c r i t i c a l . J u s t as i t ' s i m p o r t a n t t h a t m o u n t a i n e e r s r e c o g ­ n i z e t h e a w e s o m e p o w e r s o f n a t u r e for w h i c h t h e y m u s t b e p r e p a r e d , so m u s t y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e i m m e n s e n e s s a n d c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e dis­ s e r t a t i o n t a s k a n d b e p r e p a r e d for it. E x p e r i e n c e d m o u n t a i n e e r s r e l y o n a t i m e - t e s t e d p a c k i n g list, k n o w n as t h e " T e n E s s e n t i a l s , " d e v e l ­ o p e d in t h e 1 9 3 0 s b y a g r o u p o f S e a t t l e - a r e a c l i m b i n g e n t h u s i a s t s . T h e T e n E s s e n t i a l s a r e w h a t e v e r y o u t d o o r p e r s o n s h o u l d c a r r y at all t i m e s in h i s or h e r b a c k p a c k to e n s u r e s u r v i v a l . T h e y i n c l u d e a m a p , c o m p a s s , f l a s h l i g h t , e x t r a f o o d , e x t r a c l o t h i n g , s u n g l a s s e s , first-aid kit, p o c k e t k n i f e , a fire starter, a n d w a t e r . T h e list is often e x p a n d e d as t h e n e e d a r i s e s . T h e s e w e r e m a n d a t o r y i t e m s in m y b a c k p a c k w h e n I trained for m y Basic M o u n t a i n e e r i n g Training C o u r s e certificate from the Sierra C l u b . W h e n the u n e x p e c t e d h a p p e n e d o n m o u n t a i n trails, I realized h o w truly essential t h e y are. C l i m b i n g the dissertation m o u n t a i n requires t h e p r e s e n c e o f certain i n n e r essentials to m a k e it safely a n d s u c c e s s ­ fully to the t o p . I n n e r r e s o u r c e s are t h o s e i n t a n g i b l e reserves that h e l p y o u c o p e w i t h p r o b l e m s a n d crises. E s p e c i a l l y in t i m e s o f stress, it is the m o b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e s e n o t e w o r t h y attributes that h e l p s r e m o v e or tran­ s c e n d the b a r r i e r s y o u face a l o n g the p a t h . I n the w o r d s o f G e r m a n p h i l o s o p h e r F r i e d r i c h N i e t z s c h e , " T h a t w h i c h d o e s n o t kill m e , m a k e s m e stronger."

The Dissertation Journey's "Essentials" T h e dissertation j o u r n e y requires i n n u m e r a b l e inner essentials. S o m e o f the dissertation w r i t e r ' s essentials are c o m m i t m e n t , persever­ ance, s t a m i n a , positive m e n t a l attitude, c o u r a g e , a n d the spirit o f a d v e n ­ ture. A l t h o u g h t h e s e six essentials are n o t the o n l y ones, t h e y are vital to y o u r survival a n d u l t i m a t e s u c c e s s o n the journey.

Commitment Commitment is t h e w i l l i n g n e s s to d o w h a t e v e r it t a k e s to a c h i e v e y o u r g o a l . It is o n e t h i n g to start s o m e t h i n g ; it is q u i t e s o m e t h i n g e l s e to c o m p l e t e it. A g e n u i n e c o m m i t m e n t is a p r o m i s e y o u m a k e to y o u r s e l f to s t i c k it o u t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e o b s t a c l e s y o u face or h o w m a n y t i m e s y o u a r e k n o c k e d d o w n . Y o u s i m p l y g e t u p a n d p r e s s on.

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Becoming a doctor is only a dream until you commit the time and energy holding back, all sorts of unforeseen to obtain it. Imagine your name with a incidents, meetings and material PhD or an EdD after it. Tom Flores, an assistance will rise up to help you. The NFL coach, said, "A total commitment simple act of commitment is a is paramount to reaching the ultimate powerful magnet for help. in performance." Making a commit-Napoleon Hill ment gives you that extra ounce of courage that keeps you going during the tough times. Abraham Lincoln gave this advice: "Always bear in mind that your own resolution to succeed is more important than any other thing."

