THE ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL COLOUR by FIONA - cIRcle

THE ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL COLOUR by FIONA AVAKUMOVIC .A., Hon., U n i v e r s i t y Of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1984

A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES S c h o o l Of Community And R e g i o n a l

We a c c e p t

t h i s t h e s i s as

to the required

Planning

conforming

standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA O c t o b e r 1988

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F i o n a A v a k u m o v i c , 1988

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Department of

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Date

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OCTOBER

17, 1988

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REGIONAL

PLANNING

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copying

or

my written

11

Abstract

T h i s t h e s i s reviews the r o l e of environmental found

on

roofs.

the

large

manmade s u r f a c e s

In a d d i t i o n , i t p r o v i d e s

planner

'to think

through'

f u l l y upon as a b a s i s f o r d e v e l o p i n g

that

of pavements, facades and

a conceptual

urban

colour,

framework

f o r the

c o l o u r , that i s , to r e f l e c t strategies

and

evaluating

i s an

essential,

options. In

the

ubiquitous, However,

built

environment,

enjoyable,

much

of

and,

for

the

to c l a r i f y

planner,

highly

by unresolved

'Western'

uses

of

and

urban

environmental

result,

environmental

this

colour

'Power' and

opportunities

both

creatively

arts,

with

geography,

Examples of recent or

colour,

primarily

from

the

that,

colour

thesis

reveals

f a r from has

the

planner

that

many

precise

one

principal

parts.

Each

role,

of the

occurs o f f e r s d i f f e r e n t c o n s t r a i n t s

for colour

to

to

playing

use. At v a r i o u s

f a c t o r s a l s o i n f l u e n c e such

spatial,

review.

may be thought through i n terms of 'Place'

s u r f a c e s on which c o l o u r

different

and

world f o r reasons of s i m i l a r i t y of c u l t u r e and c l i m a t e

environmental and

fine

design.

to Canada, supplement the l i t e r a t u r e As a

debates or dated.

t h i s t h e s i s reviews p e r t i n e n t l i t e r a t u r e ,

psychology,

renowned

element.

i s , to the planner,

the s u b j e c t c o n c i s e l y

m a t e r i a l mainly drawn from a r c h i t e c t u r e , optics,

topical

the a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n

too s p e c i a l i z e d , complicated Therefore,

now,

colour

transform

use.

and

s c a l e s of p e r c e p t i o n , Colour's

power

is

the appearance of our surroundings

iii

through changing angles

of

light conditions,

perception,

i n f l u e n c e our With t h i s

and

values

Meaningful,

synaesthesia,

spectral and

qualities,

p s y c h o l o g i c a l , to

w e l l - b e i n g , t h r o u g h a r o u s a l , p l e a s u r e , and

'Power i n P l a c e ' ,

functional

surface

Timely,

colour's

modify

its

Ciruculatory,

symbolic,

six

main

aesthetic,

roles,

Illusory,

control.

and

and

Background,

Pictorial,

produce t h e a r r a y of p r e c i s e p a r t s w h i c h range from

'Backdrop'

to to

'Advertizer'. To

realize

promotes

the

'thought

strategies

of

and

professional

roles.

order Marx

through'

education,

enforcement,

colour's

importance

through

of

these

environmental

exemplification, the

p o t e n t i a l and

the

colour

planner through

encouragement

contributions

However, more r e s e a r c h

environmental

parts,

is s t i l l

of

and

various

needed a b o u t

the p u b l i c ' s p r e f e r e n c e s

to develop c l e a r colour p o l i c i e s ,

e s p e c i a l l y i f , as

(1972) c o n f i d e n t l y p r e d i c t s : La tache de l ' u r b a n i s t e futur sera sans doute d ' a p p r o f o n d i r l e s c r i t e r e s q u a l i t a t i f s et quantitatifs de l a couleur et de l a lumiere, en c o l l a b o r a t i o n e ' t r o i t e a v e c d e s b i o l o g i s t e s , des p s y c h o l o g u e s , e t des socilogues qui a u r o n t d € f i n i l e s b e s o i n s fondamentaux de silence, de l'espace, d'information et de c o m m u n i c a t i o n de l ' e \ r e h u m a i n . (The t a s k of the f u t u r e urban p l a n n e r w i l l u n d o u b t a b l y be t o d e e p e n t h e q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e criteria of colour and light, in direct collaboration with b i o l o g i s t s , p s y c h o l o g i s t s , and sociologists who will have defined the f u n d a m e n t a l s of silence, space, i n f o r m a t i o n , and c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e e d e d t o be human.)

in

Ellen

Table

of

Contents

Abstract

i i

T a b l e of Contents List

of T a b l e s

List

of F i g u r e s

Introduction (1) S e t t i n g t h e Scene (2) P u r p o s e of t h e T h e s i s (3) R a t i o n a l e (4) M e t h o d o l o g y (5) L i m i t a t i o n s (6) O r g a n i z a t i o n Endnotes

iv .vi vi

. .

C h a p t e r 1 : The P l a c e o f C o l o u r (1 ) S u r f a c e s (1.1) Pavements (1.2) F a c a d e s (1 .3) R o o f s (2) S c a l e (2.1) R e g i o n a l and C i t y C o l o u r (2.2) D i s t r i c t C o l o u r (2.3) S t r e e t C o l o u r (2.4) B u i l d i n g s and D e t a i l s (3) The R o l e s of C o l o u r Endnotes

1 1 1 ....2 4 6 8 11 13 13 14 15 17 18 19 22 23 24 25 27

C h a p t e r 2: The Power o f C o l o u r 30 (1) To T r a n s f o r m t h e A p p e a r a n c e of Our S u r r o u n d i n g s ....31 (1.1) C h a n g i n g L i g h t C o n d i t i o n s 32 (1.2) V a r i a b l e S p e c t r a l Q u a l i t i e s 36 (1.3) A l t e r a b l e A n g l e of P e r c e p t i o n 40 (1.4) S y n e s t h e s i a 41 (2) To I n f l u e n c e our W e i l - B e i n g 42 (2.1) C o l o u r and A r o u s a l .....44 (2.2) C o l o u r and P l e a s u r e 45 (2.3) C o l o u r and C o n t r o l 54 (3) The V a l u e s of C o l o u r ...60 Endnotes 62 C h a p t e r 3: Power i n P l a c e (1) B a c k g r o u n d C o l o u r (1.1) S y m b o l i c B a c k d r o p (1.2) A e s t h e t i c F o i l (1.3) F u n c t i o n a l ' D i r t D i s g u i s e r ' (2) M e a n i n g f u l C o l o u r (2.1) S y m b o l i c M e t a p h o r (2.2) A e s t h e t i c E x p r e s s i o n of M a t e r i a l & L i g h t (2.3) F u n c t i o n a l C o d i n g

68 70 70 ..72 78 78 78 ....81 85

V

(3) T i m e l y C o l o u r ;....88 (3.1) S y m b o l i c H i s t o r i c a l R e f e r e n c e 88 (3.2) A e s t h e t i c Tempo S e t t e r 96 (3.3) F u n c t i o n a l H e a t A b s o r b t i o n & R e f l e c t i o n 100 (4) C i r c u l a t o r y C o l o u r 104 (4.1) S y m b o l i c I d e n t i t y 104 (4.2) A e s t h e t i c S p a t i a l P r o g r e s s i o n 111 (4.3) F u n c t i o n a l L e g i b i l i t y 116 (5) I l l u s o r y C o l o u r 117 (5.1) S y m b o l i c A t t a c h m e n t & D e t a c h m e n t .119 (5.2) A e s t h e t i c A l t e r e d S p a t i a l P e r c e p t i o n 122 (5.3) F u n c t i o n a l C a m o u f l a g e 127 (6) P i c t o r i a l C o l o u r 131 (6.1) S y m b o l i c ' E d i f i e r ' 132 (6.2) A e s t h e t i c A r t w o r k ...133 (6.3) F u n c t i o n a l A d v e r t i z e r 140 Endnotes 142 Conclusion (1) Summary o f F i n d i n g s (2) R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t o P l a n n e r s (3) S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r R e s e a r c h Endnotes

149 ....149 151 156 159

Glossary

160

Bibliography

164

List Table

of

Tables

1 .

Power i n P l a c e : The

P r e c i s e P a r t s of E n v i r o n m e n t a l

Colour

vii

List Fig.1 Fig.2 Fig.3 Fig.4 Fig.5 Fig.6

of F i g u r e s

Symbolic Background C o l o u r : Backdrop A e s t h e t i c Background C o l o u r : F o i l A e s t h e t i c Backround C o l o u r : F o i l Aesthetic-Background Colour: F o i l A e s t h e t i c Background C o l o u r : F o i l F u n c t i o n a l Background C o l o u r : ' D i r t D i s g u i s e r '

71 73 73 ...75 76 77

F i g . 7 Symbolic M e a n i n g f u l C o l o u r : Metaphor 79 F i g . 8 Symbolic M e a n i n g f u l C o l o u r : Metaphor 80 F i g . 9 A e s t h e t i c M e a n i n g f u l C o l o u r : E x p r e s s i o n of M a t e r i a l s ..82 F i g . 1 0 A e s t h e t i c M e a n i n g f u l C o l o u r : E x p r e s s i o n of M a t e r i a l ..83 F i g . 1 1 A e s t h e t i c M e a n i n g f u l C o l o u r : E x p r e s s i o n o f L i g h t .....84 Fig.12 F u n c t i o n a l Meaningful C o l o u r : Coding 86 F i g . 13 F i g . 14 Fig.15 F i g . 16 Fig.17 Fig.18 Fig.19 Fig.20 Fig.21

Symbolic Timely Colour: H i s t o r i c a l Reference Symbolic Timely Colour: H i s t o r i c a l Reference Symbolic Timely Colour: H i s t o r i c a l Reference S y m b o l i c T i m e l y Colour.: H i s t o r i c a l R e f e r e n c e Symbolic Timely Colour: H i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e Symbolic Timely Colour: H i s t o r i c a l Reference Symbolic Timely Colour: H i s t o r i c a l Reference A e s t h e t i c T i m e l y C o l o u r : Tempo S e t t e r F u n c t i o n a l T i m e l y C o l o u r : Heat A b s o r b t i o n

Fig.22 Fig.23 Fig.24 Fig.25 Fig.26 Fig.27 Fig.28 Fig.29

Symbolic C i r c u l a t o r y Colour: I d e n t i t y 105 Symbolic C i r c u l a t o r y Colour: I d e n t i t y 106 Symbolic C i r c u l a t o r y Colour: I d e n t i t y 107 Symbolic C i r c u l a t o r y Colour: I d e n t i t y 109 Symbolic C i r c u l a t o r y Colour: I d e n t i t y 110 A e s t h e t i c C i r c u l a t o r y C o l o u r : S p a t i a l P r o g r e s s i o n ....114 A e s t h e t i c C i r c u l a t o r y C o l o u r : S p a t i a l P r o g r e s s i o n ....115 Functional Circulatory Colour: L e g i b i l i t y 118

Fig.30 Fig.31 Fig.32 Fig.33 Fig.34 Fig.35 Fig.36

S y m b o l i c I l l u s o r y C o l o u r : Attachment & Detachment S y m b o l i c I l l u s o r y C o l o u r : Attachment & Detachment Aesthetic I l l u s o r y Colour: Altered Perception Aesthetic I l l u s o r y Colour: Altered Perception F u n c t i o n a l I l l u s o r y C o l o u r : Camouflage F u n c t i o n a l I l l u s o r y C o l o u r : Camouflage F u n c t i o n a l I l l u s o r y C o l o u r : Camouflage

Fig.37 Fig.38 Fig.39 Fig.40 Fig.41

Aesthetic Aesthetic Aesthetic Aesthetic Aesthetic

P i c t o r i a l Colour: P i c t o r i a l Colour: P i c t o r i a l Colour: P i c t o r i a l Colour: P i c t o r i a l Colour:

Artwork Artwork Artwork Artwork Artwork

90 91 93 95 97 98 99 101 103

....120 ....121 124 126 128 130 130 134 135 136 137 139

1

Introduction

(1) S e t t i n g t h e Scene

In

1925, a r c h i t e c t B r u n o T a u t ,

Berlin's

public

housing's

advocate, of c o l o u r

then

planning

a s an i n t e g r a l

artistic

division

director

and

a

leading

e l e m e n t o f town p l a n n i n g ,

a l e c t u r e on "The R e b i r t h o f C o l o u r " .

of

gave

I n i t he s t r e s s e d :

Everything in this world of ours h a s t o have some colour or other. A l l o f n a t u r e i s c o l o u r f u l , and even the g r e y o f d u s t o r s o o t , even t h e most d e p r e s s i n g a n d melancholy places always have their own typical colours And s i n c e e v e r y o b j e c t i n n a t u r e h a s i t s colour, everything human b e i n g s create must be thought through i n terms of c o l o u r t o o . 1

Taking a basis can

f o r developing

the

modern

environment townscape, city

'to think through'

and 'think

t o mean ' t o r e f l e c t

s t r a t e g i e s and

urban

planner,

aware

of

through'

a

evaluating

concerned

recent

with

'rebirth'

fully

upon a s

options', the of

how

physical

colour

in

something as l a r g e and complex as a

i n terms of c o l o u r ?

(2) The P u r p o s e o f t h e T h e s i s .

In answer, t h i s t h e s i s examines t h e urban

colour,

t h a t of. t h e b u i l t

role

of

the

dominant

e n v i r o n m e n t f o r m e d by p a v e m e n t s ,

f a c a d e s and r o o f s and e n c o m p a s s i n g b o t h s t r u c t u r e s a n d t h e s p a c e s

2

between

them.

The colour,

primary

purpose

paying

special

planners promoting The

way

which

attention

'thought

secondary

conceptual

i s to review

framework permits

to

through'

purpose

of

the r o l e

for structuring to

environmental

knowledge

environmental

this

the p l a n n e r

of

thesis and

is

needed by

the

colour. to

develop

organizing material

'think through'

a

in a

environmental

colour.

(3) R a t i o n a l e

The of

need

related

for this

man that

the

as P a t r i c k

basis

himself.

framework d e r i v e s from a number

by

by

decisions

the

power

3

qualities

without

influence to

observes

in

c o l o u r i s d e f i n e d as t h e

differing

them",

Our

Nuttgens

f o r p l a n n i n g t h e modern c i t y

Although

2

i s caused

emitted

and

reasons.

Above a l l , Ideas,

review

an

of

The

i s understanding " a s p e c t of t h i n g s

light

reflected

o b s e r v e r c o l o u r does not

the p l a c e of c o l o u r which,

affect

L a n d s c a p e of

our

emotional

in

or

exist."

turn,

has

and

our

well-being

environmental perception.

More material, Joseph

specifically, is

a

Esherwick

vital

colour, element

as

of our

an

attribute

surroundings.

of

However,

explains:

c o l o u r i n the ' n a t u r a l ' w o r l d , the insects, plants and f i s h , i s u s e d

every

world of animals, i n a p u r p o s e f u l and

as

3

f u n c t i o n a l way. Man, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , a p p e a r s t o be burdened by h a v i n g t o t h i n k a b o u t c o l o u r , t o s t u d y i t , t o make an i s s u e o f i t , t o d e s i g n and p l a n for i t s use. 5

Every

manmade

either

object,

'thought

therefore,

through'

or

represents

spontaneous,

a colour choice,

by

i t s maker

or

designer. In

addition,

environmental

p u b l i c , but i s i n the both

of

colour one

q u a l i t i e s of l i g h t

i s "necessary

'rebirth

pavements, and

of

colour'

reaction

are

against

a l l around,

previous

either

issue.

variously

This development, environmental Post

by a l a c k o f t r a d i t i o n a l

However, f o r p l a n n e r s resurgence,

6

spiritual

Signs of seen

a n d r o o f s t h a t a r e new a n d c o l o u r f u l ,

by an a b u n d a n c e o f e c l e c t i c

chromatic

values,

7

p a r t l y a p a r t i c u l a r a t t r i b u t e of the

and

expressive,

t o t h e t o t a l man, t h e p s y c h i c a n d

colour i s currently a topical

facades

characterized

Enjoyably

and of a s s o c i a t e d e m o t i o n a l

r e p a i n t e d , or o l d and r e s t o r e d .

general

not only i n t e r e s t s the

interest.

as w e l l as the p h y s i c a l one." Furthermore,

a

public

colour

Modern

recent

partly

a

d r a b n e s s and movement, i s

g u i d e l i n e s f o r c o l o u r use

experimentation

seeking

on

to

learn

with colour. more

about

this

much o f t h e a v a i l a b l e c o l o u r l i t e r a t u r e i s

t o o s p e c i a l i z e d , c o m p l i c a t e d by u n r e s o l v a b l e

debates,

or

dated. Colour previous

research occurs knowledge

anthropology, arts,

of

archeology,

geography,

i n many f i e l d s , issues.

These

often presupposing fields

include:

architecture, biology, chemistry,

neurology,

optics,

physics,

a

fine

physiology,

4

psychology,

and urban

design.

data i s p o o r l y connected

and

A l l too often, communicated,

s p e c i a l i s t , a s S i r Hugh C a s s o n c o m p l a i n s for Architecture; professional

mystery."

Recurrent, literature.

that

t h e non-

i n the Preface t o Colour

artists

make

of

colour

a

8

unresolvable

such

'Post-Moderns' as

Arthur

debates

also

complicate

draw from an a c h r o m a t i c secondary

such as M i c h a e l Graves Erickson.

whether c o l o u r s h o u l d m a i n l y

or

and

so

the

C u r r e n t l y , they o f t e n o c c u r , t o use C h a r l e s Jencks'

t e r m s , between Moderns'

"scientists

inter-disciplinary

(1)

be

T o p i c s f o r debate

intrinsic

or chromatic p a l e t t e ;

h u e s ; a n d ( 4 ) be u s e d

s t a n d o u t from t h e i r

9

and

or (3)

'Lateinclude

applied;

(2)

feature primary

t o make s u r f a c e s b l e n d i n o r

surroundings.

By l e a r n i n g more a b o u t

environmental

colour

the

a c t i n g a t " t h e i n t e r f a c e between k n o w l e d g e a n d a c t i o n , "

planner, 1 0

gains a

b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p l a c e s , t h e p e o p l e , and t h e t i m e s f o r whom he o r s h e p l a n s .

(4)

Research

for this

material pertaining recent often

to

Methodology.

thesis

involved a literature

environmental

colour,

review of

supplemented

by

o r renowned e x a m p l e s o f t h e r o l e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o u r , illustrated.

searching

The

for relevant

into distinct

areas;

(3)

process

had

five

main

steps:

(1)

(2)

sorting

data

studying i t f o r pertinent

themes;

(4)

m a t e r i a l and examples;

5

synthesizing and

findings into a theory of colour's power and place;

(5) structuring the resulting knowledge. The l i t e r a t u r e review draws on material from several diverse

f i e l d s , especially architecture, psychology and urban design.

fine

arts,

geograpy,

optics,

The l i t e r a t u r e represents the views

of several noted advocates of environmental colour, both academic and

popular. Several

Dr.

the more academic advocates are: ( 1 ) in Sweden,

of

Lars Sivik, of the University of

Goteburg,

a

psychologist

concerned with the systematic analysis of the meaning of colours, p a r t i c u l a r l y those found on exteriors; in England, Tom Oxford

Polytechnic,

author

and

editor

of

two

representing the views and a c t i v i t i e s of a range and

solid

of

books

researchers,

practioners of environmental colour in art and architecture;

( 3 ) Dr. Research

Peter Smith, Unit

Director

of

the

Design

and

Psychology

as the University of Sheffield, known for work on

aesthetics relevant to colour; and from

Porter, of

Newcastle

University,

( 4 ) A.C.

specialist

Hardy,

now

retired

on the impact of large-

scale manmade surfaces in rural settings. More populist advocates of environmental colour include: (1) in Germany, the t r i o of Martina Duttmann, Friedrich Schmuck, Johannes

Uhl,

co-authors of a popular book, Color in Townscape,

intended as a "handbook in six parts and (2)

Contractors,

for

Architects,

Designers

for City Dwellers and other Observant People;"

in the United States, Faber Birren, author of many books

articles

on

and

and

a l l aspects of colour and a consultant to industry

and government on colour concerns; and,

(3)

in

Canada,

Hubert

6

Roigt, who

a popular

urges

jeunesse

Quebecois proponent

in his conclusion

1 ' e x c l u s i v i t e de

However, s i n c e

1982,

also

landmark,

the

few

references

t o the

colour

in

discuss

colour

or

the

stylistic Thus,

built as

a feature

of

a pour

a

resurgence

a la

tous."

literature in

Instead,

a particular'

pas

1 1

controversial

B u i l d i n g , the

recent

laissez

colour

the

and makes

use

of

j o u r n a l s tend

building,

to

architect

movement. to

supplement

the

literature

illustrated,

environmental colour,

from

d a t e of

Portland

"ne

I l y en

environment.

i n c l u d e s examples, o f t e n of

the

' t h i n k i n g through'

Couleur:

la couleur.

colourful direct

t o La

of

of

review,

recent

or

this

thesis

renowned

uses

p r i m a r i l y drawn from V a n c o u v e r but

also

elsewhere.

(5)

Since through'

a city

is

i n terms of

very

Limitations

large

colour,

this

and

complex

to

thesis limits

the

be topic

'thought in

four

main ways. First, interior, latter,

colour.

t h e s i s only This

i s u s u a l l y the

conditions surfaces

are

vastly

than

planner's use

the

colour

r o l e of the

c o n c e r n , and

of c o l o u r

different.

interior

to experience

considers

i s p a r t l y because

i n f l u e n c i n g the

more l i k e l y view;

this

on

t o be

more v a r i a b l e and

former,

and

in

the

to p r e d i c t

not the the

outside

exterior colour

regularly harder

not

p a r t l y because

inside

Above a l l ,

exterior,

is

public lighting

7

conditions; to suffer

t h e e f f e c t s o f w e a t h e r i n g ; and t o o c c u r

surfaces

a larger area, are three dimensional

that

have

t h a n two d i m e n s i o n a l , a n d a r e c o n v e x r a t h e r t h a n The built

second

basic

environment

the former not t h e observes

limit

on

than i n nature s i n c e ,

latter

predominates.

an

colour of the b u i l t as

manmade

colour,

and

cities,

as

Ruskin

f o l l o w s form,

system."

1 2

However, t h e

does d e r i v e from n a t u r a l a s

often

serves

as

a

but

backdrop

well for

arrangements.

third not

limit

i s the focus

details.

on

In the b u i l t

large-scale

environmental

environment,

colour derives

from a c o m b i n a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l a t t i r e , lights,

Moreover,

"never

separate

environment

i n most

beauty, c o l o u r i n nature,

environment,

entirely

materials

landscaping The

the topic t o colour i n the

when d i s c u s s i n g a r c h i t e c t u r a l

arranged

rather

concave.

rather

unlike colour i n the b u i l t is

restricts

on

automobiles,

architectural detailing pavements,

facades

more f i x e d s o u r c e o f immeasurably

scaffolding,

display

windows,

street

furniture

on b u i l d i n g s seen a g a i n s t a

and

roofs.

colour

than

traffic

backdrop

and of

These l a r g e s u r f a c e s p r o v i d e a the d e t a i l s

t o the o v e r a l l c o l o u r of a p l a c e .

and

contribute

As t h e a u t h o r s o f

A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d Y o u : How t o E x p e r i e n c e a n d E n j o y

Buildings,

note: When y o u d r i v e into a c i t y f o rthe f i r s t time, the fleeting glimpse o f an i n d i v i d u a l building, the textures and c o l o u r s of t h e b u i l d i n g ' s f a b r i c . . . m a k e a lasting impression. 1 3

Finally,

f o r reasons of s i m i l a r i t y

of c u l t u r e and c l i m a t e t o

C a n a d a , most e x a m p l e s i n t h i s t h e s i s come f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a

and

8

Western colour

Europe. use

caused

particularly building

by

technology, as

Nevertheless,

differences

found

in

planning

this

for

the

or

environmental

'colour planner

Oriental

cultures. Western'

i n Peking

o r , more Carlos

Organization.

takes

a deductive

c o l o u r , with

promoting

approach to reviewing

particular

'thought

organization

of

attention

through'

ideas

complicated the planner

colour

from

and ' P r o m o t i n g Power

begin

with,

scene' about

Chapter

i n order

to

to

seem

the

'think

four

'The P l a c e of C o l o u r ' ,

is

t o help the planner

m a t e r i a l about c o l o u r t h a t may

framework p e r m i t s

To

and

customs,

work o f V e n u z u e l a n Op a r t i s t ,

framework d e v e l o p e d

contradictory

Place',

m a t e r i a l s , type of

to

colour

i n the

based

on

context.

conceptual

chapter:

thesis

needed

Throughout,

organize

climate,

religious

as a t t h e I m p e r i a l P a l a c e

of e n v i r o n m e n t a l

knowledge

and

are included.

Overall, role

culture

u n i q u e and r e l e v a n t examples o f t h e 'non-

(6)

the

Islamic

the environmental

Curuz-Diez,

in

t h e many v a r i a t i o n s i n

m e n t a l a s s o c i a t i o n s and

of c o l o u r , such

recently,

simplifies

r e g a r d i n g t h e c h o i c e of b u i l d i n g

especially

role

T h i s somewhat

s t r u c t u r e and

highly

subjective,

non-specialist. through'

angles,

a

the

role

each r e p r e s e n t e d

'The Power o f C o l o u r ' ,

'Power

This of in a in

in Place'.

1,

'The P l a c e o f C o l o u r ' ,

to present

factors determining

essential

the

place

surveys the

i n f o r m a t i o n to the of

colour

in

the

9

built

environment.

the

c o n s t r a i n t s and

of.

principal

facades, colour

and use

s c a l e s of and

at v a r i o u s

scales

people.

(2)

and

'The

the

well-being

the

and

surroundings. symbolic,

planner's

through v a r i o u s bureaucrat, reformer.

1 4

planner

environment,

here

(4)

four

buildings

f a c t o r s of

place

named:

(1)

Circulatory;

and

aspects:

to

the

transform

(5)

Place', of

the

of

the that

next

professional

advocate,

state

has

explain

both

influence

appearance

seeks

many p r e c i s e

planner

exemplification,

power

affects

much of

of

our our

colour's

values.

This

contributions the

specific

colour

power t o

the

these aspects

functional

how

colour's

r o l e s combine w i t h v a l u e s .

education,

and

about

the

'Power i n

examination

influencing

to

power

environmental colour of

roles,

Timely;

pavements,

t h e n o f f e r s more

understanding

when g e n e r a l

(3)

scale

(1) each

e s p e c i a l l y the

streets,

and

main

namely

Power of C o l o u r ' ,

Together,

3,

surface

spatial

aesthetic

Chapter

o f f e r e d by

factors

perception,

districts,

several

built

and

use

examines:

Pictorial.

pertinent In

for colour

different

of

Meaningful;

(6)

2,

these

overview

consideration,

the

cities,

plays

psychological

brief

and

When

Background;

insights

under (2)

colour

Chapter

opportunities

r o o f s ; and

details.

Illusory;

particular, this

surfaces

regions

combine,

In

can

to parts

colour

chapter

to

make t h r o u g h

r o l e s : technocrat, social

the plays

ends w i t h

'thought

encouragement and

agent,

improve

through' strategies

enforcement public

learner

a

and

servant, or

social

10

Finally, of

the Conclusion

environmental

colour

summarizes f i n d i n g s about

and

recapitulates

the

the

framework for

' t h i n k i n g through' environmental c o l o u r c l e a r l y ,

concisely,

creatively

Conclusion

i n terms of

'Power' and

'Place'.

o f f e r s recommendations to the planner about with

environmental

colour

f u r t h e r study about an we

and

suggestions

The

further

to researchers grow

Afterall,

the 'tone' of town l i f e - the p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between environment and imagination- i s a l s o profoundly influenced by the q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y of c o l o u r s that we see every d a y . 1 5

and also

involvement

issue whose importance w i l l only

i n c r e a s i n g l y urbanize.

role

for as

11

Endnotes

Bruno Taut, c i t e d i n M a r t i n a Duttmann, F r r i e d r i c h & J o h a n n e s U h l , C o l o r i n Townscape (San F r a n c i s c o ; W.H. 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 14. 1

P a t r i c k N u t t g e n s , The L a n d s c a p e 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 100.

2

Faber,

Schmuck, Freeman,

of Ideas (London: Faber

&

P e t e r D a v i e s , Ed. The A m e r i c a n H e r i t a g e D i c t i o n a r y o f t h e E n g l i s h L a n g u a g e (New Y o r k ; D e l l , 1 9 7 3 ) . 3

* F a b e r B i r r e n , L i g h t , C o l o r and E n v i r o n m e n t N o s t r a n d , 1 9 8 2 ) , p.7.

(New

York:

Van

J o s e p h E s h e r w i c k , " C o l o u r on Buildings," i n Colour for Architecture, Eds. Tom Porter and Byron M i k e l l i d e i (London: S t u d i o V i s t a , 1 9 7 6 ) , p. 58. 5

J.S. Ackerman & C. P e t e r s o n , " A r t of Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. 1 (New York: B r i t a n n i c a I n c . , 1 9 7 9 ) , p. 951. 6

7

B i r r e n , p.

8

S i r Hugh C a s s o n , P r e f a c e , P o r t e r and M i k e l l i d e s ,

3

4th.

Architecture," Encyclopaedia

29.

C h a r l e s J e n c k s , The Language o f P o s t - M o d e r n Ed. (New Y o r k : R i z z o l i , 1 9 8 4 ) , pp. 6-7.

p.8.

Architecture,

J o h n F r i e d m a n n & B a r c l a y H u d s o n , "Knowledge and A c t i o n : G u i d e t o P l a n n i n g T h e o r y " , A I P J o u r n a l , J a n u a r y , 1971, p.2. 1 0

a

Hugh R o i g t , La C o u l e u r , 2nd. Ed. ( A r t h a b a s k a , P.Q., 1 9 8 0 ) , p. 132. "Don't l e a v e t h e e x c l u s i v e use o f c o l o u r t o t h e young. T h e r e ' s enough f o r e v e r y o n e . " 1 1

John R u s k i n , The Seven Lamps o f A r c h i t e c t u r e Y o r k : F a r r a r , S t r a u s s & G i r o u x , 1 9 8 6 ) , p. 132. 1 2

(1848;

New

12

W.W. C a u d i l l , W.M. Pena a n d P. Kennon, Architecture and Y o u : How t o e x p e r i e n c e and E n j o y B u i l d i n g s (New Y o r k : W a t s o n C u p t i l l , 1 9 7 8 ) , p.86. 1 3

T.I. Gunton, "The R o l e o f t h e P r o f e s s i o n a l P l a n n e r , " Canadian P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , V o l . 27, 3 ( F a l l 1984), pp.399417. 1 4

Paolo 1980), p.20. 1 5

Portoghesi,

"Colour

in

Town", Domus, 602 ( J a n .

13

Chapter

1: The P l a c e

of C o l o u r .

Whether s p a r k l i n g i n t h e s u n s h i n e o r s u b d u e d i n t h e shadows, colour

s u r r o u n d s us a s l o n g a s s u f f i c e n t l i g h t a n d a t

observer

are

present.

s u c h an u b i q u i t o u s

As an i n i t i a l

element, the planner

b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e and a c t i o n ' in order The

step

a c t i n g a t 'the

and

interface

needs t o s u r v e y t h e ' c o l o u r

1

dominant

urban

colour,

t h a t of t h e b u i l t

manmade

environment

primarily

s u r f a c e s , namely p a v e m e n t s ,

r o o f s , and e x i s t s a t s e v e r a l s c a l e s of p e r c e p t i o n . t h e s e a r e , most n o t a b l y ,

regions

s t r e e t s , and b u i l d i n g s and d e t a i l s . of t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s surface colour

scene'

t o u n d e r s t a n d where t o s e t g o a l s .

large-scale

planners,

one

i n ' t h i n k i n g through'

encompassing both s t r u c t u r e s and spaces, d e r i v e s three

least

and

scale

of

factors

encourage i t t o play

and c i t i e s ,

facades, For urban

districts,

At each s c a l e , c o l o u r a

place's

regarding

image.

where we d e c i d e

s e v e r a l important

from

i s one

Overall, to place

roles i n the

built

environment.

(1)

Pavements, characteristics

facades that

opportunities f o r colour overlap.

Roofs,

Surfaces.

for

and

offer use.

different At times,

instance,

p a v e m e n t s a n d when s e t a t s t e e p

roofs

a l l

have

constraints

however, t h e s e

when u s e d a s t e r r a c e s angles

certain

correspond

to

and

qualities resemble facades.

1 4

Pavements and facades that

allow

together, and

them

these

have t a c t i l e and v i s u a l q u a l i t i e s

to

(1.1)

delimit

Used

structures

environment.

Pavements

At floor

serve as g i a n t canvases f o r artwork.

surfaces three-dimensionally

spaces i n the b u i l t

i n common

the

base

of

the b u i l t environment, pavements form the

of the c i t y , ranging

staircases. punctured

They by

serve

drains,

i n s t y l e from simple as

for

safe

pavements

facilitating

are

highly

grand

s o l i d surfaces, occasionally

p e d e s t r i a n s , v e h i c l e s and run-off water. pedestrians,

g u t t e r s to

the

Located

visible.

movement

of

near the eye of

As the authors of

A r c h i t e c t u r e and You: How to Enjoy and experience

Buildings

explain: when you walk, you look down more than you may r e a l i z e . People are more aware of the walking plane than they are of w a l l s ... And r o o f s . 2

Overall, a city. favorite

pavements are the s i n g l e l a r g e s t c o l o u r surface i n

In Europe, common

predominates.

granite

paving,

3

setts while

traditionally

provided

i n North America, black

Indeed, 'asphalt j u n g l e '

i s an

urban

the

asphalt

metaphor.

Rudovsky vehemently complains: streets pavements represent the low-water mark of the urban environment- sqaure miles of patched a s p h a l t of no d i s c e r n i b l e t e x t u r e and c o l o r . . . . 4

The

intrinsic

colour

of

pavements

i s usually

dark

to

d i s g u i s e d i r t and save money since pavements r e c e i v e c o n s i d e r a b l e

1 5

abrasive

wear

markings,

is

and

tear.

usually

Applied

minimal,

reduce maintenance c o s t s .

colour,

both

such

as

traffic

t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n and

to

R a i n c o n s i d e r a b l y a l t e r s the c o l o u r of

p a v e m e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y when w a t e r c o l l e c t s and

g a i n s an

iridescent

sheen f r o m o i l s l i c k s . However, i f p a v e m e n t s a r e p r i m a r i l y than v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c , them

excellent

their

locations

'aesthetic experiences'. the

floor

fact,

plane

5

l a r g e s i z e and

for

mainly

(1.2)

The be

Gene

artwork

make

and

even

painting."

Artpark,

a carpark

D a v i s , s e e s no

a

to 6

gigantic

in Niagara,

reason

why

In

art

New

should

s m a l l , i n d o o r s or seen head-on.

Facades

F a c a d e s , s e r v i n g as v e r t i c a l a r e s t r o n g f e a t u r e s of t o w n s c a p e , They do

easy v i s i b i l i t y

seems a n a t u r a l e x t e n s i o n f a c a d e

painter,

rather

As P o r t e r s t r e s s e s : " t h e a t t r a c t i o n

t h e l a r g e s t p a i n t i n g i n t h e w o r l d ws

7

pedestrian

advertizing,

s e r i e s o f huge r a i n b o w s t r i p e s a d o r n i n g York.

for

cue

people

edges t o t h e b u i l t both

visually

and

as t o a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i v i t i e s and

so; they d i r e c t or f o r b i d . "

8

Typically,

environment, socially.

"being

facades

seen

have

to

three

zones: a foundation or base t h a t c o n n e c t s i t t o the e a r t h or p a v e m e n t , m i d d l e zone w i t h i t s rows of w i n d o w s , and a roofz o n e , w h i c h t e r m i n a t e s t h e b u i l d i n g and s e t s o f f its silhouette. 9

When f a c a d e s

i n c l u d e b o t h w a l l s and

c o n t r a s t between opaque and

windows,

transparent colour.

they

offer

Historically,

a

16

there have been t h r e e t y p e s of ways i n w h i c h a window i s r e l a t e d t o s t r u c t u r e : as a h o l e i n a m a s o n r y wall; as a glass filling i n a c a g e o f s t r u c t u r e ; o r as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e s t r u c t u r e , where the window and t h e w a l l a r e t h e same e l e m e n t . 1 0

Less for

continuous

than pavements, facades

d i f f e r e n t colour treatments

detail

and

chromatic

on

t h e m s e l v e s and

b o t h of b a c k g r o u n d and

t h i r d dimension, they on

provide

up

foundation

from and

By

adding

pavements.

street

first

foreground

shadowing e f f e c t s both

most p r o m i n a n t f a c a d e c o l o u r s a r e t h o s e

Looking

opportunities

i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s around a b u i l d i n g .

a

The

offer

few

level,

these

stories.

are

e a s i e s t to

see.

t h e c o l o u r s of

With a e r i a l

the

perspective:

as c o l o r s s h i f t o r f a l l back i n the distance, that which i s dark i n c r e a s e s i n v a l u e ; t h a t which i s l i g h t i n v a l u e s o f t e n s a b i t - and a l l t h i n g s e v e n t u a l l y fade into a medium light gery....In the o l d d a y s when m u l t i s t o r y b u i l d i n g s were g i v e n egg and d a r t or other decorative c o r n i c e s , t h i s ran c o n t r a r y t o the f a c t s of aerial perspective. 1 1

Once

seen,

observation people."

facades that:

colour "faces

is are

memorable,

reflected.

or h i n d e r s

for

instance,

i s a bad

vision."

or 1 3

colour.

artificial

vision

in

the g o a l they

complains that " f u n c t i o n a l l y

plays

However, Duttmann d e l i g h t s i n t h e

havoc

can

fulfill.

considered,

Where i t i s a c c o m p a n i e d by h i g h light...it

depending

White w a l l s , f o r example,

be e i t h e r a p r o b l e m o r a p l u s d e p e n d i n g on

natural

the

u n f o r g e t t a b l e - i n b u i l d i n g s as

facade c o l o u r helps

on t h e amount of l i g h t

white

to

1 2

Practically,

Birren,

leading

levels

with

intensifying

of

human effect

17

on l i g h t white

of whitewashed

"takes

on

color

t h e n p a l i n g a s t h e day and

f a c a d e s and

the

Greece

where

from the M e d i t a r r a n e a n a i r . F i r s t

goes o n , a w h i t e b r o k e n

by

sharp

warm

shadows

1

a l l , though,

underdeveloped

monochrome socially

deviant

most

invite

murals.

or

Large

1 6

urban

c o m m o t i o n s o v e r s t y l e and

of

facades

chromatic

graffiti

controversial

(1.3)

a c o n s i s t a n t theme i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e

potential

walls

debatable,

more

scale

as

easels.

elaboration, acceptable,

1 5

w a l l p a i n t i n g s a r e one

colour

topics,

Blank

whether though

spurring

is

as

still of

the

community

content.

Roofs

Atop colour

the

built

environment,

i m p r e s s i o n o f a p l a c e when

Usually

roofs

provide

viewed

from

the dominant

above

or

afar.

o p a q u e , t h e y s o m e t i m e s h a v e s k y l i g h t s and d o r m e r s o r a r e

o c c a s i o n a l l y made o f At s t r e e t sloped

glass.

level, ones,

flat

However, Vancouver,

awnings, are

an

roofs contribute less to l o c a l

whose

c o l o u r s o f t h e f a c a d e and as

the ever

seen,

changing

Hardy, a f t e r

sloping a

ones

of

the

sky.

f o r e x a m p l e a l o n g Robson S t r e e t i n

increasingly

Chromatically,

colour

hues p r o v i d e a t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

popular

way

e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o u r when r o o f hues a r e n o t

A.C.

in

r e f l e c t e d by t h e c o l o r s of i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s . " "

Above

than

pavements

roofs

systematic

of

visible.

a r e not merely study

of

supplementing

tilted

apparent

walls.

chromatic

18

discrepancies noted

between

facades

and

r o o f s o f t h e same m a t e r i a l ,

that: traditional roofs appear darker than walls. This occurs even t h o u g h p i t c h e d r o o f s c o l l e c t more d i r e c t s u n l i g h t , a n d i s an a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l e f f e c t c a u s e d by m a c r o - t e x t u r e , t h a t i s , t h e e f f e c t on s u r f a c e c o l o u r o f shadows p r o j e c t e d f r o m r o o f i n g e l e m e n t s . 1 7

Flat

roofs

sometimes

offer

the

same

opportunities

e n v i r o n m e n t a l enhancement a s p a v e m e n t s , w i t h t h e d e g r e e o f visibility surface

governing

the

amount o f a t t e n t i o n .

s c a t t e r i n g of c o l o u r e d

apartment

buildings

the

Granville

Vancouver l i n k s the r o o f s t o facades foreground

f o r passing

When

structurally

t e r r a c e s and c o l o u r e d urban the

motorists

living

give

n o t known on t h e g r o u n d . garage

i n San F r a n s i s c o , H a l p r i n

used a

Street Bridge i n a

as

unique

Citing at

orange

colourful

the scenic c i v i c

roofs

accordingly

and

provides

admiring

possible,

r o o f g a r d e n o v e r t h e new

Hotel

and

the

their

For instance, a

pebbles atop the blue

bordering

for

view.

gardens

and

dimension

to

t h e example of t h e historic

Fairmont

stresses:

Up h i g h on t h e r o o f t h e r e a r e v i e w s o v e r o t h e r b u i l d i n g s , sunsets t o s e e , a r e l a x i n g freedom from c a r s and other traffic, a p r i v a c y and i n t i m a c y w h i c h no o t h e r f a c i l i t y c a n b r i n g and w h i c h a r e d i f f i c u l t t o a c h i e v e a t s t r e e t l e v e l . 1 8

(2)

We s e e t h e forming

the

perception:

combination

built

of

environment

(1) r e g i o n s

Scale

pavements, at

and c i t i e s ;

facades

and

roofs

s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s c a l e s of (2) d i s t r i c t s ;

(3)

streets;

19

and

(4) b u i l d i n g s and d e t a i l s .

as

Boeschenstein's

Trust's in

"Expressive

P r i d e of Place

Duttmann)

Planning

related literature,

Urban C o l o u r "

(1986), the C i v i c

(1974), and U h l ' s " C o l o r

frequently

scales

c l a s s i f y n g t h e c o m p l e x i n f l u e n c e s on u r b a n

colour.

at

the

city

scale,

to

Typology"

such

In c e r t a i n p l a c e s ,

refer

such as S i e n a , with

only

colour

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d at the b u i l d i n g s c a l e . and

identity

like

mainly

the Cathedral character

to a place,

so t h a t , a s Duttmann s t r e s s e s ,

"certain

the

they

and

spot"

Indeed, Siena

1 9

occurs

contributes

colors

moods

create

This

(1981

a s a means o f

use

landmarks

such

seem t o b e l o n g t o a c e r t a i n

even h a s a c o l o u r

named

after

i t - burnt

sienna. When t h e r e Boeschenstein

i s more v a r i e t y i n s c a l e s o f c o l o u r emphasizes, a l l o w s

s c a l e s and v i s u a l l y

(2.1)

Regional

At the

this

use, t h i s , as

p e o p l e t o " r e l a t e t o a range of

unify otherwise disparate

environments."

and C i t y C o l o u r

scale, civic

c u s t o m s and c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s

e f f e c t s of l o c a l g e o l o g y , topography and c l i m a t e

distinct

urban c o l o u r ,

Traditionally, including for

and

regional

of

status.

with

produce

2 1

2 1

of b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s ,

f o r p i g m e n t s t o dye s t u c c o

special

native materials

supply

c l a y , g r a n i t e and s l a t e , as

most a c c e s s i b l e and a f f o r d a b l e , w i t h signs

to

temper

such as t h a t of J e r u s a l e m t h e G o l d e n .

the

limestone,

bricks

2 0

well

as

soils

o r woodwork, was t h e

i m p o r t e d a p p l i e d hues

Over t h e y e a r s ,

being

the combination of

indigenous b u i l d i n g s t y l e s

contributed

to

20

local

character,

a s i n t h e towns o f n o r t h e r n

t h e i r b l u i s h grey Today,

slate

however,

materials, influence

with

roofs, the

especially on

urban

facades,

increased

'anonymous'

colour

i n f l u e n c e on l o c a l c o l o u r

23

B r i t t a n y known f o r

and

even

availability concrete,

pavements. of

diverse

the geological

i s much l e s s t h a n i n t h e p a s t . I t s

i s now most e v i d e n t

o b s e r v e s i n an o v e r v i e w o f N o r t h

on r o o f s .