The moment you commit and quit

Perseverance Perseverance is that attribute that impels you to go on resolutely, in spite of obstacles, criticism, adversity, fears, or tears, to overcome the inevitable discouragement and disappointment that accompanies mountainous-type projects. It means putting in the hard work necessary to get the job done, even when you don't want to. Having spent long, relentless hours of effort over a long period of time, it's easy Nothing in the world can take the to lose heart and want to quit. This place of persistence. Talent will n o t . . . is when you dig deep into your inner genius will n o t . . . education will not.... Persistence and determination reserves and keep going. Remember alone are omnipotent. there is a big difference between quitting and wanting to quit. The -Calvin Coolidge difference is between being ABD (allbut-dissertation) and becoming a doctor. High achievement is not reserved for those with innate talent or high IQs. It is dependent on desire and perseverance—on that extra effort. Students start their doctoral program expecting to be successful, but only those who are willing to pay the price and do what's required finish. There's an old saying, "A big shot is only a little shot who kept shooting." Stamina High-altitude climbing takes a tremendous amount of energy. It involves continual exertion and makes brutal demands on your legs, lungs, and heart. Stamina is what it takes! It's not optional. Writing a dissertation requires stamina—the strength to sustain long hours of work and yet maintain high performance. This is especially difficult when

Do You Have What It Takes?

juggling the demands of a full-time job and sustaining family obligations while completing a doctorate. However, stamina is essential to surviving the journey. Lessons from athletes can be of great value. For example, athletes learn to focus and trigger the relaxation response through deep and steady breathing techniques. Meditation and visualization techniques are extremely valuable in managing stress. You can get a second wind by taking time to refresh and rest your brain and body. Regular exercise also rejuvenates the mind and body and reduces stress. Good nutrition and a good night's rest are also vital to maintaining stamina. Staying emotionally healthy is easier if you are in good shape physically. Positive Mental Attitude A significant psychological discovery in the past 20 years is that people can choose the way they think. Henry Ford put it this way, "Whether you think you can or can't, you're right." A positive mental attitude is at the core of any high achievement and success in life. Try to avoid negative thoughts or negative self-talk whenever possible. These include thoughts such as "I don't have time now so it's not worth starting" or "This will be too hard." It also helps to remove from your vocabulary words like can't, never, or awful. They only keep you on a downward spiral. Everything can be taken from man One technique that works when you except the last of the human hear yourself being negative is to say freedoms, his ability to choose his Stop! Stopping these negative thoughts own attitude in any given set of interrupts the downward spiral. circumstances-to choose his own way. I know many doctoral students who -Victor Frankl focus on the difficulties, the unpleasant times, and the pains associated with struggling. Thus, they create for themselves a miserable experience. The students I know who possess a positive mental attitude look for the good in situations, even when it's hard to find. Their optimism is like a beacon that propels them forward, thus creating a joyful experience for them. Courage It takes courage to face the fears and doubts that often accompany writing a dissertation. During the first class of the research sequence at the university where I teach, I ask my students to describe the greatest fears and anxieties they have about the dissertation process.

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Their responses run the gamut from reasonable to unreasonable. Here are the most commonly identified fears and anxieties: • • • • • • • • • •

The negative impact on work and family Not measuring up to the task intellectually Lack of the necessary research skills Not enough time to do everything that needs to be done Fear of the unknown—don't know what they don't know Won't find an appropriate topic or an advisor Being overwhelmed Fear of criticism and committee rejections of their work Fear of failure Being emotionally vulnerable

These fears cause considerable anxiety at times, which can result in self-doubt, insecurity, worry, and procrastination that keep you from doing your best work and moving forward. I found that sharing these fears Courage is the mastery of fear, not and anxieties with others lessens their the absence of fear. impact and helps you realize that -Mark Twain everyone involved in the dissertation process has at least one or more of the same vulnerabilities. Facing them openly and honestly goes a long way toward bringing out the courage that sustains the most fearful. Spirit of Adventure Adventure is defined as (1) an undertaking usually involving danger and unknown risks and (2) an exciting or remarkable experience. The spirit of adventure means accepting a risk and standing up to your fear of the unknown—taking the path less traveled. The central motivation for adventuring is to attempt something you're not sure can be done, to go somewhere you're not sure you can go. If you know what you want, why you want it, and are willing to sacrifice and endure many obstacles to get it, then you have the true spirit of adventure. It's all about being Whatever you dream you can do, willing to explore your own limits. begin it. Boldness has genius, power Whether it's a physical adventure or a and magic. mental one, it is always replete with excitement, hazards, and triumphs -Goethe along the way. Are you comfortable with ambieuitv? Climbers must risk and face uncertainty. If you believe your journey to become a doctor is an adventure filled with new learnings and discoveries about yourself,

Do You Have What It Takes? others, a n d y o u r field o f interest, y o u r life will b e transformed, and y o u will contribute significantly to y o u r w o r l d .