As R o i g t

America's environmental

colours:

P r e n o n s p a r e x e m p l e l e s t o i t s d e s m a i s o n s : l e s regions les p l u s c h a u d e s de I ' A m e r i q u e comme l a C a l i f o r n i e , l a F l o r i d e , c h o i s i r o n t des tons p a s t e l s , des tons chauds comme l e r o u g e , l'orange. P a r c o n t r e , l a preference p o u r l e s t u i l e s b l e u e s , une c o l o e u r p l u t o t f r o i d e , e s t surtout populaire au Minnesota e t dans l e Canada anglais. Dans l e s u d on a i m e r a l e r o u g e a l o r s qu'en Nouvelle-Angleterre on p r e f ^ r e r a l e s t o n s g r i s . Au Canada f r a n c ^ a i s on v e n d s u r t o u t d e s t u i l e s de couleurs s a t u r e e s , p r o u v a n t que l e s c a n a d i e n s f r a n c a i s s o n t b i e n demeures l a t i n s . 2 4

Topography

?

affects

the colour

seen

n a t u r a l backdrops t o the b u i l t environment. land

sets

surfaces

against

hillside

rocks

and

Most

soils,

usually

y e l l o w , r i c h brown, o r s h a d e s o f g r e y

addition,

and

permit

dramatic

sloping

a n d even d r a m a t i c

s i t e s e x p o s e more f a c a d e s

gradations

of t h e

black

as

France.

to overall

view

T h i s can produce

s u c h a s t h e one P o r t e r d e s c r i b e s o f

B r i x h a m h a r b o u r i n Devon: As i f t o c e l e b r a t e t h e i r c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h the sea, houses descend from t h e upper l e v e l s of p r e d o m i n a n t l y a c h r o m a t i c f a c a d e s down t o a c l i m a x o f more saturated, contrasting and v a r i e g a t e d colours on t h e h a r b o u r frontage. 2 5

of

a warm r e d , o r a n g e o r

a g r e a t e r a p p r e c i a t i o n of roof hues.

chromatic

flat

t h e b a c k g r o u n d hues

i n o n c e v o l c a n i c a r e a s s u c h a s Cap D'Agde i n s o u t h w e s t e r n In

various

notably,

t h e background blue o r grey

s k y , w h i l e s l o p i n g l a n d s e t s them a g a i n s t the

by p r o v i d i n g

21

The of

the

c l i m a t e of t h e

r e g i o n determines the extent

v e g e t a t i o n , ground cover,

w a t e r s and

and

atmosphere a g a i n s t ,

by o r t h r o u g h w h i c h e n v i r o n m e n t a l

colour

l i g h t also varies with l a t i t u d e .

In d r i e r c l i m a t e s w i t h

sunshine,

c o l o u r b e n e f i t s from

increases

the

contrast,

cooler,

colour.

a

i s seen.

lighter

amount o f b o t h d i r e c t and

As U h l

cloudier

climates

ground and

dull

quality

The

of

sparking

surface

indirect the

quality

that

light.

In

saturation

of

notes:

even intense c o l o u r s l o s e t h e i r b r i l l i a n c e i n subdued l i g h t , w h i c h i s p e r h a p s why, i n n o r t h e r n E u r o p e , light and broken hues a r e so common i n a r c h i t e c t u r e - o f f w h i t e s , l i g h t y e l l o w , o c h r e , brown, p i n k , even light b l u e and p u r p l e . 2 6

Different Toulouse the achieve

cities

' P i n k ' and

chromatic

tradition".

2 7

within Albi

identity

the

the

same r e g i o n , h o w e v e r , s u c h

'Red'

i n southwestern France

by d e c i s i o n s b a s e d on

In F l o r e n c e , McCarthy

as

"sympathy

do and

observes:

t h e o c h r e - a n d - d u n f i l e of h o t e l s and palazzi has the spruce, spare look of a r e g i m e n t drawn up i n d r i l l order. The deep s h a d e s of m e l o n and t a n g e r i n e t h a t you see i n Rome,the p i n k s of V e n i c e , t h e r o s e o f S i e n a , t h e r e d o f B o l o g n a have been r u l e d o u t of F l o r e n c e as i f by municipal decree. 2 8

Only r a r e l y , though, does a m u n i c i p a l i t y a c t u a l l y civic

colour

schemes.

Portoghesi

states: "Turin, in fact,

boast perhaps the o n l y example i n the w o r l d an

urban

scale."

2 9

There,

in

1800,

C o u n c i l of B u i l d e r s , which l a s t e d u n t i l to

develop

explains:

and

apply

a colour plan

implement can

of c o l o u r p l a n n e d

t h e M u n i c i p a l i t y s e t up 1845,

whose

purpose

f o r the e n t i r e c i t y .

on a was

Porter

22

t h e i r concept was to invest principal streets and squares c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a uniform a r c h i t e c t u r e with colours according to a co-ordinated system....The Council d e v i s e d a s e r i e s of c h r o m a t i c pathways founded upon p o p u l a r city colours. The major routes were interconnected by a network of s m a l l e r s t r e e t s and s q u a r e s f o r w h i c h s e c o n d a r y and more v r i e g a t e d colour s e q u e n c e s were p r e s c r i b e d . The b a s i c scheme e n l i s t e d around e i g h t y c o l o u r s . . . . 3 0

In

1978

the M u n i c i p a l i t y ' s

Gentili, now

set

widely

(2.2)

Supervisor

District

and

was

the

colour

subject

largely

h i s t o r y or r e s i d e n t s ' e t h n i c

and

as-

zoning

we

casually the

demonstrates

distinct

derives

that

speak

actual

of

variations

t h e d e g r e e and

restaurants

and

same t y p e of c o l o u r

'elegant'

tones,

cues

behaviour.

colour

without 3 3

varies with land

hospital

zones

c o m m e r c i a l and

3 1

activities,

as

'red

on

local

of c o l o u r use

t y p e of

often

in public

very

spaces,

d i f f e r e n t colour

i n t e r a c t i o n with

shops,

as

3

Most

have

also reports that notably,

more

areas tend

as

w e l l as banks, u s u a l l y

scheme, w h i c h i n v o l v e s m a i n l y

use. "

the

monetary t r a n s a c t i o n s , such

Boeschenstein

entertainment

light

activities.

s e e m i n g t o c o n f u s e anyone w i t h

generally

colour

neighbourhoods

based

activities

share the

to

conference.

local

such

of

study

However, s i t e s o f g r e a t e r

high-priced

Biffi

3 2

places

colour

different

schemes d e p e n d i n g on

from

background.

Foote, i n a d e t a i l e d though dry

public.

of a s p e c i a l

maps i n d i c a t e d i f f e r e n t l a n d u s e s by

districts',

concluded

Enzo

Colour.

District

coding

Housing,

up a r e s t o r a t i o n programme f o r t h i s p l a n , w h i c h i s

lauded

Just

of

subdued

cool

chromatic district

residential colours

and while

to boast b r i g h t e r hues.

23

District materials

colour

used

may

in

f o r the

derive

a particular

t e c h n o l o g y and s t y l i s t i c known

also

warm

historic

preferences.

addition,

influences

district

period,

r e d of b r i c k s d a t i n g

the

ethnic

colour

e n v i r o n m e n t a l hues o f t h e i r

predominant

r e f l e c t i n g the

when

Gastown

from t h e c i t y ' s

is

early

s e n s i t i v e to the past.

background

native

the

In Vancouver,

d a y s a n d c o m p l e m e n t e d by new s u r f a c e s In

from

they lands.

of

area

residents

continue

to

This

particularly

is

use

the

noticeable

i n , f o r example, Chinatowns f e a t u r i n g a l a v i s h use of

traditional

reds and g r e e n s .

climate, However,

At f i r s t ,

such t r a n s f e r s might the

new

profusion

B r i t i s h e x p e r i e n c e w i t h West influence paints

(2.3)

indigenous

for external

Street

residents decoration.

Both buildings desire

East to

Indian

use

unbalanced.

s t r e s s e s b a s e d on immigrants,

more b r i g h t l y

can

coloured

3 5

Colour.

actually

courtyards,

chromatically

of c o l o u r , Porter and

Street colour, according Uhl's,

appear

because of d i f f e r e n c e s i n

occurs

in

to

specific

four

kinds

typologies,

such

of

squares,

spaces:

i n t e r s e c t i o n s , and t h e a c t u a l s t r e e t s . activities

and

influence colour

the

visual

at this

3 6

relationships

scale.

3 7

between

C o l o u r may e x p r e s s a

f o r u n i f o r m i t y , a s when T a u t u r g e d i n 1929 t h a t :

t h e a e s t h e t i c s o f t h e new a r c h i t e c t u r e do n o t any s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n . . . s t r e e t a n d c o u r t y a r d , f r o n t and b a c k . 3 8

as

recognize between

24

More commonly, c o l o u r d i s t i n g u i s h e s s p a c e . for

instance, stresses

The

Civic

Trust,

that:

a s q u a r e m i g h t w e l l have a d i f f e r e n t c o l o u r theme f r o m a n e i g h b o u r i n g s t r e e t - f o r s u c h c h a n g e s of theme often coincide with c h a n g e s o f use and a c t i v i t y . . . T h e r e may be more o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r strong colours in a busy shopping s t r e e t than i n a q u i e t n e i g h b o r i n g residential street, despite the c o n t i n u i t y they h a v e on the ground. 3 9

Colour

d i s t i n c t i o n a t s t r e e t s c a l e may

overtones.

For

instance,

known f o r h i s use of

materials,

of c o l o u r

applied

of

the

the

t o d o w n p l a y t e x t u r e and

the

'kimono' p r i n c i p l e

street

through

facades

an

and

quality

for environmental There,

the

outer

a riot

with

glimpse

of e x p l o s i v e

colour

pavements,

marking

a

clear

p u b l i c u r b a n open

spaces.

i n f l u e n c e s on

colour

4 0

B u i l d i n g s and D e t a i l s .

At

the

s c a l e of b u i l d i n g s and

details,

o f t e n resemble those a f f e c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s u r f a c e s , with

personal

colour

important.

article

preferences

A basic concern

surroundings. an

the

seen i n a t e m p t i n g

arch, even

c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n p r i v a t e and

use

Tokyo.

w i t h i n the c o u r t y a r d ,

b r e a k s f o r t h on

(3.4)

symbolic

s t r e e t facade i s a r e s t r a i n e d grey to blend

n e i g h b o u r s , but from

have

J a p a n e s e a r c h i t e c t , K u n i k o Hayakawa,

c o l o u r a t Hayakawa C o u r t s h o u s i n g i n fabric

also

of i s how

property

owners

particularly

to r e l a t e a s t r u c t u r e

As

the

spokesman f o r F o s t e r A s s o c i a t e s

titled

"On

t h e Use

of C o l o u r

the

to

explains

in Buildings":

the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of b u i l d i n g s i n t h e l a n d s c a p e can be of two k i n d s : i m p o s i t i o n of t h e man-made o b j e c t on the

its in

25

landscape, o r c a r e f u l i n t e g r a t i o n o f a man-made w h i c h i s more a k i n t o t h e e a r t h . "

object

1

Boeschenstein the

colour

enliven and

s p e c i f i e s that

a distinct

i n f l u e n c e on

a t t h e s c a l e o f b u i l d i n g s and d e t a i l s i s a

surfaces,

to

further

create

contrasts."

to

p e r h a p s by h i g h l i g h t i n g a r c h i t e c t u r a l f e a t u r e s , intimate

views, often

Indeed, the C i v i c

2

desire

Trust

achieved

recommends

by s i m p l e

colour

that

s m a l l changes i n the townscape- dark, hidden c o r n e r s or shops w h i c h a r e o n l y g l i m p s e d from a main pedestrian route, o r a f o c a l p o i n t a t t h e end o f t h e s t r e e t - may o f t e n s u c c e s s f u l l y be given added significance with some really strong colour, especially i f o n l y seen fleetingly." 3

( 3 ) The R o l e s o f

on

Colour

in Place,

surfaces

whose

scales

therefore, chromatic

of p e r c e p t i o n .

environmental

occurs effect

influence

Variously

classifiable,

overlap,

provide

these

way

the

roles,

the other the plays

fundamentally, colour

natural

hues o f r e g i o n a l

foreground colours. customs a

Occuring

and

cultural

Meaningful

Role,

o v e r t i m e as w e l l

environment

acts at several d i f f e r e n t about

general although

f o r the planner

many p u r p o s e s e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o u r Most

i n the b u i l t

O v e r a l l , our d e c i s i o n s

colour

a

Colour.

the place

roles they

to 'think

it

of

plays.

frequently through' the

fulfills.

i n the

built

topography, a c t s

More s i g n i f i c a n t l y , associations speaking

a

environment,

as a B a c k g r o u n d t o often

reflecting

of communities, chromatic

as i n s p a c e , c o l o u r

like

colour

'language'.

a l s o has a T i m e l y

26

Role. at

By p r o v i d i n g

the scale

in

aiding

of s t r e e t s , c o l o u r movement.

between s u r f a c e s , the

scope

also

advertizing

by

a

mediates v i s u a l r e l a t i o n

an I l l u s o r y R o l e t o o .

Pictorial

general

i n Chapter

the symbolic,

spatial

i t plays

as c o l o u r

by l a r g e

Role,

Role

Finally,

manmade s u r f a c e s ,

thereby

given colour

contributing

to

and e n v i r o n m e n t a l a r t . these

discussed

Then,

especially

also achieves a C i r c u l a t o r y

for d e t a i l s provided

performs

For

v i s u a l c o n n e c t i o n s and c o n t i n u i t y ,

roles

3, 'Power

aesthetic

and p s y c h o l o g i c a l

to

become

in Place',

and f u n c t i o n a l

the

t h e y must

precise by

parts

tempered

v a l u e s a r i s i n g from t h e

a s p e c t s o f t h e Power o f C o l o u r .

27

Endnotes.

1

Guide

J o h n F r i e d m a n n & B a r c l a y H u d s o n , "Knowledge and A c t i o n : a t o P l a n n i n g T h e o r y " , A I P J o u r n a l , J a n u a r y , 1971, p.2

W.W. C a u d i l l , W.M. Pena & P. Kennon, A r c h i t e c t u r e and You: How t o E n j o y and E x p e r i e n c e B u i l d i n g s (New York: WatsonG u p t i l l , 1 9 7 8 ) , p.87. 2

3

Lawrence H a l p r i n , C i t i e s .

(New

York: Reinhold,

1963),

p.

City,

New

94. Bernard York: Doubleday, ft

Rudovsky, S t r e e t s 1969), p.265.

5

Halprin,

6

Tom P o r t e r , p.28.

1982), 7

Civic S u r r o u n d i n g s , 2nd.

Colour Outside

(New

Watson

Guptill,

Trust, P r i d e o f P l a c e : How t o Improve Y o u r Ed. ( L o n d o n : C i v i c T r u s t ) , 1974, p. 64^

Johannes U h l , "Color Typologies," San F r a n c i s c o : W.H. F r e e m a , 1 9 8 1 ) , p.86. Michael Foster, Ed. S t y l e , S t r u c t u r e and D e s i g n (New

in

Color

i n Townscape

The P r i n c i p l e s o f A r c h i t e c t u r e : Y o r k : Q u i l l , 1982) , p.152.

Faber B i r r e n , L i g h t , C o l o r N o s t r a n d , 1 9 8 2 ) , p.51. 1 1

York:

1979.

9

1 0

(Garden

p.92.

G u i n e s s Book o f R e c o r d s ,

8

f o r People

& Environment

(New

York:

Van

Eduard F. Sekler, Professor of V i s u a l A r t , H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y , r e v i e w i n g R o n a l d Lee Fleming's Facade S t o r i e s (New Y o r k : H a s t i n g s House, 1 9 8 2 ) . 1 2

Faber Reconsideration 1 3

Birren, "'The Off-White Epidemic': A C a l l of C o l o r , " A l A J o u r n a l , J u l y , 1977, p.66.

for a

28

1ft

M a r t i n a Duttmann, C o l o r

1 5

Especially

1 6

Nostrand,

Cullen,

Gorden Cullen, 1971).

1 7

Porter,

1 8

Halprin,

1 9

Duttmann, p.

Duttmannn, H a l p r i n The

p.32. & Porter.

C o n c i s e Townscape

(New

York:

Van

p.49. p.179.

Warren of A r c h i t e c t u r a l

32.

B o e s c h e n s t e i n , " E x p r e s s i v e Urban C o l o r , " J o u r n a l and P l a n n i n g R e s e a r c h , 3 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , p. 275.

2 0

2 1

Boeschenstein,

2 2

Porter,

2 3

Major complaint p.42.

Porter,

i n Townscape,

p.

276.

p.38. of F r e n c h

colourist,

Lenclos,

cited

in

Hubert R o i g t , La C o u l e u r , 2nd. Ed. (Arthabaska, P.Q.: E d i t i o n s P o u r g u o i Pas, 1981), p.154. ( L e t us t a k e as an example the roofs of houses: the hottest regions of America, like C a l i f o r n i a , F l o r i d a , c h o o s e p a s t e l t o n e s , hot t o n e s l i k e r e d and orange. In c o n t r a s t , the tile preference for blue, a colder c o l o u r , i s e s p e c i a l l y p o p u l a r i n M i n n e s o t a and a n g l o p h o n e Canada. In t h e s o u t h t h e y l i k e r e d but i n New E n g l a n d they prefer grey tones. In francophone Canada we s e l l , above a l l , t i l e s w i t h saturated colours, proving that French Canadians have really remained L a t i n s ) . 2 a

2 5

P o r t e r , p.115.

2 6

Uhl

2 7

Duttmann,

2 8

Mary Brace

Harcourt,

i n Duttmann, p.94-99. p.32.

McCarthy, The S t o n e s of F l o r e n c e and W o r l d , p . 1 9 6 3 ) , p.3.

(New

York:

29

2 9

1980), 3 0

Paolo P o r t o g h e s i , "Colour p. 22. P o r t e r , p.

in

Town,"

Domus,

602 ( J a n .

40.

Preliminary review by A g o s t i n o Bureca and G i o g i o Palandri, " I l Colore a Torino," B o l l e t t i n o d'Arte, 69 ( 2 8 ) p p . 107-114. 3 1

3 2

B o e s c h e n s t e i n , p.

276.

K.E. F o o t e , C o l o r i n P u b l i c S p a c e s ( C h i c a g o : o f G e o g r a p h y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 106. 3 3

3ft

B o e s c h e n s t e i n , p.

3 5

P o r t e r , p.69.

3 6

U h l , i n D u t t m a n n , p.

3 7

Boeschenstein,

Department

276.

85.

p.276.

B r u n o T a u t , D i e n e u e B a u k u n s t i n E u r o p a und A m e r i k a cited in Leonard B e n e v o l o , H i s t o r y o f Modern A r c h i t e c t u r e ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : MIT P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 ) , p.493. 3 8

3 9

C i v i c T r u s t , p.64.

Gabriele Vorreiter-Wajed, "Hayakawa A r c h i t e c t u r a l R e v i e w , 179 (March 1 9 8 6 ) , p p . 7 8 - 8 2 . 4 0

Courts",

F o s t e r A s s o c i a t e s , "On t h e Use o f C o l o u r i n B u i l d i n g s " i n Colour For A r c h i t e c t u r e , Tom P o r t e r and Byron M i k e l l i d e s , Eds. ( L o n d o n : S t u d i o V i s t a , 1 9 7 6 ) , p. 62. 4 1

4 2

Boeschenstein,

4 3

C i v i c T r u s t , p.

p.

276. 46-47.

30

C h a p t e r 2: The

Power o f

Colour,

There is little doubt that colour holds great i m p o r t a n c e i n l i f e t o d a y , and t h e more man u n d e r s t a n d s this, t h e b e t t e r w i l l c o l o u r s e r v e h i s w e l f a r e and be put t o b e n e f i c i a l u s e . 1

W h i l e our turn,

decisions

affects

emotional ever

well-being.

since

structural

the and

environmental spirits.

both

i n f l u e n c e the p l a c e our

We

perception

planning

not

image-making

distinguishing

potential

especially

when

context,

considering we

do

r e l a t e d aspects

of c o l o u r ' s

studied

to

on

of

in our

power

between

materials,

r o o f s , to scare

power

environmental

the used

away

well-being.

power:

transform

symbolic,

Together,

a e s t h e t i c and

colour

d i f f e r e n t i a t e between the the

spatial,

these

aspects

to

in two

more

t h e a p p e a r a n c e of our

t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l , more s u b j e c t i v e power

power,

and

have known of c o l o u r ' s a p p a r e n t

ancients,

colour,

i t ,

evil

2

Today,

and

environmental

of c o l o u r ,

the intereasily

surroundings

influence

our

g i v e c o l o u r much of i t s

functional values.

Bevlin stresses

saying:

L i k e n o t e s of t h e b a s i c s c a l e when e x p a n d e d into a symphony, c o l o r has s e e m i n g l y u n l i m i t e d v a r i a t i o n and enormous c a p a c i t y t o m a n i p u l a t e our e m o t i o n s . 3

this

31

(1) The Power o f C o l o u r t o T r a n s f o r m t h e A p p e a r a n c e o f Our Surroundings.

Colour's surroundings

This

to

the

transform

i t

a

the

dynamic

power d e r i v e s four

Mikellides define (1) (2) (3) (4)

to

makes

environment. related

power

appearance element

from s e v e r a l

f a c t o r s of c o l o u r

of

of the

sources,

perception.

our built

closely

P o r t e r and

these f a c t o r s as:

The S p e c t r a l E n e r g y o f t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f L i g h t . The S p e c t r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e O b j e c t . The S e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e Eye a n d B r a i n . Psycholgical Factors. 4

In p a r t i c u l a r , c h a n g i n g l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , v a r i a b l e s p e c t r a l q u a l i t i e s , an a l t e r a b l e a n g l e o f p e r c e p t i o n contribute

to visual variety.

Birren

and s y n a e s t h e s i a a l l

stresses:

it i s not j u s t that one c o l o u r another.... What h a s been l e a r n e d that variety i s , of itself, benef i c i a l .

i s better than from r e s e a r c h i s psychologically

5

Such and the

variety

aids

spatial

i s an i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f urban

Portoghesi,

scene

with

o r i e n t a t i o n by d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f o r m s sensory

chromatic

stimulation,

continuity

emphasizing the ongoing, e v o l v i n g

and

enlivening character.

nature of

'Colour

i n Town', e x p l a i n s : P s y c h o l o g i s t s t e a c h us t h a t we need t o e n j o y c h r o m a t i c sensations b u t we n e e d e s p e c i a l l y t o p e r c e i v e t h e i r c h a n g e s . And c o l o u r c h a n g e s have o f t e n been t h e r e s p o n s e t o t h e need t o renew t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . . . . 6

32

( 1 . 1 ) Changing L i g h t Natural

Conditions.

l i g h t a l t e r s the appearance of environmental colour

over time and with Environmental seasonally.

weather. colour

changes

in

For c o l o u r to be v i s i b l e , a

illumination

must

exist.

dawn's

in

north

sunset

sky

and then to white or even blue, as from

summer,

before

r e t u r n i n g to the warm glow of

and the pale rays of moonlight.

In g e n e r a l , subdued

at

during

the

day,

exposed

colours

are

most

dawn and dusk, growing b r i g h t e r i n between and even

'washing out' rise

day,

of

e s p e c i a l l y w e l l r e f l e c t e d by white s u r f a c e s , s h i f t s from

a

sunny

threshold

light,

to yellow

a

certain

natural

pinkish-orange

On

time both d i u r n a l l y and

to white i n the b r i g h t g l a r e of noon.

to a phenomenon known as ' l o c a l colour'which

This

gives

r e f e r s to the

colour we know a surface to be as opposed to c o l o u r s we a c t u a l l y see on i t . Thus, f o r example, although we know that

the

7

of

two

False

Creek

housing

clusters

i n Vancouver are r e d ,

depending on the l i g h t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , as w e l l as the quality

of the surfaces and our d i s t a n c e

might appear red, v i o l e t , yellow, places.

reflective

from them, these roofs

orange or even green

i n some

S p a r k l i n g h i g h l i g h t s might be almost white.

Throughout

the day, s u r f a c e s

facing d i f f e r e n t orientations

r e c e i v e v a r y i n g amounts of l i g h t , with s o u t h - f a c i n g if

roofs

unobscured by the shadows of other

most and n o r t h - f a c i n g ones the

least.

elevations,

s t r u c t u r e s , r e c e i v i n g the Thus,

except

at

high

noon, moving around a b u i l d i n g with the same c o l o u r treatment on

33

all

sides

r e v e a l s c o l o u r v a r i a t i o n s prompted by d i f f e r e n c e s i n

orientation. and

Depending on the complexity

of

form

and

massing

on s o l a r o r i e n t a t i o n , d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e s p e r i o d i c a l l y darken

with shadows, p r o v i d i n g three dimensional

chiaroscuro.

Then, as darkness approaches: space tends to contract, distances cannot be e f f e c t i v e l y judged, forms tend to f l a t t e n out i n t o silhouettes, d e t a i l s are l o s t , and c o l o u r s and c o l o u r values undergo r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . 8

Deep c o l o u r s tend t o melt together with a l l dark tones appearing in

brightness.

i n brightness,

t o blend

together

i f not i n hue,

and

seem

alike

Low l e v e l s of i l l u m i n a t i o n , such as moonlight,

permit the p e r c e p t i o n

of

o b j e c t s , but not c o l o u r .

shape,

movement

and

the

size

of

9

At n i g h t , environmental c o l o u r ceases to come predominantly from

l a r g e manmade s u r f a c e s , unless

Instead, lights

the main colour seen which

when emitted example,

give

from behind

distinguishes

as

windows,

basements below. colour

over

from

a golden, greenish

l i g h t s may be attached such

comes

they are s t r o n g l y

stained church

glass facades

to surfaces

skylights

or

or glass

A dramatic example of

the day-night

the array

or orangish in a at shine

appears

reverse

a

i s true.

dark,

of

city

glow, except

way

that, f o r

night.

At night,

through

openings

blocks g i v i n g l i g h t to changing

environmental

c y c l e i s the W i l l i s , Faber and Dumas

O f f i c e i n Ipswich, England, designed by Norman F o s t e r . it

floodlit.

reflective

crystal,

By day,

but, a t n i g h t , the

34

Over t h e m o n t h s , c o l o u r v a r i e s even more. on

C i t e d by

Porter

the s u b j e c t , noted French c o l o u r i s t , J e a n - P h i l l i p p e L e n c l o s ,

states: a l t h o u g h a b u i l d i n g may reflect t h e same range of colour as i t s m i n e r a l environment, i t s c o l o u r i s not static. I t e v o l v e s , s h i f t s and changes s e a s o n a l l y as a result o f c h a n g e s i n l i g h t , a i r h u m i d i t y , r a i n and drought. 1 0

A prime example of t h i s v a r i a t i o n near Barcelona fades in

by R i c a r d o

i s Walden 7, a g i a n t

Bofill.

There,

t o r e d d i s h brown i n t h e w i n t e r

the

chosen

but blossoms t o orange-red

considerably

from

winter

The f o r m e r may be c l e a r a n d c r i s p , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r in

Vancouver,

or

the

ones

are

allowing

often

d u l l and f l a t .

for the f i l t e r i n g

winter d u l l s

reflective

the e f f e c t

ground

d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t

cover

Summer g r o u n d c o v e r

of l i g h t of l i g h t . of

harder

colour,

- Lynch first

yellowish

the years, distinctive

Of c o u r s e ,

i s greener,

in

winter,

notes

that

perceptually,

haze as

colour.

more and

parts

S q u a r e , a r e known f o r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n

intense

smog

colour

dull

becomes

s u r f a c e t o n e s become

and e v e n t u a l l y b l a c k w i t h p o l l u t i o n .

Thus,

a

snow c o m b i n e s t h e e f f e c t s o f b o t h

s o l u t i o n s t o t h i s p r o b l e m have p r o v i d e d colours.

winter

t h r o u g h l e a v e s whose a b s e n c e

t o s e e , and then a c t u a l l y as o v e r a l l

whitish,

as Blue

grey

sunlight to i n t e n s i f y environmental

seasons.

environmental

i s misty,

while

Moreover, the e f f e c t s of p o l l u t i o n a r e o f t e n dry

light.

r e v e r s e may be t r u e , a s i n J a p a n .

summer s k i e s a r e u s u a l l y b r i g h t and v i b r a n t

in

colour

t h e summer s u n . Summer l i g h t may d i f f e r

in

apartment

1 1

places

Over with

of London, such as

Bedford

of p r a c t i c a l dark

facades

35

with

selective

colours

adopted

maintenance. fossil than

white

details

by

eighteenth

Today,

1 2

with

for industial

windows

century

the

fuel burning, brighter before

around

and e n t r a n c e s ,

owners

reduction

s u r f a c e hues

to

of

are

simplify

pollution more

from

practical

s i t e s such as s t e e l m i l l s which

were

previously painted black f o r protection. On o v e r c a s t d a y s , n a t u r a l l i g h t reduces c o l o u r c o n t r a s t s . c o l o u r caused of

exposed

gleam

I f the l i g h t

by shadows d i s a p p e a r .

the

iridescent

patterns

over the r e l a t i v e ' m e r i t

colours

in

such weather

as a c h r o m a t i c a d v o c a t e ,

and

the staining

them, a n d some p a v e m e n t s of

of c h r o m a t i c

conditions.

time

i s 'flat', variations in

On r a i n y d a y s ,

s u r f a c e s t e m p o r a r i l y darkens

with

differs

v a r i e s l e s s over

o i l slicks. versus

Bruno T a u t ,

Opinion

achromatic

f o r instance,

wrote:

In an o l d s t r e e t i n Magdeburg h a l f a l r e a d y p a i n t e d and h a l f l e f t g r e y , i t was p o s s i b l e t o see on a r a i n y day how the painted half possessed plastic and t r u l y m a t e r i a l l i f e w h i l e t h e g r e y p a r t seemed a disturbing and a b s t r a c t g h o s t . 1 3

Wilhem H a u s e n s t e i n , f o r example, s t r e s s e s t h a t poor actually

accentuates

P a r i s t o "a

painting

achromatic of

infinite

colour. grey,

Poetically grey

in

weather comparing

grey",

observes: the g r e y o f d a r k a n d c l o u d y , even r a i n y d a y s d o e s n o t s u b t r a c t a t a l l from t h e e f f e c t . On t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e R h i n e i t s o m e t i m e s d r i v e s us t o d e s p e r a t i o n ; n o t here....The greys of the b u i l d i n g s r e t i r e behind a screen of grey air....How lividly white Notre Dame stands i n t h e r a i n , an a p p a r i t i o n wrapped i n a s o f t grey web. 1 4

he

36

I r o n i c a l l y , - the destroys

i t as

same

part

of

a p p l i e d c o l o u r , which colour

light

that

weathering.

fades

and

reveals

colour

Generally,

peels,

more

also

this affects

than

intrinsic

although i r o n r u s t s , copper takes on a green p a t i n a and,

as Faulkner warns, in the choice of stone account must be taken of the changes wraught by time. Some kinds of stone become very dark, others bleach, some w i l l show b e a u t i f u l time s t a i n s , others remain c o l d . 1 5

Reactions

to

the chromatic v a r i e t y produced by weathering

include acceptance as a efforts

sign

of

time,

repeated

restoration,

to o v e r s t a t e a p p l i e d hues with emulsion p a i n t , and even

symbolic c e l e b r a t o n ,

as i n Greek v i l l a g e s where:

the annual r i t u a l of limewashing houses and pavements acts as a kind of r e b i r t h . Paint r e d e f i n e s the c l o s e working r e l a t i o n s h i p of i n t e r - p e r s o n a l spaces, with p r o g r e s s i v e l a y e r s of pigment s o f t e n i n g the corners of form and welding v e r t i c a l to h o r i z o n t a l . 1 6

(1.2)

Variable Spectral Q u a l i t i e s . A

surface's

a b i l i t y to absorb, r e f l e c t or transmit

a l s o a l t e r s the colour difference details

between

blur

dimensional

over retinal

seen.

These

surfaces

with

distance, image

similar

help

into

of

materials.

Colour

the

mark

the

c o l o u r , and, since

eye

convert

three-dimensional

about the nature of space i n general particular.

characteristics

light,

and d i s t a n c e and

a

two-

information depth

in

seen v a r i e s with both the type and texture

37

Many urban c o l o u r s since

building

structural are

metallic,

or

well

and s t o n e b o t h

hues

variations.

the

built

environment

composition

paving

The

and

certain

include copper

to a i r . the gold

with

therefore,

serve

comes

for

example,

a l l i n many

stones

in

i n manufacturing. range

shades.

no two b l o c k s a r e

frequently

and p u r p l e ; brown

many

blue,

steel

of

and well

different

seen

in

for

as

for

hues;

grey, purple, metals on

i n white,

r e d ; marble, in

chips

sandstone

and g r e e n ; and s l a t e ,

girders

Prevalent

as

limestone,

in

used most

g r e e n and r e d .

are often facades,

shiny, or

as w i t h

altered

by

m e t a l l i c hues, e s p e c i a l l y on r o o f s ,

o f a n o d i z e d aluminum and t h e r e d d i s h

which l a t e r

colours

often

Brick

too, since

facades

colours

stainless

exposure

colours,

settings.

colours

red, black

in black,

natural

their

i n c l u d e : g r a n i t e , e s p e c i a l l y on pavements

roofs, a l l in

on r o o f s ,

but,

a r e u s u a l l y of the e a r t h ,

Amsterdam,

cream, p i n k ,

w h i t e , cream, y e l l o w , often

in

i n grey, pink

grey, yellow,

for

applied

These m a t e r i a l s ,

Some o f t h e s u r f a c e

facades,

ornamental

chosen

other

earth

to natural

has d i s t i n c t i v e

identical.

buff,

colours

and r e d t o brown and v i o l e t ,

ever

also

value,

materials,

d e p e n d i n g on t h e t y p e o f c l a y u s e d

from y e l l o w

but

primarily

display

r e s u l t i n g hues, a s seen

Stone

to their

1 7

to relate surfaces

many The

Intrinsic

concrete.

surface

are

than e x p r e s s i v e

added.

Brick minute

materials

rather

often

are i n t r i n s i c

d a r k e n s and t u r n s

green.

bronze

of

38

Glass

comes

in

almost

translucent, or opaque. preserves

colour

An

every enduring

hue

and

material,

Faulkner, for example, c i t e s the

window

in

it

became

Since

as

it

fashionable

intentionally reproduced. Concrete,

usually

case

of

clear

Boston which, because i t contained manganese,

turned v i o l e t over time. Boston,

glass

i n d e f i n i t e l y , with exceptions gaining special

significance. glass

is either clear,

Foster

came and

to the

represent

'Old'

coloured

effect

18

explains,

has

a

poor

chromatic

reputation: though surrounded by much evidence to the contrary, most of us s t i l l tend to think of concrete as invariably grey, d i r t y and stained: the epitome of soul-destroying u g l i n e s s . 19

In defence of such Association

has

a

maligned, product,

the

Portland

Cement

published a pamphlet t i t l e d Colour and

Texture

in Architectural Concrete which promises that concrete

has

texture and color to satisfy the esthetic and functional needs of modern architecture...[with the] spectrum of color ranging from the icy blues of c r y s t a l l i n e quartz, through delicate pastels to the flaming reds of vitreous and ceramic decorative aggregates. 20

However, despite this p u b l i c i t y , Foster i n s i s t s : attempts to achieve a significant difference in the colour...by the addition of pigments has not been very successful: time and exposure result in fading. The shades of grey, however, can be brightened by using white cement, s i l v e r sand and a near-white granite when making up the concrete. 21

If

the

intrinsic

colour

of

materials is displeasing or

inappropriate, applied colour adds a protective and finish.

Plaster

identifying

and stucco, naturally grey or white depending

39

on

t h e hue o f t h e sand u s e d , may

coloured other

sand

colours

vernacular

of may

pigments. be

buildings

is

and i s n o t s u b j e c t Materials

opportunities instance,

g l a s s or stone,

called

unevenly,

mosaics

f a c a d e s as t r a d i t i o n a l

as those

t e r r a c o t t a and, of c o u r s e ,

nearly

unlimited

bright

layers

texture, 2 3

coarse

appears

Tactile

and f i n e .

darker

skins

colours

offer

Mosaics,

from s a m l l

When t h e

reflective

for

p i e c e s of glass

quality

Environmental

Orvieto

with

colour

Cathedral

and

U n i v e r s i t y of Mexico's paints

environment with

both

tactile

texture,

as

library.

and p i g m e n t s come i n

a

Given

concrete,

colour.

and v i s u a l ,

which e x p r e s s e s by b e i n g

t h e same l i g h t i n g

and more s a t u r a t e d

such as s h u t t e r e d as

and

variation.

nature of the m a t e r i a l , a f f e c t s c o l o u r and

2 2

s e l e c t i o n of hues, o f f e r i n g f u r t h e r c h o i c e s f o r

the b u i l t

seen.

clear

of

Tiles,

colour

suits

on pavements b u t a l s o a p p e a r s on

as those of the N a t i o n a l

Surface

s o l a r heat,

s e t i n mortar.

modern

enlivenling

as the

gradations.

occurs

of

such

distinctive tesserae,

coating

areas

i t has a h i g h l y v a l u e d

usually

with

in

surface

many s h a d e s and s u b t l e c o l o u r from

traditional

best

f o r d e t a i l e d chromatic their

integrally

t o s u c h bad w e a t h e r . "

forming

gain

splits

the

works

M e d i t e r r a n e a n where i t " r e f l e c t s light

coloured

Limewash, o r w h i t e w a s h , t o w h i c h

added, and

be

further

alters

something of the rough or

conditions,

on rough o r c o a r s e

t h a n on smooth o r f i n e

smooth colour

surfaces,

surfaces

p o l i s h e d marble. Verity explains: rough t e x t u r e s g i v e more v i s u a l vibrancy to colour, b e c a u s e t h e y g i v e v a r i e t y o f t o n e v a l u e t h r o u g h uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l i g h t , whether i n s m a l l s c a l e [ a s i n a gravel p a t h ] o r i n t h e l a r g e r s c a l e o f r u s t i c a t i o n on a building. " 2

such

40

Visual

t e x t u r e , which gives a s p e c i a l q u a l i t y

d i s t i n g u i s h e s , most n o t a b l y , and

transparent.

d i f f u s e l y while specularly,

Matt

polished

between d u l l a n d s h i n y , a n d surfaces

and

surfaces

and

so t h a t c o l o u r s l o o k d a r k e r

reflected

from a g l o s s y s u r f a c e

Surfaces

letting

light

to the l i g h t ,

than

opaque

matt

paints

reflect

gloss

paints

reflect

a n d more s a t u r a t e d when

from

through a l s o tend

a

matt

t o look

surface. lighter

2 5

than

opaque o n e s .

(1.3)

A l t e r a b l e Angle of P e r c e p t i o n . A

third

environment

source is

moves t h r o u g h

a

of

changing

angle

variety

in

the

built

of p e r c e p t i o n

as t h e viewer

t h e l o c a t i o n of a s u r f a c e

i n the v i s u a l

space.

With normal v i s i o n , field

chromatic

d e t e r m i n e s how much c o l o u r we s e e .

P o r t e r and

Mikellides

explain: at t h e edge o f o u r v i s u a l f i e l d , t h e o b j e c t w o u l d appear grey. Then, a s i t moved a c r o s s , i t s blueness f o l l o w e d by i t s y e l l o w n e s s w o u l d become a p p a r e n t . I t s red a n d g r e e n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w o u l d a p p e a r o n l y when the o b j e c t approaches the centre of our f i e l d of vision. 2 6

This

perceptual

discussed

by

process

Bacon

in

appears

2 7

With

r e i n f o r c e the t r a d i t i o n ,

The D e s i g n o f C i t i e s ,

landmark b u i l d i n g s w i t h s t r o n g e r surroundings.

to

impaired

of h i g h l i g h t i n g

c o l o u r s t h a n t h e i r more s u b d u e d v i s i o n , only b r i g h t c o n t r a s t s of

colour are v i s i b l e . In a d d i t i o n , there a r e c o l o u r c a n be o b s e r v e d :

four

points

of

view

from

which

41

walking down a s t r e e t we s e e c o l o u r s u r f a c e s f r o m t h e s i d e , from the front, from below o r from above, depending on how f a s t we w a l k a n d what a t t r a c t s o u r interest. 2 8

The

viewer's

chromatic for

proximity to a

appearance

of

e x a m p l e , have d e c o r a t e d

visible

surface

also

our surroundings. facades

with

influences

the

V e n t u r i and Rauch, 'auto'

t o m o t o r i s t s as w e l l as t o p e d e s t r i a n s .

scale

murals

Furthermore,

2 9

the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of v i s u a l e v e n t s o r whole o b j e c t s causes them t o u n d e r g o p e r c e p t u a l change. For e x a m p l e , two c o l o u r s p l a c e d s i d e by s i d e may a p p e a r t o change t h e i r hue. T h e i r r e s p e c t i v e l i g h t w a v e l e n g t h s have n o t a l t e r e d , but t h e b r a i n i s affected in i t s perception. 3 0

In

a d d i t i o n , g l a s s c u r t a i n w a l l s show some o f t h e g r e a t e s t

chromatic

c h a n g e s w i t h an a l t e r a b l e a n g l e

of p e r c e p t i o n :

g l a s s w a l l s metamorphose t h r o u g h t h r e e s t a g e s : opaque and solid f r o m a d i s t a n c e , t h e y b e g i n t o m i r r o r what i s o p p o s i t e them a s we move c l o s e r u n t i l , finally, when we a r e s t a n d i n g d i r e c t l y b e f o r e them, t h e y grow t r a n s p a r e n t and r e v e a l what i s b e h i n d t h e m . 3 1

(1.4)

Synaesthesia.