Summary This first chapter h e l p e d y o u u n d e r s t a n d the dissertation j o u r n e y as a p e a k experience, a transformative a n d fulfilling life event. C o m p l e t i n g the j o u r n e y successfully requires u n d e r s t a n d i n g the sacrifices, stresses, and uncertainties y o u face along the path. It also requires k n o w i n g strategies to deal w i t h the m a j o r h a z a r d s facing dissertation writers: procrastination, e m o t i o n a l barriers, a n d w r i t e r ' s block. C l i m b i n g the dissertation m o u n t a i n safely a n d successfully requires i n n e r essentials s u c h as c o m m i t m e n t , p e r s e v e r a n c e , s t a m i n a , a positive m e n t a l attitude, c o u r a g e , a n d a spirit o f a d v e n t u r e . C o m m i t m e n t is the p r o m i s e y o u m a k e to y o u r s e l f to c o m p l e t e the dissertation regardless of the obstacles y o u face a l o n g the way. P e r s e v e r a n c e m e a n s staying the c o u r s e e v e n w h e n y o u d o n ' t w a n t to. S t a m i n a requires the ability to sus­ tain l o n g h o u r s o f w o r k w h i l e j u g g l i n g w o r k a n d family obligations a n d still a c h i e v i n g y o u r goal. A p o s i t i v e m e n t a l attitude m a k e s the difference b e t w e e n e x p e r i e n c i n g m i s e r y or j o y a l o n g the path. C o u r a g e o v e r c o m e s fear a n d self-doubt. A spirit o f a d v e n t u r e m e a n s a w i l l i n g n e s s to explore y o u r o w n limits a n d v i e w the dissertation j o u r n e y as a q u e s t filled w i t h n e w learnings a n d discoveries. T h e next chapter familiarizes y o u w i t h the m o u n t a i n ' s terrain—the dissertation d o c u m e n t itself. Y o u learn about the dissertation's structure, format, typical c o m p o n e n t s , major steps in the process, a n d individual's roles a n d responsibilities.

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What Exactly Is a

Dissertation?

A

n y successful m o u n t a i n c l i m b , w h e t h e r actual or m e t a p h o r i c a l , requires k n o w l e d g e o f the terrain a n d the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e m o r e k n o w l e d g e , the better the c h a n c e o f success. N o m o u n t a i n e e r w o u l d b e g i n a major a s c e n t w i t h o u t a solid u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the u n i q u e n a t u r e of the m o u n t a i n , its challenges, characteristics, a n d vagaries. S o , too, m u s t a dissertation writer fully u n d e r s t a n d the n a t u r e o f the doctoral dissertation. T h i s chapter describes the e s s e n c e o f the dissertation—its c o m p o n e n t parts, major steps in the dissertation p r o c e s s , a n d the roles a n d responsibilities o f those i n v o l v e d .

What Is a Doctoral Dissertation? A doctoral dissertation is a formal d o c u m e n t that d e m o n s t r a t e s y o u r ability to c o n d u c t research that m a k e s a n original contribution to t h e o r y or practice. It is a partial fulfillment o f the r e q u i r e m e n t s for an E d D or P h D degree. T h e t e r m original, a c c o r d i n g to the C o u n c i l o f G r a d u a t e S c h o o l s (2002), " i m p l i e s s o m e n o v e l twist, fresh p e r s p e c t i v e , n e w h y p o t h e s i s , or i n n o v a t i v e m e t h o d that m a k e s the dissertation project a distinctive c o n t r i b u t i o n " (p. 10). T h e dissertation requirement is v i e w e d differently in p r o g r a m s lead­ ing to applied degrees, such as the E d D , D P A , a n d P s y D , than it is in those awarding the P h D . T h e distinction in focus b e t w e e n the t w o is discussed 18

What Exactly Is a Dissertation? in the Handbook of Accreditation of the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (Western Association o f S c h o o l s a n d Colleges, 2008) as follows: P h D D e g r e e s : T h e s t a n d a r d research-oriented d e g r e e w h i c h indicates that the recipient h a s d o n e , a n d is p r e p a r e d to d o , orig­ inal research in a major discipline. T h e P h D usually requires three y e a r s or m o r e o f p o s t g r a d u a t e w o r k i n c l u d i n g an original research dissertation or project. M D , E d D , J D , etc.: D e g r e e s w i t h e m p h a s i s o n professional k n o w l e d g e a n d practice. T h e s e d e g r e e s n o r m a l l y require three or m o r e y e a r s o f p r e s c r i b e d p o s t g r a d u a t e w o r k (p. 5 6 ) . W h i l e b o t h types o f doctorates e x p e c t original research, c a n d i d a t e s in a n a p p l i e d doctoral p r o g r a m (e.g., E d D ) focus o n a p p l i e d research that s u p p o r t s the a d v a n c e m e n t o f the profession. T h e dissertation d o c u m e n t m a y v a r y in format d e p e n d i n g o n the type o f study, b u t essentially all researchers define a p r o b l e m w i t h researchable q u e s t i o n s , c o n d u c t a n e x h a u s t i v e r e v i e w o f the literature, c h o o s e an appropriate m e t h o d o l o g y , collect a n d a n a l y z e data, a n d pre­ sent the findings a n d c o n c l u s i o n s . T h e l e n g t h o f dissertations varies dramatically. N o set n u m b e r o f p a g e s is required. H o w e v e r , if it is e x c e s s i v e l y l o n g , readers m a y lose the will to live. It h e l p s to follow the rule o f t h u m b illustrated b y this a p o c ­ r y p h a l story: A y o u n g boy, after m e e t i n g the t o w e r i n g A b r a h a m Lincoln, a s k e d the president, " H o w long s h o u l d a m a n ' s legs b e ? " Lincoln a n s w e r e d , " L o n g e n o u g h to r e a c h the g r o u n d . " It's the s a m e w a y w i t h dissertations. T h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e n g t h d e p e n d s o n the d e g r e e to w h i c h y o u r e s p o n s i b l y a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y a n s w e r y o u r s t u d y ' s research q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t i n g a dissertation represents the p i n n a c l e o f a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t . It requires high-level skills o f d i s c e r n m e n t a n d critical analysis, proficiency in at least o n e research m e t h o d , a n d the ability to c o m m u n i c a t e the results o f that research in a clear, coherent, a n d c o n c i s e manner. N o p r e v i o u s w r i t i n g e x p e r i e n c e s prepare y o u for s u c h a chal­ l e n g i n g a n d rigorous task. Basically, it's a learn-and-grow-as-you-go process. O n e efficient w a y to learn the dissertation terrain is to familiarize yourself w i t h dissertations p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d in y o u r c h o s e n field of study. T h i s h e l p s y o u u n d e r s t a n d the format a n d style o f a c c e p t e d dis­ sertations. A l s o read dissertations c h a i r e d b y t h o s e individuals y o u are c o n s i d e r i n g for a d v i s o r s . T h i s w a y y o u c a n o b t a i n i n s i g h t i n t o that p e r s o n ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d level o f s c h o l a r s h i p .

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Typical Dissertation Structure A dissertation's structure varies w i t h the a c a d e m i c discipline a n d the m e t h o d o l o g y used. C h a p t e r n a m e s m a y b e different, b u t in o n e w a y or another, the questions d i s p l a y e d as follows are a n s w e r e d . Figure 2.1 is an o v e r v i e w o f a typical dissertation's b a s i c structure. M o s t r e s e a r c h e r s try to r e s o l v e a specific p r o b l e m a n d a d v a n c e l e a r n i n g b y a n s w e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s p o s e d in F i g u r e 2 . 1 . R e g a r d l e s s o f a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e , r e s e a r c h u s u a l l y f o l l o w s t h e scientific m e t h o d a n d h a s t h e s a m e b a s i c format, w i t h s o m e v a r i a t i o n s . To c o n c e p t u a l i z e y o u r study, d e t e r m i n e w h a t t h e o v e r a l l f o r m a t w i l l b e . I a s k m y s t u d e n t s to c r e a t e a l o o s e - l e a f n o t e b o o k w i t h t a b s d e p i c t i n g the dissert a t i o n ' s m a j o r s e c t i o n s . T h e n o t e b o o k s e r v e s as an o u t l i n e for the entire study. A s s t u d e n t s w r i t e i n d i v i d u a l s e c t i o n s , t h e y insert t h e m into t h e notebook.

Figure 2.1

Typical Dissertation Structure

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Chapter Two Review of y Literature

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