Finally,

through synaesthesia,

the production

of

sense i m p r e s s i o n

by s t i m u l u s o f a n o t h e r s e n s e , c o l o u r

the

of

appearance

our surroundings

w e i g h t , and d e p t h of v a r i o u s s u r f a c e s . of v a r i o u s c o l o u r s ef f e c t s .

i s particularly

a

transforms

by a l t e r i n g a p p a r e n t The a p p a r e n t

important

mental

size,

temperature

i n producing

these

42

Some

chromatic

traditionally upon

which

end

of t h e

eye

less

research deeper

as an a t t r i b u t e of hue. t h e eye

more c l e a r l y

by S i v i k tones

focuses,

focuses,

are

appearing

warmer

seem as warm as p a l e

and

at

orange

heavier

violet,

the

cool

l i g h t and

advance, w h i l e c o o l p a l e ones tend

Power of C o l o u r

Colour's moods and it.

power

behaviour,

As w i t h any

pleasure

and

submission. favorable T h u s , an

not,

understanding

interested

dimensions:

on

we

and

However, with

Thus, deep

3 2

appear

colours

seem

of our

the

and of

in

non-arousal; dominance

and

effect

is

overall

a p p r o a c h or a v o i d the the

stimulus. planner

stresses:

the u l t i m a t e r e a s o n f o r any s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y of c o l o r i s t o l e a r n how t o u t i l i z e color so as t o have a p r e d i c t a b l e e f f e c t on people. 3 3

to

r e a c t i o n , to

respond to c o l o u r

feelings

Ball

Apparent

in particular

of c o l o u r ' s d i m e n s i o n s h e l p s cities.

larger,

Weil-Being.

well-being,

arousal

whether

either

in 'liveable'

the

recede.

s t i m u l u s , we

displeasure;

end.

c o o l hued o n e s .

d e r i v e s from the n a t u r e

Depending or

to

t o i n f l u e n c e our

t e r m s of t h r e e e m o t i o n a l

on w h i c h

relevant,

surfaces

t o I n f l u e n c e our

environmental

yellow,

red.

d e p t h c h a n g e s t o o , as warm, d a r k o r s a t u r a t e d

(2) The

and

than p a l e r t i n t s .

dark c o l o u r e d

than

others,

seem t o f o r m t h e warm

shows t h a t s a t u r a t i o n i s a l s o

S p a t i a l l y , warm and longer,

Red,

s p e c t r u m , w h i l e g r e e n , b l u e and clearly

g r e e n may

c o l o u r s seem warmer o r c o o l e r t h a n

43

However, evaluation

many

of

personality contexts.

subjective

colour

and

perception,

previous

In g e n e r a l ,

factors complicate including

experience

regarding

the o b j e c t i v e

with

aspects

colour

of

i n various

personality, Birren

states:

emotionally responsive persons w i l l react freely to c o l o r ; i n h i b i t e d m o r t a l s may be s h o c k e d o r e m b a r r a s s e d by i t ; restricted and detached types may be unaffected. 3

Age

i s one o f t h e more p r e d i c t a b l e v a r i a b l e s o f

Children,

until

'dominant' twenty

five,

on

than

3 6

colour

with

shift

The

vision

a

most

famous

people

inform

example

cited

art

students

had

attitudes

to

colour

while

architecture

students

environmental

colour

as

to

trained

showed t h a t

Despite

eye

differently

3 7

evaluate

very

colour

often

secondaries

of

bright

it

study,

more

the

differntly

this

than

paintings

Margaret

found beauty

that

George

impersonal last

term

ugliness

from l a y p e o p l e .

than u n a l i k e ,

general

St.

and

or

colour

the

t h e many v a r i a t i o n s i n i n d i v i d u a l c o l o u r

a g r o u p p e o p l e a r e more a l i k e

our

perceptual

consider

objective

Sivik

about

Cathedral.

to

to

us

lose

and r e l y

s e r i e s of

o f t h e f a c a d e o f Rouen

frequently

are

t h e age o f a b o u t

colours,

we p r e f e r

the

respond

experience.

s t a r t s t o b l u r and we s l o w l y

than

addition,

In

years,

Until

3 5

age i s Monet's c e l e b r a t e d

the colours

professionally public.

as

experience

In

half

'dominant.'

t o d i s t i n g u i s h tones,

surroundings.

depicting

form

and a

we u s u a l l y p r e f e r d i s t i n c t Then,

ability

more

t h e age o f f o u r

more

primaries. the

a

of

3 8

response,

permitting

colour

44

i n c r e a s i n g l y to

be

mainly

interior

involve

used

therapeutically. colour,

such

uses

c o l o u r outdoors i n the

built

environment s t i l l a f f e c t s us s i g n i f i c a n t l y pleasure

(2.1)

3 9

While

in terms of

arousal,

and c o n t r o l .

Colour and Most

Arousal

immediately,

l e v e l s of p h y s i c a l and

colour

has

the power to arouse

mental a c t i v i t y

in the viewer.

varying

As

Birren

explains: human beings w i l l react whether they like color not. Reason or emotion may not enter into matter... responses are frequently involuntary automatic.

or the and

40

Colour,

in conjunction

with l i g h t , has

o v e r a l l unconscious responses. centrifugal

force

the power to t r i g g e r

B i r r e n d i s t i n g u i s h e s between

of warm c o l o u r s

such as crimson or peach

the c e n t r i p e t a l force of c o o l c o l o u r s

l i k e turquoise

Warm c o l o u r s , e s p e c i a l l y i n c o n j u n c t i o n exert

a

centrifugal

force

causes

an

source

of

bright

light

Without human v o l i t i o n ,

increase

a t t r a c t i o n to the stimulus,

and and

in

muscular

a tendancy to lean v i v i d colour.

a r o u s a l occurs as r e s p i r a t i o n rate., heart and

cortical

with b r i g h t

(brain) a c t i v i t y

increase.

light,

an

towards

the

General autonomous

contrast,

pressure cooler

and

dimmer l i g h t have a c e n t r i p e t a l a c t i o n , away from

body

and

towards

physiological

reactions.

viewer,

that

the

optical

hues

the

4 1

tension,

a c t i o n , blood In

and

jade.

which d i r e c t s a c t i o n away from

viewer towards the evironment. stimulation

and

the

produces

the

the

opposite

45

The

e f f e c t s of each force promote s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t i e s .

tension,

excitement

and

warmth

usually

aroused by warm hues

encourage muscular e f f o r t , a c t i o n , awareness of surroundings a cheerful s p i r i t . places

where

resting

Thus, B i r r e n recommends using warm

manual

and

visual

concentration

better

tasks or

and

mental

suit

a

sports tasks

take p l a c e . requiring

hues

correspond

in

energetic

to

in

good

inward

c o l d coloured environment, where

coolness, as w e l l as reducing a n x i e t y . hues

and

However,

those hues u s u a l l y produce f e e l i n g s of w e l l - b e i n g , calmness

warm

The

and

T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between

areas and c o o l e r ones in q u i e t e r ones

Boeschenstein's

observation

that:

"residential

neghborhoods g e n e r a l l y have more subdued c o l o u r s than commercial districts, zones.

and

hospitals

are

more

muted

than

entertainment

2

( 2 . 2 ) Colour

and

Pleasure.

In a d d i t i o n to s t i m u l a t i n g , a u t o m a t i c a l l y , d i f f e r e n t

levels

of p h y s i c a l and mental a c t i v i t y , colour a l s o , more s u b j e c t i v e l y , stirs

f e e l i n g s of pleasure

emotions aroused.

and

displeasure

depending

on

the

Bevlin explains:

Each of us brings to the p e r c e p t i o n of v i s u a l s t i m u l i a c o l l e c t i o n of experiences, a s s o c i a t i o n s and memories that may be t r i g g e r e d by a given c o l o r . . . . c o l o r may evoke a strong response, pleasant or unpleasant, even i f the viewer does not understand the reason for the response. 4 3

The

earliest

psychological

response focused on p r e f e r e n c e s .

research

Most

on

notably,

human when

colour Bullough

46

studied of

"The ' P e r c e p t i v e

Single

towards colour

colour

but

likes

by c o l o u r s

discovered

depending

The on

'character'

group

by

hues

or

that

attribute

necessarily

and

Peterson,

bright

them

and

dislike

The ' p h y s i o l o g i c a l ' a r e soothing

appear

warming,

colours

to

or

or

somehow d a z z l i n g or

find

positive

mind,

pleasing while

negative

the

traits

power o f

stress that,

'gay',

and

authors

refer to actual research,

deep

blue

colour.

independent "yellow

Ackerman of m a t e r i a l

and

'sombre'.""

However, few

5

perhaps because

red...are

most

studies

power t o e x c i t e e m o t i o n s and f e e l i n g s c o n c e n t r a t e

two-dimensional colour

to

people.

called

of c o l o u r ' s

like

has e m o t i o n a l e f f e c t s : black

attitudes

e x p l a i n i n g how or why, t h e l i t e r a t u r e

f o r example,

form, c o l o u r

different

brought

f r e q u e n t l y mentions the p l e a s u r a b l e and

Appreciation

The ' o b j e c t i v e ' g r o u p

group

associations

a s though t h e y were

Without

4

seem s t i m u l a t i n g ,

'associative'

the

four

mixed or foggy.

that

displeased

disturbing.

i n the A e s t h e t i c

and d i s l i k e s . "

they a r e d u l l ,

are

colours

he

because they a r e s a t u r a t e d

because pleased

Colours",

Problem'

seen

indoors

where fewer v a r i a b l e s

on

affect

perception. Wright colour

and R a i n w a t e r ,

and e m o t i o n s

dimensions

in

depends m a i n l y

in

feeling

f o r example, made a n o t a b l e

which

they

identified

e x c i t e d by c o l o u r :

(1)

six

on l i g h t n e s s and, t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t ,

depends on d a r k n e s s and b l u e n e s s ;

depends on c o l o u r

darkness;

(5)

principal

happiness,

warmth, w h i c h depends on hue, e s p e c i a l l y r e d n e s s ; which

s t u d y of

which

on hue; (2)

(3)

calmness,

(4) f o r c e f u l n e s s , which

showiness,

which

depends

on

47

saturation, elegance,

and,

to

University,

two Sweden,

and

displeasing focus

the Smith's

emotional

overwhelming

claustrophobia,

enclosed

that

social

a

sense

this

or

blacker

factor

Emotionally,

respond

friendly

to r e f l e c t

The

Goteborg Sheffield

colour.

external

Sivik's

colour

factors.

we

darker

chromatic o p p o s i t e hue

of

synaesthesic the

is

house,

vulgar

or

Sivik

Sivik

to

of

the

more

4 8

'taste'; cultured,

showed t h a t Stronger

4 9

c o l o u r as b e i n g b e a u t i f u l

warm o r c o l d . found

or

Preferences

that yellow through

a r e a between g r e e n and a r e a s , between r e d and

or

effects.

buildings."

o r common.

exciting.

terms

intimacy

what i s o f t e n c a l l e d

colour

o r h o s t i l e , and

familiarity.

on

Spatial pleasure

inviting on

in

a clear co-variation with saturation. most

the

or

unusual

c o l o u r s a r e , above a l l ,

ugly,

of

evaluate colour

of

concerns

e x c i t i n g , and

f a c t o r has

of

r e s e a r c h on t h e p l e a s i n g

depends

i s , whether e n v i r o n m e n t a l

calming

4 6

Smith

i s p e r c e i v e d t h e s p a c e between t h e

The

with

4 7

such

"the

that

work e x a m i n e s c o l o u r as an e l e m e n t

displeasure,

In p a r t i c u l a r ,

as

so

Lars Sivik

of

show t h a t we

s o c i a l and

hue,

environmental

connotations

S i v i k ' s experiments spatial,

Dr.

(6)

l i g h t n e s s ; and

elegance.

Peter

of

on

and

have done o r i g i n a l

aspects

on

while

Dr.

environmental a e s t h e t i c s .

of

saturation

psychologists,

U n i v e r s i t y , England,

buildings

extent,

d e e p e r b l u e comes g r e a t e r

However,

studies

lesser

w h i c h d e p e n d s on

g r e a t e r and

and

a

red

or

tend and

y e l l o w a r e most p l e a s i n g . blue

and

between

blue

48

and green are l i k e d l e s s , except f o r the l i g h t e s t c o l o u r s .

Pure

grey and g r e y i s h b u i l d i n g s are d i s p l e a s i n g , with black l i k e d the least.

5 0

Indeed, that

black

sometimes

Blackfriars

it

However,once third. Sivik

displeasure.

5 3

a

Neighbours

showed

colours

blue

such

it

a

risky

environmental

Residents

painted

in

acordance

that

prolonged

changes who

exposure

connotations intensely

who

simply

colour saw

on

of

to

a

of

blocks.

the blue facades came to l i k e them,

only heard of the blue housing or saw

photographs

However, r e s i d e n t s of

came

"to

stomach"

these

As a r e s u l t , S i v i k concluded that "people do adjust to house

colours

if

they

do

not b a s i c a l l y d i s l i k e

5

the

"people c o n s i d e r i t

s e l f - e v i d e n t that c o l o u r i s an important f a c t o r

i n environmental

5 5

While S i v i k ' s work concentrates on p s y c h o l o g i c a l colour,

Smith focuses p h y s i o l o g i c a l aspects too.

to h i s f i n d i n g s , the b r a i n ' s r e a c t i o n different

and

shade

apartment

c o l o u r as s u c h . " " O v e r a l l , S i v i k found that

to

certain

pleasure

disliked

their

pale v i o l e t and grey b u i l d i n g s never

design."

i t s name.

green, the number of s u i c i d e s decreased

of i t continued to r e g i s t e r deep d i s l i k e .

unusual

with

i n the l a b o r a t o r y , came to love i t once f a m i l i a r strange

but others who

colours.

colour.

5 2

also

metallic

was

repainted

environmental

with

make

51

Bridge i n London, f o r example, used to a t t r a c t many

s u i c i d e s when

by a

has d e p r e s s i n g and dramatic c o n n o t a t i o n s ,

to

colour

s e c t i o n s : the neocortex and the l i m b i c

responses According

involves system

two

( i n the

49

mid-brain for

and b r a i n stem).

conscious

subtle

rational

colours

thinking,

which

are

In

contrast,

'sophisticated'.

responsible f o r generating to

The n e o c o r t e x ,

which i s

responsible

" i s responsive

t o t h e more

described the

emotional

as

limbic

'cerebral' system,

or

which i s

r e s p o n s e , h a s two a t t i t u d e s

colour: f i r s t i t i s responsive to high chroma, brightness, shine, and g l i t t e r for their exotic quality; their sheer impact potential. Secondly, i t ascribes symbolic meaning t o c e r t a i n h i g h chroma c o l o u r s : a s y m b o l i c programme w i t h a r c h e t y p a l o r i g i n s . 5 6

Each s e c t i o n of the b r a i n r e g i s t e r s aesthetic the

first

pleasure. three

(2) c o m p l e x i t y (2).

Fourth

The n e o c o r t e x

'orders'

different

type

r e s p o n d s t o what S m i t h

o f a e s t h e t i c s : (1) b a l a n c e

and p a t t e r n ; and (3) a

order

a

combination

of

calls

a n d harmony; of

(1)

and

a e s t h e t i c s concerns the l i m b i c system:

the p l e a s u r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f a mass of d e t a i l w h i c h b y - p a s s e s t h e r a t i o n a l classification process because of i t s f e v e r i s h c o m p l e x i t y . Usually such p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e s p i c e d w i t h b r i g h t c o l o u r and high p o l i s h . 5

7

Aesthetically, analogy, balance t h a t of sound. panorama, way

we

balance

and harmony a r e n o t synonymous.

i n v o l v e s the synaesthesia Whether o b s e r v i n g

a

local

n o t i c e the colour to area

of w e i g h t and harmony mural

or

an

urban

r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n such a

that: when c o l o u r s a t u r a t i o n i s e q u a t e d w i t h a r e a , i t may be reasonable t o suggest t h a t the greyed colours over l a r g e areas e s t a b l i s h balance w i t h b r i g h t c o l o u r s over much s m a l l e r e x p a n s e s . 5 8

By

50

Townscapes at

work.

popularly

Analyzing

labeled

Honfleur,

'picturesque'

f o r example, S m i t h

reveal

balance

states:

The m a j o r i t y of b u i l d i n g s a r e b o t h r o o f e d and walled with slate, imposing s t r a i g h t a w a y a u n i t y of c o l o u r and t o n e as w e l l as t e x t u r e , s i n c e slates are of a regular size. This l a r g e a r e a of subdued b l u e - g r e y c o l o u r c o n t r a s t s w i t h the more strident colours and t o n e s of t h e b o a t s a g a i n s t t h e q u a y s i d e . The water i n the harbour represents a t h i r d element w h i c h e c h o e s the muted c o l o u r s of the h o u s e s . Thus t h e r e a r e t h r e e d i s t i n c t bands of c o l o u r and t o n e which may be r o u g h l y schematically depicted in terms of colour to area relationship. 5 9

Such

knowledge

especially scenic

are

difference

to planners

harmony

i s appealing not

dominance". are

materials,

Porter

'contrast'. distinct

6 1

but

but,

p r a i s e s Moon and colour

harmony:

a d v a n t a g e s and

inducing

colour

route

providing

but

with

change.

well,

'identity ,

firms

specializing

1

6 2

well

not

in large

a

is

t r y to convey

a

least

so much

two is

regarding

entities sufficient

as

schemes

to

'identity', include

colour

colour

colour building

for

three

'similarity', the

and

achromatics,

mood.

involving colours spaced

cause

for

Spencer's p r o p o s a l s

values

Alexander advocates

architectural often

"at

conveys a d i f f e r e n t

i s monochromatic,

same hue

that

urban s c a l e

between which t h e r e

E a c h t y p e of harmony may

'Identity'

to

with

Classification

6 0

controversial,

of d i s t i n c t

nearly

and

the

B.C.

proportion

identical

at

in places

to d i s p e l u n c e r t a i n t y ,

excessive

or

balance

image, f o r example, W h i s t l e r ,

which

has

chromatic

pertinent

Harmony

kinds

of

of

the

and

i t as

the

harmony".

63

same

chromas "safest Applied

t r a d e m a r k of c e r t a i n a r c h i t e c t u r a l s c a l e p r o j e c t s s u c h as

Taller

de

51

Arquitectura

in Spain,

i s s o p h i s t i c a t e d and

elegant,

calm

and

soothing. 'Similarity' example,

green

'similarity'. confined

involves and

a

use

t o e i t h e r the hot

'Contrast', distinctly and

yellow-green.

Such

pleasing, soothing

and

of

or

hues.

variations

cool

6 5

The

most

complementary c o l o u r s , other

on

the c o l o u r

In

addition

hues, g e n e r a l l y

spectrum,

is

prevent

and

monotony.

r a t e of

usually

is vital,

r e f e r s to colours

stimulating located

to

of see

related

contrast

occurs

betwen

directly

opposite

each

wheel. to

complexity

originality

stress

T h i s harmony i s i n t e r e s t i n g

those

registering

harmony, t h e n e o c o r t e x chromatic

for

use.

i n which balance

different

Tonal

6 4

a common hue,

three adjacent

the

easy to

sharing

d o e s " e n l i v e n t h e e f f e c t o f a g r o u p of more c l o s e l y

colours".

and

colours

and

also

appreciates

pattern.

variety,

pleasure

from

the

Complexity,

tension

information across

r a t i o of n o v e l t y a given

and

between

involves novelty,

t o e n l i v e n the b u i l t

Both a high

balance

setting.

environment to

and

familiarity

T h u s , as

explains: The bare white walls of Rudoph Schwarz's Fronleichnamskirche, Aachen a r e s t i l l c o m p l e x b e c a u s e they represent such a radical departure from the church norm. The [ m o n o c h r o m a t i c and s c u l p t u r e d ] west F r o n t of S t r a s b o u r g C a t h e d r a l , on t h e o t h e r hand, is c o m p l e x on t h e l e v e l of i t s r a t e of i n c i d e n t . 6 6

Smith

52

Environments

which are complex on both counts, as i n P a r i s

at the Centre Georges

Pompidou

which

bristles

with

brightly

coloured ducts and vents against a more subdued backdrop, have a distinct

attention-getting

shock

value

suited

to

certain

landmarks a t t r a c t i n g l a r g e numbers of people. Pattern counteracts by

providing

generation

the s t i m u l a t i n g e f f e c t s

of a e s t h e t i c response d e r i v e s from

by p a t t e r n r e c o g n i t i o n .

at

scale

of

a

single

6 7

Much of the

the

satisfaction

Chromatic p a t t e r n occurs

surface

both

and throughout the b u i l t

environment, l i n k i n g spaces and s t r u c t u r e s of and

complexity

coherence and c l a r i t y of p e r c e p t i o n .

achieved the

of

different

styles

dimensions. Most f r e q u e n t l y , l a r g e - s c a l e p a t t e r n , which Smith l i k e n s to

environmental

'rhyme',

element of design, type,

involves

such as c o l o u r .

surfaces

sharing

Colours

may

be

a

similar the

same

f o r i n s t a n c e , matt i n s t e a d of g l o s s y , or a c t u a l l y the same

hue.

Colour

also

aids

dimensional

co-ordination

when used

p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y to l i n k the dimensions or l e v e l s of a s t r u c t u r e . T h i s may be as simple warning

as

paving

stones

of

contrasting

hues

of changes i n e l e v a t i o n or as complex as a g l a s s facade

r e f l e c t i n g an older b u i l d i n g using addition, literally,

colour through

figuratively,

by

contributes related expressing

to and

s i m i l a r surface c o l o u r s . the

In

'tone' of a p l a c e , both

contrasting

the p e r c e i v e d

and

status of a part of

the b u i l t environment i n r e l a t i o n t o the e n t i r e perhaps, f o r example, as g a r i s h or r e f i n e d .

qualities,

urban

setting,

53

When pattern,

balance we

pleasure.

and

also

harmony are present with complexity and

experience

a

principle".

and

which

simple

Granville for

of

"perhaps

aesthetic

the highest

6 8

f o u r t h 'order' of a e s t h e t i c pleasure provides simpler,

more sudden environmental enjoyment. system

'order'

Smith c o n s i d e r s t h i s combination

m a n i f e s t a t i o n of the a e s t h e t i c The

third

the

limbic

" r e a c t s p l e a s u r a b l y to e x o t i c c o l o u r s , b r i g h t n e s s rhythm."

Island

attracting

satisfaction

This involves

Chromatic

places

like

s a t i s f y t h i s need and are an important

reason

69

the

public.

vibrancy

Smith

i s v i t a l t o the urban

in

argues

that

limbic

scene:

Cities are kept alive by t h e i r Times Squares and P i c c a d i l l y C i r c u s e s . Las Vegas f a i l s aesthetically because i t i s Times Square repeated ad i n f i n i t u m . 7 0

The

type of p l e a s u r e o f f e r e d by the c o l o u r of a p l a c e a l s o

v a r i e s over time.

The

Ipswich,

f o r example, appeals to the neocortex by day

England,

Willis

Faber

and

Dumas

building

but, "becomes a l i m b i c - i n t e n s i v e experience a f t e r dark takes on a wholly new, s p a r k l i n g Personality degree

and

of pleasure f e l t

unconsciously,

image."

experience from

do,

71

both

c o n s c i o u s l y and

However, i d e a l l y , a w e l l -

planned community o f f e r s the p u b l i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o both

neocortex

emotional activities.

pleasure

and

limbic

within

when i t

of course, i n f l u e n c e the

observing,

environmental c o l o u r .

at

generated

the course

spatial, of

an

experience social

average

and day's

54

(2.3)

C o l o u r and

In

addition

pleasing power

to

also

elicits The

we

order

7 2

informing In

and

mediating.

following assert

to

planner

"Colour,

that

7

3

In

Environmental

"frequently,

our

and

'competence'

and

and

Cognition:

Colour",

knowing

sense

object

or

an by

N o t e s Towards a and

Thompson,

t h e Goodmans,

logically

understanding

of h a v i n g an

Lynch s t r e s s e s that

the

'cognition'

Friedman

and

or

operations

' u n d e r s t a n d ' an

t r a d i t i o n o f L y n c h and

particular,

dominance

to i n t e r a c t e f f e c t i v e l y with

'know' or

aids

and

psychological

environmental

environment i s a necessary p r e c o n d i t i o n it."

colour's

t h e s e f e e l i n g s d e p e n d s on

Competence,

i n the

l e v e l s of a r o u s a l

' c o g n i t i o n ' , the a c t i v i t i e s

The

P s y c h o l o g y of

of

the c a p a c i t y of

in

observer,

feelings

e n v i r o n m e n t , and perform

the

n a t u r e of

'competence',

event.

stimulating various

or d i s p l e a s i n g

submission. of

Control

since

an

i m p a c t upon

environmental

'sense' i s a m a t t e r of k n o w l e d g e and a t t i t u d e s , i t s i n d i r e c t political and psychological costs may be h i g h f o r p a r t i c u l a r groups. F o r e x a m p l e , w h i l e more o f t e n u s e d t o m a i n t a i n s o c a i l d o m i n a n c e , i t can a l s o be employed to extend r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n s c i o u s n e s s . . . i t w i l l be a b a t t l e g r o u n d , even when i t s m a t e r i a l and functional cost i s low. " 7

Colour

contributes

c o n t i n u i t y as an o r d e r i n g

to

'cognition*

device

between e n v i r o n m e n t a l e l e m e n t s . to Lynch's ' s t r u c t u r e ' , d i s c u s s e d

through character

helping 'Cognition'

to

establish

and links

corresponds c l o s e l y

i n Good C i t y Form:

55

At the s c a l e of a s m a l l p l a c e [ s t r u c t u r e ] i s t h e of how i t s parts f i t together, and i n a • s e t t l e m e n t i s t h e sense of o r i e n t a t i o n : knowing (or when) one i s , w h i c h i m p l i e s k n o w i n g how places (or times) are connected t o t h i s p l a c e .

sense large where other

7 5

Colour

character

distinction surfaces other

notes,

buildings and

Landmarks,

neighbours or

pavements.

light

special character Colour

surface

from

their

tones

of r o o f s , facades

I n d e e d , t h e San F r a n c i s c o

about c o l o u r are

chromatic

f o r instance, often accentuate

s t a t u s by c h a n g e s i n c o l o u r

surrounding

from

hue, s a t u r a t i o n , and l i g h t n e s s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h

e i t h e r from t h e i r

times.

special

Plan

in

i n time and p l a c e d e r i v e s

i n context,

that

"when

i n c o l o r , they reenforce of the c i t y . "

e n a b l e s us t o o r d e r

that

their

and

even

Urban D e s i g n

highly

visible

the v i s u a l

unity

7 6

c l u e s t o o r i e n t a t i o n i n time i n c l u d e both

shadowing

shortterm

improves our "grasp of c l o c k time

o u r d a y " and l o n g t e r m h i s t o r i c a l

appeals t o "the deeper emotional

at

colour

s e n s e o f how t h e p r e s e n t

i s l i n k e d t o the near or d i s t a n t past

and f u t u r e . "

7 7

which that

moment

Lynch

also

emphasizes t h a t : since our i n t e r n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of time i s p o o r e r t h a n o u r i n t e r n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s p a c e , we a r e more d e p e n d e n t on e x t e r n a l c l u e s t o keep us temporarally well oriented. 7 8

In colour

a d d i t i o n t o u n d e r l i n i n g s p a t i a l and t e m p o r a l a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c t l y

b o t h space and time. a

series

of

to continuity in

On t h e B o s t o n Freedom T r a i l ,

red footsteps painted

c o l o n i a l p a r t o f town c l a r i f i e s

character,

for

example,

on t h e pavement t h r o u g h t h e

the confusing

maze

of

streets

56

without

disturbing

directly, reddish

grey

city

repainted

and

of

reds,

blues

recommendations,

s h a d e s and a s

a t once i n order

buildings

Less

based

t o p p e d by g r e y i s h r e d r o o f s

brilliant

board

i n similar

of urban c o m p l e x i t y .

i s l a n d of Burano,

pavements facades

Following

and

experience

on t h e I t a l i a n

distinctive

block

the

the

and

these

need

on

sport

yellows.

facades

arises,

are

never

a

t o e s t a b l i s h e a c e r t a i n formal c o n t i n u i t y

make t h e w o r k i n g s o f t i m e e s p e c i a l l y c l e a r . While

the

'thought t h r o u g h ' use of c o g n i t i v e c o l o u r

e v e r y o n e , s i n c e poor o r i e n t a t i o n effort, their

i t isvital surroundings,

workers colour

and

the

coded

promotes v i s i t o r

lost

f o r people l i k e l y namely

visually

zones

means

to

reduce

confidence.

children,

school

organized

i n hues t h a t p r o m o t e a p p r o p r i a t e

positive

emotions

confusion

sites

and

chromatically

l e v e l s of a r o u s a l and draw

a t t e n t i o n t o s t r u c t u r a l components, b e n e f i c i a l l y demanding

"that

child

utilize

them

a p p l i c a t i o n of set pipe the and

American

only

industrial

also

the

not

wasted

Expo 86, f o r e x a m p l e , h a d

environmental

Primary

and

t o be l o s t o r a t r i s k i n

strangers, impaired.

time

helps

as

a i d orientation

elements

Standard

system, a t f a c t o r i e s , never

e l i m i n a t i o n of a hazard, informs Colour

impaired, with

bright

Library

coding

who c r a v e

saturated

not

only

a

substitution

and s i m p l i f i e s

places

industrial

7 9

The

frequented

hues, and

f o r the

by

the or

visually contrast,

such as a t the I l l i n o i s

Physically

sites,

surroundings f o r

any a n d e v e r y s p e c k o f c o l o u r

f o r the B l i n d

Tigerman,

for learning".

i d e n t i f i y i n g and s a f e t y c o l o u r s , such as

even p u b l i c m a r k e t s , w h i l e

workers.

but

Handicapped,

by

Regional Stanly

improves o r i e n t a t i o n but a l s o f u n c t i o n s , t o

57

quote P o r t e r ,

"as a c h a l l e n g e t o t h a t

which the d i s a b l e d

are often

regarded".

O v e r a l l , the psychological through

colour

are

facile

with

8 0

benefits

considerable.

superficiality

of ' c o g n i t i v e '

As

Porter

control

and M i k e l l i d e s

emphasize: Clearly defined colour, a s an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and informational aspect of a r c h i t e c t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n i n p u b l i c and e x t e r n a l s p a c e s , c a n p r o v i d e an unambiguous s t r u c t u r e which i s able t o reduce apprehension i n complex, large-scale of totally artifical environments. 8 1

In a d d i t i o n provides

to

identity

facilitating i n the b u i l t

identification, environment.

colour

also

T r a d i t i o n a l l y , we

have an c h r o m a t i c i m p a c t on o u r s u r r o u n d i n g s t h r o u g h e i t h e r decor

of

private

domain

d e m a r c a t i o n s , however, structure

and

or

subtle,

i t s occupants,

graffiti.

express

Surface

the

distinguish

identity

the

colour of

between p u b l i c

p r i v a t e a r e a s , and g e n e r a l l y

aid in establishing

E s s e n t i a l t o our w e l l - b e i n g ,

this is

the and

territoriality.

a pattern of b e h a v i o u r and a t t i t u d e s held by an individual or group that i s based on perceived, attempted or a c t u a l c o n t r o l of a d e f i n a t e physical space, object or idea and may involve habitual occupation, defence, p e r s o n a l i z a t i o n and m a r k i n g of it. 8

2

Typically,

though,

residents

of

public

h o u s i n g , p l a c e s where t h e u r b a n

lives,

do n o t have t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s

and lack

t h e r e b y e x p r e s s i n d i v i d u a l and relates

to

reduced

i n v o l v e m e n t as w e l l as i n c r e a s e d

high density, population

r e n t a l or

increasingly

to control exterior

collective

environmental crime.

8 3

colour

identity. satisfaction

This and

58

Notable a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h i s chromatic do

exist.

von

G a m i e r p e r s o n a l i z e s each l i v i n g

mass

by

the

colour

schemes

facade.

In

coloured

t h e facades

project

in a

being

unit within

a

large-scale

that v i s u a l l y detach sections i l l u s i o n s of r e c e s s i o n and

of

Banneker

Homes,

a

through

projection

San F r a n c i s c o , a r c h i t e c t J o s e p h

Esherwick

low-rent

housing

drab, d e t e r i o r i a t e d neighborhood, with a p a l e t t e

" l i m i t e d t o inexpensive aim

however,

I n Germany, f o r e x a m p l e , c o l o u r i s t F r i e d e r i c h E r n s t

colour weight or describe in

anonymity,

that

colours

readily available with

of g i v i n g i d e n t i t y

to particular

a

major

l o c a t i o n s but

cohesiveness to the e n t i r e group." " 8

In t h e c o n t e x t great

success

of crime p r e v e n t i o n ,

with

Newman

reports

m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o t h e c o l o u r and t e x t u r e of

facades a t Clason

P o i n t where he was

the

discrepancy

chromatic

Oscar

i n t e r i o r s and the dreary

originally

between

u n i f o r m i t y of

astonished

vibrant,

at

personalized

the a r c h i t e c t

designed

exteriors: raw c o n c r e t e was t h e p r e v a l e n t m e t e r i a l ; g r e y a n d o f f white t h e dominant c o l o u r . Only the glass areas o c c a s i o n a l l y b r o k e up t h e d r a b n e s s by r e f l e c t i n g a blue sky. 8 5

In and

consultation

texture

with

t h e r e s i d e n t s , who c h o s e t h e c o l o u r

f o r t h e i r own u n i t s i n c o - o r d i n a t i o n w i t h

Newman d e v i s e d

an e i g h t c o l o u r

experimental

neighbors,

scheme.

Y o r k H o u s i n g A u t h o r i t y deemed t h e a d d i t i o n a l t w e n t y f i v e cost

of

drastically

facade

finishing

reduced r e p a i r c o s t s .

worthwhile

as

The

New

percent

i t accompanied

V a n d a l i s m d e c r e a s e d once

the

59

new

colours

pride

were i n p l a c e and

i n t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t and

r e s i d e n t s , i n s p i r e d to take to undertake t h e i r

own

decoration

and

m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e p r o j e c t , s t a r t e d p a i n t i n g t h e i r own

and

windows.

Such r e a c t i o n s a r e

the

Your

to

Trust's Improve

Surroundings. Indeed, such r e l a t i v e

aroused

by

colour

Meagher,

head

Control',

to

appropriate

lead

of

the

f e e l i n g of dominance chromatic

San

to the of

s i t e and

advocates,

Fransisco

in

d o m a i n s and by

fans

by

success:

many

with v e r t i c a l

bands o f

t h e p r o j e c t ' s m e d i a e x p o s u r e and

its

visiting graffiti

at

football all.

account

8

teams,"

the

key

issue concerning

the

between

of

environment

the

rather

American

and

which

we

Oxford

planned

and

pedestrian

four

bright,

A f t e r two

years,

intermittent

Porter

aspects c o l o u r and

reactions

individuals to

a

reported

use total

7

c o m p e t e n c e , a key discrepancy

to

t h e C i t y of

between

red.

Taking into

those

North

o r a n g e and

no

neighbors

r e p a i n t i n g a drab achromatic

hues: green, y e l l o w ,

of

scheme,

attracts tourists

e x p e r i m e n t s p o n s o r e d by

underpass prone to g r a f f i t i

"despite

'Colour

8 6

an

colour

Foster

group,

spurs

Highways Committee, t e s t e d the c o n n e c t i o n

cheerful

submission

s u c h as

design

users,

a c l a i m shared

European m u r a l i s t s . Porter,

its

t h e i r own

than g r a f f i t i s t s ,

spontaneous

and

a s s e r t that a w e l l thought through c o l o u r

redecoration

by

doors

b a s i s f o r the C i v i c

book of e n v i r o n m e n t a l g u i d e l i n e s , P r i d e of P l a c e : How

more

of

responsible respond.

of

cognition

control is clearly

the g e n e r a l for Since

and

public

structuring chromatic

and the

tastes

60

generally differ

between t h e g e n e r a l

public

and

those

t r a i n e d t o c o n s i d e r c o l o u r p r o f e s s i o n a l l y , F r i e d m a n and

people Thompson

warn: those individual r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the s t r u c t u r i n g of e n v i r o n m e n t s - a r c h i t e c t s , p l a n n e r s and d e s i g n e r s are probably unaware of the failing of the p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t s i n a r e a s of 'competence' and 'cognition' because t h e y a r e t h e members o f t h e v e r y g r o u p s w h i c h a r e most l i k e l y t o have t h e s e n e e d s met. I f you are an u r b a n p l a n n e r you can have t h e i m p a c t upon t h e c i t y and a r e p r o v i d e d w i t h m o d e l s and c o n c e p t s w h i c h a l l o w you t o comprehend, or a t l e a s t attempt t o comprehend, t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s of p h y s i c a l c o n t e x t s . 8 8

(3) The

The

power

surroundings important

of

and

Values

colour

to

of

Colour.

t r a n s f o r m the appearance of

t o i n f l u e n c e our w e l l - b e i n g

element

of t h e b u i l t

environment.

v a l u e c o l o u r f o r s y m b o l i c , a e s t h e t i c and planner

' t h i n k i n g through'

Colour's differentiate

symbolic

Until

the

environmental established rare,

colour

value

functional

derives

from

to relate

them,

it

colour,

the

this

was

the

expression

of

s y s t e m of m e a n i n g . still

very

reasons

we the

understand. our

ability

to

emotionally

t o a b s t r a c t i d e a s , v a l u e s or t h i n g s not

Renaissance,

a

In p a r t i c u l a r ,

the s u b j e c t needs t o

between hues and

intellectually,

makes

our

primary a

and

present. value

of

traditionally

Today, w h i l e f i x e d m e a n i n g s a r e

reenforces,

to

use

Lynch's

'legibility': The urban environment i s a medium o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , d i s p l a y i n g b o t h e x p l i c i t and i m p l i c i t s y m b o l s : flags, lawns, crosses, signboards, p i c t u r e windows, o r a n g e r o o f s , s p i r e s , columns, gates, r u s t i c fences. These

term,

61

signs inform us a b o u t ownership, status, group a f f i l i a t i o n , hidden functions, goods a n d s e r v i c e s , proper b e h a v i o u r , a n d many o t h e r t h i n g s w h i c h we f i n d i t u s e f u l or i n t e r e s t i n g t o know. 8 9

C u r r e n t l y , Faber B i r r e n i s a l e a d i n g exponent of symbolic and

Michael

Graves a

leading

symbolic

meanings

potential

to f u l l e f f e c t . "

Colour's experience

to

"by

value

different

their

reflects

times

from

the

certain

pleasure hues

As S m i t h s t a t e s :

we

and t h e i r "aesthetic

i s n o t an i n n a t e q u a l i t y o f o b j e c t s , b u t an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

imposed

by

the

mind."

9 1

This

c a l l i n g attention to various

value

now p r e v a i l s , d e c o r a t i v e l y

surfaces

and s t r u c t u r e s .

W h i l e no o b j e c t i v e t e s t e x i s t s f o r a e s t h e t i c value,

colour's

functional

value

espresses

c a p a b i l i t y t o u s e a s p e c i f i c hue t o meet a which

i t i s especially

importance qualities and

assigning

9 0

r e l a t i v e placement and p a t t e r n i n g . value

who

his architectural p a l e t t e u s e s

aesthetic

at

practitioner

colour

as of

we

learn

different

suited. more

about

place,

environmental that colour

these colour

plays.

our q u a n t i f i a b l e

practical value

the

symbolic

need

for

i n increasing i n

specific

spectral

m a t e r i a l s , the dynamics of p e r c e p t i o n ,

the psychologically therapeutic In

This

or

values i n order

p o t e n t i a l of c o l o u r .

modify

the

general

roles

t o p r o d u c e t h e many p r e c i s e

of parts

62

Endnotes

Faber B i r r e n , L i g h t , N o s t r a n d , 1 9 8 2 ) , p.32. 1

Tom Architecture 2

C o l o r and E n v i r o n m e n t

Porter and Byron Mikellides, Eds. ( L o n d o n : S t u d i o V i s t a , 1 9 7 6 ) , p.22.

M. Bevlin, Design through Discovery, Y o r k : H o l t , R i n h a r t and W i n s t o n , 1 9 6 3 ) , p.78. 3

P o r t e r and M i k e l l i d e s ,

4

(New Y o r k : Van

3rd.

F a b e r B i r r e n , "The Need f o r C o l o u r and L i g h t Manmade S p a c e s " i n P o r t e r and M i k e l l i d e s , p.19. Paolo

Portoghesi,

Ed.

(New

pp.78-79.

5

6

Colour f o r

"Colour

in

in

Future

Town", D o m u s , 6 0 2

1980,

E x p e r i e n c e (New

York:

p. 22. E.B. Feldman, V a r i e t i e s of V i s u a l H a r r y Abrams, 1 9 7 1 ) , pp.311-312. 7

8

Faber B i r r e n ,

1982, p.49.

9

P o r t e r and M i k e l l i d e s ,

L e n c l o s , c i t e d i n Tom Watson G u p t i l l , 1 9 8 2 ) , p.78. 1 0

p.78. P o r t e r , C o l o u r O u t s i d e (New

Kevin Lynch, The Image o f t h e C i t y MIT P r e s s , 1 9 6 0 ) , p . 4 1 . 1 1

(Cambridge,

York:

Mass.:

Warren B o e s e n s c h e n s t e i n , " E x p r e s s i v e Urban Color", J o u r n a l o f A r c h i t e c t u r a l and P l a n n i n g R e s e a r c h , 3 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , p . 2 8 1 . 1 2

1 3

Bruno Taut, c i t e d

in Portoghesi,

p.20.

Wilhem H a u s e n s t e i n (1932), e x c e r p t s from "Europaische Haupstad", translated and c i t e d i n M a r t i n a D u t t m a n n , F r i e d r i c h Schmuck and J o h a n n e s U h l , C o l o r i n Townscape (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1981), pp.127. 1 4

63

Quote from John Belcher, Essentials i n Architecture, (1907) c i t e d i n W. F a u l k n e r , A r c h i t e c t u r e and C o l o u r (New Y o r k : W i l e y , 1 9 7 2 ) , p.78. 1 5

1 6

Porter,

p.110.

I n f o r m a t i o n drawn f r o m F a u l k n e r and M i c h a e l F o s t e r , Ed. The P r i n c i p l e s o f A r c h i t e c t u r e : S t y l e , S t r u c t u r e and Ornament (New Y o r k : Q u i l l , 1 9 8 2 ) . ~~ 1 7

1 8

F a u l k n e r , p.72.

1 9

Foster,

p.126.

Portland Cement Association, A r c h i t e c t u r a l Concrete (1980), p.1. 2 0

Foster, 2 2

ibid,

C o l o r and T e x t u r e i n

p.126.

p.188.

J . S . Ackerman a n d C. P e t e r s o n , " A r t of Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. 1 (New York: B r i t a n n i c a I n c . , 1979), p.951.

Architecture", Encyclopaedia

E. V e r i t y , 1 9 8 0 ) , p.69.

Van

2 3

2 4

C o l o r Observed

2 5

Porter,

2 6

P o r t e r and M i k e l l i d e s ,

(New

York:

Nostrand,

p.79. p.83.

E.N. Bacon, " C o l o r as a Dimension of P r o g r e s s i o n t h r o u g h S p a c e " , The D e s i g n o f C i t i e s (New Y o r k : V i k i n g , 1967), pp.3 7-41 . 2 7

2 8

U h l , p.94.

2 9

F l e m i n g , p.17.

64

3 0

(London: 3 1

Peter Smith, A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d t h e Human George Godwin, 1979), p.9.

Dimension

Duttmann, p.42.

Lars Sivik, "The P o r t e r and M i k e l l i d e s . 3 2

Language

of

Colour

Connotations",

V i c t o r i a K l o s s B a l l , "The A e s t h e t i c s o f C o l o r : A R e v i e w of F i f t y Years of E x p r e i m e n t a t i o n " , J o u r n a l of A e s t h e t i c A r t C r i t i c i s m , 23 ( 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 4 4 1 . 3 3

3 4

3 5

Birren,

1982, p . 2 9 .

ibid.

Hubert R o i g t , La C o u l e u r , 2nd. E d i t i o n s P o u r q u o i P a s , 1 9 8 1 ) , p.154. 3 6

Ed.

( A r t h a b a s k a , P.Q.:

Margaret S t . George, " C o l o r P r e f e r e n c e s of C o l l e g e Students with Reference t o Chromatic Pull, L e a r n i n g and A s s o c i a t i o n , " A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g y , 51 ( 1 9 3 8 ) , pp.714716. 3 7

Lars S i v i k , "Connotations to Exterior Colour on Buildings," A r c h i t e c t u r a l Psychology, Proc. Of t h e Lund Conference, 26-29 J u n e , 1973, Ed. Dowden Rikardkuller ( S t r o u d s b u r g , Penn.: H u t c h i n s o n & Ross, 1973). 3 8

Jean D. Wineman, " C o l o r i n E n v i r o n m e n t a l D e s i g n : I t s I m p a c t on Human B e h a v i o u r , " EDRA: E n v i r o n m e n t a l D e s i g n R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t i o n , 10 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 4 3 6 - 4 3 9 . 3 9

Faber Birren, A r c h i t e c t u r e , (Sept. 1967), 9 0

Faber

Birren,

4 2

Boeschenstein,

4 3

B e v l i n , p.92.

"Color i t pp.129-133.

1982, p . 3 3 . p.276.

Color",

Progressive

65

E. B u l l o u g h , "The ' P e r c e p t i v e P r o b l e m ' i n t h e A e s t h e t i c A p p r e c i a t i o n of S i n g l e C o l o u r s , " B r i t i c h J o u r n a l of Psychology, 2 (1908), pp.406-463. 0 4

4 5

Ackerman and P e t e r s o n ,

p.951.

B. W r i g h t a n d L. R a i n w a t e r , "The M e a n i n g s o f C o l o r " , J o u r n a l o f G e n e r a l P s y c h o l o g y , 67 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , p p . 8 9 - 9 9 . 4 6

The B i b l i o g r a p h y regarding colour. 4 7

lists

s e v e r a l o f t h e i r most n o t e d w o r k s

4 8

Sivik

i n P o r t e r and M i k e l l i d e s ,

4 9

ibid,

p.130.

5 0

p.131.

ibid.

L o i s Wexner, "The D e g r e e s t o w h i c h C o l o r s (Hues) a r e Associated with Mood T o n e s , " J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d P s y c h o l o g y , 6 (1954), pp.432-435. 5 1

5 2

Roigt,

5 3

Sivik

i n P o r t e r and M i k e l l i d e s ,

5 4

ibid,

p.138.

5 5

p.153. p.135.

ibid.

P e t e r S m i t h , "The M i k e l l i d e s , p. 21. 5 6

5 7

Smith,

1979, p . i O .

5 8

ibid,

p.17.

5 9

ibid,

pp.56-57.

Dilaectics

of

Colour",

Porter

and

66

6 0

ibid,

6 1

Porter,

6 2

p.20. p.85.

idid.

H a r o l d H. Alexander, Design: C r i t e r i a Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n , 1 9 7 6 ) , p.45. 6 3

6 4

Porter,

6 5

ibid,

6 5

Smith,

f o r Decisons

(New

p.85.

p.86. 1979, p.44.

Ann R a t h b o n e , "The G e n e r a t i o n o f A e s t h e t i c R e s p o n s e t o C o l o u r " , A I C C o l o r 69. P r o c . Of a C o n f e r e n c e s p o n s o r e d by t h e International Colo(u)r A s s o c i a t i o n , S t o l k h o l m , 9-13 J u n e , 1969 ( Z u r i c h : M u s t e r - S c h m i d t , 1 9 7 0 ) , p. 1056. 3 7

6 8

Smith,

1979, p.68.

6 9

ibid,

p.10.

7 0

ibid,

p.87.

7 1

ibid.

S. F r i e d m a n and S. Thompson, " C o l o u r , C o m p e t e n c e , and Cognition: Notes Towards a P s y c h o l o g y of E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o l o u r " , P o r t e r a n d M i k e l l i d e s , p.31. 7 2

7 3

7 4

Press, 7 5

ibid,

p.34.

Kevin Lynch, 1 9 8 1 ) , p.146. ibid,

p.134.

Good C i t y Form

(Cambridge,

Mass.:

MIT

67

C i t y and County of P l a n : U r b a n D e s i g n , ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 7 6

7 7

Lynch,

7 8

ibid.

7 9

San F r a n s i s c o , The C o m p r e h e n s i v e 84.

1981, p.135.

Friedman

a n d Thompson, p . 3 4 .

8 0

i b i d , p.32.

8 1

Porter

and M i k e l l i d e s , p.42.

Robert G i f f o r d , Environmental Psychology and B a c o n , 1 9 8 5 ) , p.137. 8 2

Oscar Point", Porter 8 3

(Boston:

Allyn

Newman, "The Use o f C o l o u r a n d T e x t u r e a t C l a s o n and M i k e l l i d e s , pp.47-53.

Joseph Esherwick, M i k e l l i d e s , p.59. 8 4

8 5

Newman, p p . 4 9 - 5 0 .

8 6

P o r t e r , p.58.

8 7

ibid,

8 8

Friedman

8 9

Lynch,

9 0

P o r t e r , p.72.

9 1

Smith,

"Colour

p.31 . a n d Thompson, p . 3 2 . 1981 , p.139.

1979, p . 9 .

in Buildings",

Porter

and

68

Chapter 3.

Power i n P l a c e .

Having reviewed environmental c o l o u r ' s place 1

Chapters

and

colour plays modify

when

i t s general

Circulatory, and

presented

here

planner.

symbolic,

now

o v e r l a p , on

and

1)

(Table

and

Pictorial. in

the

to

New

w i t h the

clarify

issues

Of

having

course,

colour the

where

Peterlee,

or

of in

France historic

O t h e r w i s e , most p l a n n e r s indirectly

s i n c e these p a r t s

serves

most

Although

art,

artists,

responsible planner,

and

direct

architects,

aware

of t h e

the

like

Colonial

housing,

frequently

with

as N a n t e r r e

urban

blight

colour

preservation, and

property in

s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s e v a r i o u s t o promote i t .

and

Williambsurg.

heritage

b u i l d e r s and

directly,

most

usually professionals in

'thought through' c o l o u r

much, b o t h i n d i r e c t l y and

the

colour's

experience

such

or

be

typology

e n c o u n t e r i s s u e s of e n v i r o n m e n t a l

festivals

for putting

Timely,

many p u r p o s e s .

England,

areas

through urban d e s i g n ,

environmental

values

for

possible,

in

parts

may

l i t e r a t u r e gives environmental

appear.

Towns

parts

ways,

environmental c o l o u r ' s p r e c i s e p a r t s are the

functional

These

several

developed

some s u r f a c e s

Planners

examines the p e r c i s e

aesthetic

p a r t s many d i f f e r e n t names, terms

power

r o l e s , namely B a c k g r o u n d , M e a n i n g f u l ,

classified

Although

specific

t h i s chapter

Illusory,

discussed

common

2,

and

renewal. owners place,

are the

p a r t s , does

69

Table 1 Power i n P l a c e : The P r e c i s e P a r t o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o l o u r .

ROLES

SYMBOLIC VALUE

AESTHETIC VALUE

FUNCTIONAL VALUE

BACKGROUND COLOUR • (1)

Backdrop

Foil

'Dirt Disguiser'

MEANINGFUL COLOUR ( 2 )

Metaphor

Expression of M a t e r i a l s & Light

Legibility

TIMELY COLOUR ( 3 )

Historical Reference

Tempo Setter

Reflection & Absorbtion of Heat

CIRCULATORY

Identity

Spatial

Coding

COLOUR ( 4 )

Progression

ILLUSORY

Attachment &

Altered

COLOUR ( 5 )

Detachment

Spatial Perception

PICTORIAL COLOUR ( 6 )

Edifier

Artwork

Camouflage

Advertizer

70

(1) Background

In t h i s r o l e , e n v i r o n m e n t a l element of design hues.

or provides

Background c o l o u r

Colour.

colour either

a favourable

supports

contrast to

i s subued and f a i r l y

more

saturated

Environmental abundant by

and

often

colour

detail

more

foreground

uniform

a r e a s w h e r e a s t h e f o r e g o u n d hues t h u s h i g h l i g h t e d

over

are

role

c o l o u r , f o r instance, along

in

large

brighter,

m o b i l e o r more e a s i l y

frequently plays this

another

changed.

places

with

shopping s t r e e t s or

parks.

( 1 . 1 ) Symbolic Background C o l o u r :

Symbolically, backdrop

to

the

background bustling

Backdrop.

colour

activities

serves

as

monochromatic

o f t h e u r b a n s c e n e whose

p r e d o m i n a n t hues come f r o m p e o p l e a n d p r o d u c e . Traditionally, part

(Fig.1).

profusion colours,

of

picture

Smith e x p l a i n s : " a t ground l e v e l things

glitter,

around, the

the s u r f a c e c o l o u r of markets e x e m p l i f y

more

frame,

to

noise, neutral

an o r d e r e d

satisfy

a l l limbic

smell...the environmental

press

there

this

isa

criteria:

rich vivid

of t h e crowd." A l l

colour

1

"acts

and r e s t r a i n i n g b o u n d a r y . "

2

like

Recently,

though, as w i t h London's Covent Garden: the u n r u l y market p l a c e has taken a b e a t i n g i n B r i t a i n , v i c t i m of t h e o b s e s s i v e t i d i n e s s of p l a n n e r s . Where new towns a r e b u i l t , t h e c o m m e r c i a l c e n t r e s a r e b u r i e d in great windowless sheds. Their most prominant a r c h i t e c t u r a l f e a t u r e s a r e d u c t s and a i r v e n t s . 3

a

71

(Fig.1) Symbolic Background Colour: Backdrop. Arab Market i n Bethlehem. Environmental c o l o u r as n e u t r a l backdrop to the l o c a l , t r a n s i e n t diverse hues of people and produce. The blue on window frames serves to scare away f l i e s who d i s l i k e that hue.

72

In Vancouver, exteriors

are

however, a l t h o u g h markets a r e

far

from

P u b l i c Market, f o r example, much

of

the produce

drab.

indoor

shoppers

their

f a c a d e and r o o f o f Robson

suggest a g i a n t greenhouse

in

which

f o r s a l e w i t h i n c o u l d h a v e been grown.

g l a s s r e f l e c t s outdoor a c t i v i t y of

The

indoors,

who

also

perception

i s somewhat t i n t e d

fictional

Emerald

City.

and p e r m i t s see in

The

passers-by

The

glimpses

out, although environmental

the

manner

of

L.F.

e x t e r i o r c o l o u r o f most

m a r k e t s , t h o u g h , a c t s more as an a e s t h e t i c

foil

than

Baum's Vancouver

a

symbolic

backdrop.

(1.2) A e s t h e t i c B a c k r o u n d C o l o u r : F o i l . Aesthetic

Background

complements another element w i t h d e t a i l s of

Colour

acts

as

a

foil.

It either

o f d e s i g n , s u c h as f o r m , o r

landscaping,

structural

ornament,

contrasts

and

window

displays. Since

colour

is

the

means

by

which

we

perceive other

e l e m e n t s of d e s i g n , s u c h as f o r m o r t e x t u r e , c o l o u r ' s s t r e n g t h o r complexity

can

distract

attention.

Ruskin,

realizing

p r o d u c e d a famous t h o u g h o f t - d e b a t e d d i c t u m : Infinite nonsense has been w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e u n i o n o f perfect colour with perfect form. They never will, n e v e r c a n be u n i f i e d . C o l o u r , t o be p e r f e c t , must have a soft outline o r a s i m p l e one; i t c a n n o t have a r e f i n e d one.* More r e c e n t l y , B i r r e n o b s e r v e s : c o l o r i s l i k e l y t o d e t r a c t from form. Because c o l o r i s more p r i m i t i v e i n i t s a p p e a l than form, a building exterior...designed, f o r example, i n red or y e l l o w , g r e e n o r b l u e , may be j u d g e d by t h e a v e r a g e m o r t a l more f o r i t s hue r a t h e r t h a n i t s s h a p e . 5

this,

73

(Fig.2) A e s t h e t i c Background C o l o u r : F o i l . Geodesic Housing near J e r u s a l e m . Simple, subdued colour e m p h a s i z e s t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f f o r m and l i n k s t h e unusual s t r u c t u r e to the d u s t y landscape l i k e a b i z a r r e b a r n a c l e e n c r u s t e d on t h e e a r t h .

(Fig.3) A e s t h e t i c Background C o l o u r : F o i l . Yemin Moshe, J e r u s a l e m . B a c k g r o u n d C o l o u r as a e s t h e t i c f o i l to nature, c r e a t i n g various v i s u a l contrasts.

74

T h u s , where f o r m i s c o m p l e x , s i m p l e aesthetic

foil

v a r i e s only

and

subdued

colour

as

t o emphasize t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l

an

edges

(Fig.2). However, n o t a l l a u t h o r s a p p r e c i a t e equated

strong

intellectually for

instance,

high

contrast

colour-

believes

an

that,

part,

or

background

several

example,

in brilliant

contrasts

subdued

colours

colour

(Fig.3).

parks

from

also acts

neutral

frame

advertizing

to

(Fig.4)

At G r a n v i l l e

this

A r c h i t e c t s Forum

When e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o u r

plays

this

between

colours

large-scale

part,

Public

lintels, project show."

9

brighter

are,for

or s m a l l - s c a l e , or

environmental displays

Market,

hard

seasonal.

details

colour

acts

merchandise

to building details f o r example,

i t s encouragement 8

of

of

the

as and

(Fig.5).

praised

in

"subjective

t h e m e t a l l i c f a c a d e hues s e r v e a s of

simple

colourful

s t r e e t f u r n i t u r e , and d o o r w a y s l e a d i n g a r c h i t e c t Joost

that

Background Colour serves as a f o i l t o

enjoyment of forms and c o l o r " , a backdrop t o

t o nature, few

polychrome

for

7

with

or as a c o n t r a s t

Island

as a f o i l

of

up a r e a s

or saturated,

In

Porter,

6

i s an e x c e l l e n t means

s o f t , f i x e d of m i l d l y m o b i l e , and e t e r n a l

manmade d e t a i l .

form."

than

sunlight, at least, a

i n densely b u i l t

occur

In a d d i t i o n , a e s t h e t i c

"which

rather

e x p l o i t i n g a r c h i t e c t u r a l elements.

e s p e c i a l l y important part

gardens

or

a distraction

between s a t u r a t e d

Aesthetic

prejudice

c o n s i d e r e d t o be e m o t i o n a l l y

judged- with

pattern-making while

this

Bakker observes,

lighting

w i t h i n where, as

"the tenants

are the

75

(Fig.4) A e s t h e t i c

Background C o l o u r :

Foil.

Robson S t r e e t , V a n c o u v e r . Grey shop f r o n t s a c t as a c o n t i n u o u s f o i l t o b r i g h t e r , d i s t i n c t i v e d e t a i l c o l o u r f r o m window d i s p l a y s , a d v e r t i z i n g a w n i n g s and s t r u c t u r a l ornament such as the false blue pediment rising from r e d columns. Green m e t a l p o l e s a l s o suggest branch-denuded t r e e s .

76

(Fig.5) A e s t h e t i c Background Colour:

Foil.

Restaurant, Vancouver. Neutral facade colour as foil t o the lavender c o l u m n s and s i g n . As an u n u s u a l c o l o u r , t h e d e t a i l hue a t t t r a c t s a t t e n t i o n , a l t h o u g h r e s e a r c h by S i v i k h a s shown a deep dislike f o r t h e use of p a l e v i o l e t i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . Perhaps its appearance here serves to underline the irony of the r e s t a u r a n t ' s name.

77

( F i g . 6 ) F u n c t i o n a l Background Colour;

'Dirt

Disguiser'.

Moped Parking L o t , F l o r e n c e . Dark, s l i g h t l y v a r i e g a t e d pavement colour f u n c t i o n s as a ' d i r t d i s g u i s e r ' . Seen from above or from the s i d e , a parking l o t such as t h i s d i s p l a y s an everchanging kaleidescopic arrangement of i n d i v i d u a l colours a g a i n s t the background of a permanent, p r a c t i c a l communal hue.

78

(1.3)

F u n c t i o n a l Background Colour: Frequently,

Background

'Dirt Disguiser'.

Colour

simply

functions

maintenance a t t r i b u t e of m a t e r i a l s d i s g u i s i n g d i r t

as a

low

difficult

to

remove .

Pavement hues o f t e n p l a y t h i s p a r t , p r o v i d i n g a

background

for

1 0

the

mobile

manmade

ever-changing

basic

chromatic

p a t t e r n s of v a r i o u s v e h i c l e s ( F i g . 6 ) .

(2) M e a n i n g f u l

Meaningful preferences the b u i l t

Colour

associations,

particular

role,

colour, world, There,

found

the a n c i e n t as

of

may

i s one

notably

t o w e r was walls

This

gain

Colour:

colour

references

elements.

various

hues

acts

c o n c e p t s beyond the s u r f a c e s The

colours special

and

cultural

favour have

using

in

different

s i g n i f i c a n c e as

a

Metaphor. as

be d i r e c t ,

of

the on

one

of

e s p e c i a l l y to nature uses

of

variations mystically signified

and

the

environmental

the o l d e s t b u i l d i n g s i n the 'Mountain

Wooley d i s c o v e r e d ,

and

representing

1 1

c a l l e d the

b l a c k , the upper p a r t r e d . tile

metaphor,

earliest

z i g g u r a t a t Ur

glazed

a

i t adorns.

a r c h e o l o g i s t C.L.

blue

customs

communication.

Symbolic Meaningful In t h i s

the

the m a t e r i a l s they

Since

means of e n v i r o n m e n t a l

(2.1)

expresses

o f c o m m u n i t i e s and

environment.

Colour.

The

the base of

s h r i n e a t the

a gilded roof.

of

These

the v a r i o u s d i v i s i o n s of

top

God.' the had

chromatic the

79

(Fig.7)

Symbolic M e a n i n g f u l C o l o u r : Metaphor.

Blue H o r i z o n H o t e l , Vancouver, C o l o u r used symbolically to reinforce an e s t a b l i s h m e n t ' s name. Here i t suggests l a n g u i d , e x o t i c repose and the c o l o u r , at l e a s t , is psychologically r e s t f u l and unsual enough i n the urban scene.

80

V

(Fig.8) Symbolic Meaningful

Colour:

Metaphor.

Dome o f t h e R o c k , J e r u s a l e m . Used o v e r t i m e and i n many p l a c e s , a t r a d i t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o l o u r may come t o s y m b o l i z e the structure upon w h i c h i t a c t s . A g o l d e n dome and a p a t t e r n i n g o f b l u e , w h i t e , and y e l l o w t i l e s have, i n a d d i t i o n t o r e p r e s e n t i n g h e a v e n and q u o t a t i o n s f r o m t h e K o r a n , come t o s i g n i f y 'mosque' i n a g e n e r i c sense t o o .

81

Universe: and

the

the

sun.

elements

most

dark underworld, Today,

1 2

the h a b i t a b l e e a r t h , the heavens

Meaningful

frequently

with

Colour

Meaningful

associations to ideas.

Colour

at n i g h t , the b u i l d i n g Such

glows

symbolism,

i r o n i c chromatic v a r i a t i o n s . the

s u r f a c e hue

Red'

and

earned

less

the

brightly

may

At the

city

West,

while,

against

though,

indirect white

of t h e W h i t e House i n

incorruptibility,

i t s major p o l i t i c a l

visible

represents

the

forces

unexpectedly scale,

floodlit

for

of

develop example,

i t s nickname both f o r i t s predominant

Rome r e p r e s e n t s t h e i d e a l i s t i c the

having

also

affiliation.

s c a l e , the b r i g h t w h i t e of the V i c t o r

in

establishments

t h e s u r f a c e hue

Washington gleams w i t h p r i s t i n e

'Bologna

station

S i n c e , f o r example, i n

p u r i t y , by d a y ,

darkness.

r e d of f i r e

(Fig.7).

Symbolic

symbolizes

natural

the b l a z i n g

f a c a d e s o r as a s y m b o l i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t of c h r o m a t i c names

represents

in

hopes f o r I t a l y ' s u n i f i c a t i o n ,

but

pillars

II

building

Monument

background,

Emmanuel

At the

show g r i m y

staining

of

pollution. Applied Meaningful upon w h i c h

consistently Colour

over

time

many

places,

a l s o comes t o s y m b o l i z e t h e t y p e o f

structure

i t acts, expressing either

and

in

f u n c t i o n a l v a l u e s , as on

r o a d , o r a e s t h e t i c o n e s , a s on a mosque

(Fig.8).

(2.2) A e s t h e t i c M e a n i n g f u l C o l o u r : E x p r e s s i n g M a t e r i a l s & Q u a l i t y of In

this

part,

a

The

Light.

environmental

colour

c h a r a c t e r o f m a t e r i a l s o r t h e q u a l i t y of t h e

expresses either light.

the

82

(Fig.9) Aesthetic

Meaningful Colour: Expression

of M a t e r i a l s .

Apartments, Vancouver. Framed between a blue sky and green plants growing from brown earth, the b u i l d i n g ' s v a r i o u s c o l o u r s d i f f e r e n t i a t e between m a t e r i a l s used: grey concrete base; mauve stucco facing; pink wood t r i m ; transparent, c o l o u r l e s s g l a s s windows and p l e x i g l a s s b a l u s t r a d e s ; white p i p i n g , h o r i z o n t a l l y , as balcony r a i l s and, v e r t i c a l l y , as d r a i n p i p e s ; and grey asphalt roof tiles. Such chromatic d i s t i n c t i o n s a l s o a i d communication about the b u i l d i n g ' s p a r t s .

83

(Fig.10)

A e s t h e t i c Meaningful

Colour: Expression

of M a t e r i a l .

Medici P a l a c e , F l o r e n c e . The same stone appears on a l l three stories, but the chromatic e f f e c t v a r i e s so that the b u i l d i n g appears p r o g r e s s i v e l y l i g h t e r as the eye moves upwards. The ground floor has heavy rustication, the next two stories i n c r e a s i n g l y more dressed and l i g h t e r c o l o u r e d stone. Finally, at the top of the b u i l d i n g , the c o r n i c e i s rougher, and t h e r e f o r e darker.

84

( F i g . 1 1 ) A e s t h e t i c Meaningful Colour:

Expression

of L i g h t .

El-Asqa Mosque, Jerusalem. Light reveals s t a r k l y simple hues. The pavement and facade are both 'of t h i s world', and a c c o r d i n g l y share the same m a t e r i a l cut d i r e c t l y from the earth. A dark wooden door and window openings, f i l l e d with b r i g h t l y polychrome g l a s s not v i s i b l e from the e x t e r i o r , puncture the otherwise uniform facade. The dome, however, which represents a 'higher' world, i s a c o n t r a s t i n g dark and more precious colour, silver. Light reveals the colour of these m a t e r i a l s and c h i a r o s c u r o further emphasizes the difference in m a t e r i a l s and their location. Near noon, the top of the dome becomes b r i g h t white while the shadowed facade darkens, although the pavement remains b r i g h t for f u r t h e r c o n t r a s t .

85

With regard differentiates from

between

looking

chromatic

surface

of

single (Fig.10).

or

1 3

to

playing

explains,

"depends

i m m e d i a t e a t t e n t i o n and such c o l o u r s

s e r v e as

Colour

coding

together with is for f i r e

are

In a d d i t i o n ,

protection;

and

and

settings.

bright

began

corresponds

identification

closely

schemes.

to

light

(Fig.11).

quickly."

By

1 5

as

attract extension,

(Fig.12).

for

pipe

yellow

the

obstacles

that

identification,

explains:

indicate

(1)

red

dangerous

(4) g r e e n i s f o r

i s for extra-valuable both

1 4

parts,

Such a p a r t ,

colors

In Canada, R o i g t

(2) o r a n g e and

(5) p u r p l e

r a n g e of

aesthetic

(3) b l u e i s f o r p r o t e c t i v e m a t e r i a l s ;

safe m a t e r i a l s ;

colour

surfaces

guides i n emergencies

safety colours.

the

the

as a c o d e , i d e n t i f y i n g

on

the

Coding.

recognized

originally

buildings

m a t e r i a l , d e p e n d i n g on

symbolic

functions

either

emphasizes

to very dark p e r m i t s a great

hazards, e s p e c i a l l y in i n d u s t r i a l

materials;

which prevents

models,

Meaningful Colour:

addition

Faulkner

This

a

texture

Meaningful Colour also and

(Fig.9),

that also distinguishes d i f f e r e n t

Functional In

them

a e s t h e t i c Meaningful Colour

monochrome

from v e r y l i g h t

reflection

(2.3)

like

versatility

t r e a t m e n t of scale

to m a t e r i a l s ,

American

materials. and

1 6

British

86

(Fig.12)

F u n c t i o n a l Meaningful Colour:

Coding.

Vancouver General H o s p i t a l Sign, Vancouver. Functional use of bright primary hues to colour code large f r e e s t a n d i n g signs i n a s e t t i n g where the background surface c o l o u r s make a subdued or achromatic c o n t r a s t .

87

To

a i d memory, t h e s e c o l o u r

meanings a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r colour

o f f i r e and y e l l o w

functions.

tone

relations

i s the

a n d o r a n g e t h e hues o f f l a m e s .

Wexner

that

of

blue

secure and calm, p a r t l y because with

nature.

Purple,

1 7

or p s y c h o l o g i c a l

Red, a f t e r a l l ,

showed i n a p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d y mood

have s y m b o l i c

and of

until

a c c i d e n t a l l y developed the f i r s t

two-dimensional

colour

green a r e seen as

their 1865

peaceful when

applied

colour,

rather

chemist

s y n t h e t i c dye, f o r a

b r i c k s or types of streaked

than

a violet

marble, purple

intrinsic

appeared

Perkins shade

five

impressive

giant

Lenclos

t o serve

to certain

at a steel m i l l

a triple

and

dignitaries.

example of e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o u r c o d i n g

cranes

of

Thus, as

rarely,

t h e n most o f t e n on t h e r o b e s o f r o y a l o r r e l i g i o u s An

tender,

association

mauve, was e x t r e m e l y h a r d t o make f r o m n a t u r a l s o u r c e s . an

and

are the

near M a r s e i l l e s , c o l o u r e d

by

function:

f i r s t , t o make them c l e a r l y visible in a polluted a t m o s p h e r e , and t o g i v e e a c h an i d e n t i t y ( p r i o r t o r e p a i n t i n g t h e y h a d been a u n i f o r m grey); second, t o fragment their huge s i z e , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s among them being i n d i c a t e d by a predominant pilot colour (afterwards, [Lenclos] learned t h a t e a c h was g i v e n a n i c k n a m e by o p e r a t i v e s ) ; third, to assign d i f f e r e n t colours t o e a c h o f t h e c r a n e ' s components i n o r d e r t o code what was s a f e f r o m what was d a n g e r o u s . 1 8

This

functional

architectural

'language'

'high-tech'

of

colour

experiments

with

has

strong

w h i c h : " t h e c o n t r o l o f c o n t r a s t betwen hues l i e s a t of

'indexing'

important. Geology

1 9

a

building",

Such c o d i n g

Building

at

inspired colours i n

the

w i t h d e c i s i o n s on c o l o u r

occurs,

notably,

in

Vancouver,

essence

tone a l s o on

the

the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t s h Columbia, and, i n

P a r i s , a t t h e C e n t r e Pompidou.

There,

the

chromatic

array

of

88

exposed s t r u t s , ducts Smith,

for

dramatic while

and e s c a l a t o r s s p a r k c o n t i n u a l

example,

praises

b i t of s p a r k l e t o a

Birren,

for

the rather

instance,

i n the

world."

role

emphasizes

section

that

2 0

seem

consistently

Colour.

variations

in

colour

suggest

various

to

Paris"

2 1

Specific

periods,

of

t h e s e hues "may

e i t h e r over c e n t u r i e s or d i u r n a l l y . certain

f o r "adding a

i n one o f t h e most

(3) T i m e l y

This

grey

warns

i n c o n g r u o u s and g r o t e s q u e i n d e e d beautiful cities

bright colours

controversy.

set

through

colours

time,

serve

to

tempos o r t o p r o d u c e

p r e d i c t a b l e reactions t o s o l a r heat.

(3.1)

Symbolic Timely Colour: Symbolically, Timely

special

Historical

Colour

plays

interest to heritage planners.

to c e r t a i n p e r i o d s ,

such as t h e

"Brown

Reference. a

historical

part

H i s t o r i c a l colour Decades",

2 2

of

refers

from

1865-

1895, o r h i s t o r i c a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s , s u c h a s t h e r u l e r s o f t h e Sung Dynasty this

( 9 6 0 - 1 1 2 7 ) who a l s o f a v o r e d

part:

"colors

brown.

of

art

o l d buildings display h i s t o r i c a l colour

with

nouveau l i n g e r on l i k e a p e r e p e t u a l

hues t y p i c a l of t h e i r this

usually

Duttmann o b s e r v e s o f

f i x a c e r t a i n epoch f o r a l l time i n a c i t y ;

t h i s h a s happened' i n C r a c o w , where t h e

Traditionally,

2 3

meloncholy

twilight". *

time of c o n s t r u c t i o n .

represents

hues

2

On t h e u r b a n

t h e hues o f a c i t y ' s p e r i o d o f

scale, greatest

89 growth, as w i t h Savannah's b r i c k d u s t reds and G e o r g i a n g r e e n s , o r of a moment o f g r e a t Vienna's core. the

g l o r y , as w i t h t h e 'Maria

Timely colour a l s o symbolizes

centuries,

as

with

Jerusalem's

Theresa' yellow i n steady growth

pervasive

golden

over

stones;

s p u r t s o f d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h new a r e a s f r o m t h e o l d , a s i n Vancouver where, o f t e n , t h e o r i g i n a l the

warm

hues

downtown

of b r i c k and t h e l a t e r

g l a s s and c o n c r e t e ;

or

vestiges

of

original

Style

earth

tones

of

features

one t h e c o o l e r c o l o u r s o f the

' p e r i o d ' c o l o u r , r a t h e r t h a n an e c l e c t i c the

core

recent

past

when

s e l e c t i o n , p r e v a i l e d , as

Vancouver's remaining

California

bungalows. H i s t o r i c a l colour

result

of

chromatic

restoration. materials

Certain

such

l o n g as t h e i r

as

on

o l d buildings survival,

colours,

occurs

preservation, especially

t h e warm y e l l o w

surfaces.

usually

as

alteration

those

of

one

to values

they a t t r i b u t e t o that

Other c o l o u r s

survive

in

r e s u l t from t h e e f f o r t s of

destruction

alters

period." altered

2 5

states.

colour

Neglect,

too (Fig.14).

l a c k o f a t t e n t i o n t o t r a d i t i o n c h a n g e s c o l o u r on Turin,

f o r example, gained

as

f o r " t h o s e who w i s h t o r e l a t e

i n s t a n c e , w h e t h e r i n t e n t i o n a l o r n o t , c h a n g e s some hues Outright

or

sandstone of Cracow, l a s t as

Other c o l o u r s

i n Colonial Williamsburg,

a

natural

p r e s e r v a t i o n i s t s who d e v e l o p a l o c a l h i s t o r i c a l p a l e t t e , s u c h the

a

for

(Fig.13).

In a d d i t i o n ,

old buildings.

a monochrome image

due to a pervading 'Turin y e l l o w ' which, because of indiscriminate redecoration together with a misconception that i t i s a colour traditionally asociated with i t s a r c h i t e c t u r e , blankets the c i t y . 2 6

(Fig.13) Symbolic Timely Colour: H i s t o r i c a l Reference. G r a n v i l l e Island Sheds, Vancouver. Historical colour d e r i v i n g from neglect and showing the d e s t r u c t i v e power of natural forces. This shed shows discoloured v e r s i o n s of o r i g i n a l hues as a p p l i e d colour fades and peels and the exposed iron r u s t s . In such a p a r t , colour represents change over time and provides a timely contrast to b r i g h t new hues on nearby r e s t o r e d buildings.

91

(Fig.14) Symbolic

Timely Colour: H i s t o r i c a l

Reference.

Bombed b u i l d i n g , near Jerusalem. Historical colour unplanned chromatic p a t t e r n s a c t i n g as a timely reminder d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s of man.

from of the

92

However,

h i s t o r i c a l c o l o u r does

restoration. ambitious of

Housing,

Portoghesi became

Turin,

for

instance,

as

the

a

city

result

Enzo with

Biffi the

Gentili,

to

repaint

infinitely

the p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e

extendible

for planners."

Supervisor

buildings

hues i n d i c a t e d on t h e h i s t o r i c

r e p o r t s : "This

of

s p o n s o r e d an

r e s t o r a t i o n p r o g r a m , s e t up by t h e M u n i c i p a l

accordance

Dr.

In

reappear

in

masterplan.

'Colour

Palette'

In North America,

2 7

R o g e r Moss, a d i r e c t o r o f t h e H i s t o r i c House A s s o c i a t i o n

America,

reports

anymore"

that

i n an a r t i c l e

"historic

consciousness."

titled

color

revival

Vehemently a g a i n s t

2 8

"You c a n ' t p a i n t is

'em

raising

of

white public

'whitewashing' the past,

Dr.

Moss s t r e s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e i t h e r a c a r e f u l m i c r o a n a l y s i s a

c l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n o f p e r t i n e n t documents

original

colours.

restoration,

A

though,

danger

of

i n order

excessive

to determine

preservation

i s the r i s k of f r e e z i n g a s i n g l e

p h a s e i n an e v o l v i n g c u l t u r e and r e s t r i c t i n g

later

or

or

chromatic

opportunities

for r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In

addition

to

environment, h i s t o r i c a l facades the

where

new.

ordination

occuring

in

the

colour also increasingly

i t provides

an e x c e l l e n t l i n k

planners,

according

to

same f o r m , w i t h v a r i a t i o n s o n l y Frequently,

chromatic

old

occurs

Smith,

linking

replication.

h a r m o n i z e s new

the

old

often

a l l new

t h e new

(Fig.15).

co-

favour

a s an

buildings

into

2 9

invloves direct

A t t h e s c a l e of b u i l d i n g s , s i m i l a r

s t r u c t u r e s w i t h o l d ones

new

between t h e o l d and

i n the t r i m m i n g s . " and

built

on

T h i s p a r t o f f e r s an a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e d i m e n s i o n a l

a t t e m p t t o t i d y up " c h a o s [ a n d ] m a r s h a l l the

genuinely

colour

93

(Fig.15) Symbolic

Timely

Colour: H i s t o r i c a l

Reference.

Extension to St.Paul's H o s p i t a l , Vancouver. Adaptation of the original b u i l d i n g ' s r e d and cream f a c a d e on t h e new a d d i t i o n p r o v i d e s a c l e a r l i n k between p a s t and p r e s e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n s . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e r e d b r i c k o f t h e e x t e n s i o n i s a l s o a ' s i g n of t h e t i m e s ' i n t h e i m m e d i a t e a r e a w h i c h , t o t h e s o u t h and e a s t , i s increasingly displaying brick facades whose hues p r o v i d e a c h r o m a t i c l i n k t o the r e s t o r e d warehouses i n Yaletown.

94

In a d d i t i o n to r e p l i c a t i n g white

paint,

roughcast

contrast

to

more

creating

what

particular, past-

in

function a

reflection".

enthusiastic. buildings

Smith,

Not

for

with

excellent

traditional

wall

ones,

new

on

facades,

being

intrinsically

instance,

observers,

though

complains that

the non-

in which o l d b u i l d i n g s

a l l

a in

" l i k e a c o n s c i o u s homage t o

mirrors

3 1

an

between o l d and

curtain

glass,

like

buildings

glass provide

patterned

Glass

of

modern

"dialogue

often act

expanses

and

or

a

3 0

(Fig.16),

ornamental, again

calls

scale".

great

concrete

polychrome

Uhl

town-planning

colour,

live are

reflective

are:

a k i n d of s e l f - n e g a t i n g a r c h i t e c t u r e w h i c h d e r i v e s its raison d'etre from i t s surroundings. Unfortunately, i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n the r e f l e c t i v e s k i n are unavoidable, and so images a p p e a r d i s t o r t e d , r e s u l t i n g i n a k i n d o f h a l l of m i r r o r s e f f e c t . 3 2

Instead, between

Smith

old

and

praises new

w h i c h he

s u b t l e e c h o e s o r h i n t s of analogies.

As

a

rarer

of

chromatic

terms 'metaphoric.' This

similar

an e x a m p l e , he

kind

cites

colours

rather

the C a t h e d r a l

link

involves

than

direct

S q u a r e i n Rouen

where "a c o u n c i l b u i l d i n g . . . d i s p l a y s i n f l e x i o n s t o w a r d s t h e

half-

timbered t r a d i t i o n a l

white

ribs

and

a black

relationship.

b u i l d i n g s common t o o l d c i t y "

background, r e v e r s i n g the

as

on D i s n e y l a n d ' s

effect

of h i s t o r i c a l c o l o u r

hues

normaly

the

context

using

figure-ground

3 3

Occasionally,

Retrospective

typical

by

found chromatic

in

'Main S t r e e t ' , t h e

i s l e s s connection the

intended

than c o n t r a s t

contemporary

with

surroundings.

v a r i e t y s i g n i f i e s h u m a n i z i n g welcome i n

of t h e p r e v a l e n t

n e u t r a l s and

a c h r o m a t i c s of

the

95

(Fig.16) Symbolic Timely Colour: H i s t o r i c a l

Reference.

Hotel Vancouver, Vancouver. Chromatic d i a l o g u e between the o l d and the new i n which the g l a s s c u r t a i n w a l l facade of a nearby h i g h r i s e r e f l e c t s the h o t e l ' s grey facade and green roof with a golden tone and unexpected 'Gaudiesque' d i s t o r t i o n : Hommage or H a l l of M i r r o r s ?

96

Modern, though not timely colour order

o f t e n mix

to provide Finally,

the

Post-Modern, b u i l t historic

Timely

times'.

At

the

environment

is

fashionable,

t a s t e and the

p a r t l y by

Post

moment,

the

Modern

often

applied

surroundings favours Post

spurred

variety

p a r t l y by

contrast

following

and

Mikellides

with

of

increased

or

and

dismal

Whereas

Modernism

by o c c a s i o n a l b r i g h t

primaries,

3 9

towards p i n k , y e l l o w

with a p a l e t t e ,

3 5

to orange

and

current

colour

i n the b u i l t

trends,

blue

to

by M i c h a e l

warm e a r t h t o n e s

Graves

( F i g . 1 8 ) ; and

'post-industrial'

hues

A e s t h e t i c Timely Colour: Acting

on

a

(Fig.17); (3) t h e

environment

including:

p o p u l a r i t y of p a s t e l s , s u c h as t h e p i n k

championed

(3.2)

austerity,

monochromatic

i n Vancouver today, s u r f a c e s

several

unusual

stress:

6

Thus, reveal

built

i s , as J e n c k s e m p h a s i z e s when d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e

i n which "reds tend 3

the

of

e f f o r t s of a r c h i t e c t s

movement f r o m L a t e - M o d e r n i s m , i s " p r o - o r n a m e n t "

purple."

in

'sign

cycles in

identity."

a c h r o m a t i c hues e n l i v e n e d

as a

general

Porter

or to r e - e s t a b l i s h

Modernism

a l s o serves

always f o l l o w e d periods

to

of

with wild eclecticism in

chromatic

specific

Such u s e s

pleasure.

Colour

movement.

" e x u b e r a n t c o l o u r has is

periods

nostalgic, escapist

symbolic

environment.

and

(1)

the

misty

mauve

(2) a renewed i n t e r e s t i n use

of

more

saturated,

(Fig.19).

Tempo S e t t e r .

s h o r t e r temporal s c a l e than h i s t o r i c

namely t h e d i u r n a l one,

c o l o u r a l s o s e t s our

tempo of

periods,

behaviour.

97

(Fig,17) Symbolic

Timely Colour: H i s t o r i c a l

Reference.

Apartment, Vancouver. Facade, whose c o l o u r s a c t as a 'sign of the times', d i s p l a y s the r e c e n t l y fashionable pastel hues, p o p u l a r i z e d by the Post-Modern movement. The c o l o u r e a s i l y dates the decor to the l a t e e i g h t i e s .

98

(Fig.18) Symbolic

Timely Colour:

Historical

Reference.

F a m i l y S t u d e n t H o u s i n g , U.B.C., V a n c o u v e r . R e c e n t l y a p p l i e d warm e a r t h t o n e s , on r o o f s and pavements as w e l l a s t h e townhouse facades, a c t as a 'sign of t h e t i m e s . ' Even t h e h i g h r i s e , p r e v i o u s l y p l a i n grey exposed c o n c r e t e , has been repainted in matching hues that symbolize i t s part i n t h e same h o u s i n g development d e s p i t e i t s d i f f e r e n t d e n s i t y .

»

99

(Fig.19) Symbolic

Timely Colour: H i s t o r i c a l

Reference.

Apartment, Vancouver. Eye-catching orange-red brick with complementary blue-green trim, p a r t of the b u i l d i n g ' s 'PostI n d u s t r i a l ' s t y l e , act as a 'sign of the times' s i g n i f y i n g c u r r e n t tastes.

100

Through s y n a e s t h e s i a , slower

in areas

focuses,

and

day

for

and

warm c o l o u r s , on

day,

by

night,

l i g h t s and

s t r e e t s , frequented

using

repose"

3 8

and

apparent

quiet

colour

please

the

slow

entertainment, light

and

which t h e

eye

these

3 9

and

Industrial distinction

more

of

the

surfaces

and

is

more

are

area.

"may

express d i g n i t y

However,

at

pleasurable

night,

for

limbic

"tends

to

and when

eating

express

that

such

naturally l i t ,

colour

between

theatre

f o r r o u t i n e or monotonous t a s k s

schemes t h a t

also

clearly

contrasting

with

zones

seems

or Broadway, r e v e a l ,

same s t r e e t s come a b l a z e

offer

u n d e r e s t i m a t e d and

time

Lively

3 7

temporal c h a r a c t e r

neocortex.

motion

glowing

excitement"

of

c o l o u r s of a p p a r e n t l y

the

as commuting, have c o o l hued often

passage

example, s u c h as D r u r y l a n e

temperature which u n d e r l i n e By

actual

f a s t e r i n c o o l hued s u r r o u n d i n g s .

districts, by

with

the

with

and

bright

gaity

and

satisfaction. benefit

cool

hued

warm c o l o u r e d

from work

a

clear

sites

recreation

where

areas

where

colour time

is

it

is

overestimated. Overall, their

regarding

conclusion

tempo, P o r t e r

to Colour

and

M i k e l l i d e s recommend i n

for Architecture

that:

red and the other f u l l y s a t u r a t e d hues- p a r t i c u l a r l y o r a n g e and y e l l o w appear to be ideal colours for incorporation into dynamic spaces where bodily l o c o m o t i o n , p h y s i c a l t a s k s or c i r c u l a t i o n a r e i n v o l v e d , such a s . . . i n d e e d , s t r e e t s , c o n c o u r s e s and pedestrian ways." (Fig.20) 0

(3.3) F u n c t i o n a l Timely Practically, absorption

and

Colour:

timely

reflection

Heat A b s o r b t i o n

colour

and

Reflection.

m a x i m i z e s or m i n i m i z e s the

of m a t e r i a l s

Over t h e

heat

diurnal cycle.

101

(Fig.20) A e s t h e t i c Timely Colour: Tempo S e t t e r . Facade D e t a i l , Vancouver. Red t i l e s e n l i v e n the lower l e v e l of a p l a i n concrete b u i l d i n g with a c o l o u r conducive to movement. The band of red a l s o breaks up the b u i l d i n g ' s height, p r o v i d e s v i s u a l i n t e r e s t at e y e - l e v e l , and c o n t r a s t s with the blue tiles lining the pond to i n t e n s i f y the chromatic e f f e c t of the water.

102

Light

coloured

opaque

surfaces

r e l a t i v e l y c o o l t o t o u c h , and a r e facades likely

and

pavements

around

t o be b a r e f o o t .

thermal l i g h t

to

swimming

to

colour

such

as

contribute

p o o l s where p e o p l e a r e

glass, to

remain

south-facing

I n c o n t r a s t , d a r k opaque s u r f a c e s

materials,

have

reflection.

suited

heat,

r a y s and c o n v e r t them i n t o h e a t l a t e r

Transparent likely

well

reflect

radiated.

are

heat

absorb

particularly

absorbtion

or

Heat a b s o r b i n g g l a s s :

contains a metallic oxide that gives glass a blueg r e e n , b r o n z e , o r g r a y t i n t and a b s o r b s much o f t h e heat from t h e s u n . A c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f h e a t i s d i s s i p a t d e x t e r n a l l y , t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e amount o f heat that i s t r a n s m i t t e d . 4 1

Green

glass

is

i n c r e a s i n g l y p o p u l a r i n V a n c o u v e r , b o t h on

r o o f s such as t h e P r o v i n c i a l C o u r t h o u s e , c u r t a i n w a l l o r windows of

colour,

(Fig.20).

and f a c a d e s , e i t h e r a s a

However, t h i s

functional

use

w h i l e adding t o the o v e r a l l chromatic v a r i e t y of the

e x t e r i o r environment,

does not always c o m p l e t e l y reduce

interior

heat t r a n s m i s s i o n or g l a r e . Heat-reflecting

glass,

available

s i l v e r and g r a y a l s o c o n t r o l s s o l a r glare

by

metallic

having coat

properties.

of

one high

face

of

in

heat

the

transparency

deep

and

glass and

or l i g h t g o l d ,

reduces

daylight

covered with a high

thin

reflective

103

(Fig.21) F u n c t i o n a l Timely

Colour: Heat

Absorption.

New B u i l d i n g , Vancouver. Green g l a s s windows promote heat absorption. A considerable amount of heat is dissipated externally, thus reducing the amount of heat that i s t r a n s m i t t e d indoors, f u n c t i o n a l l y reducing a i r conditioning costs while adding v i s u a l v a r i e t y to the e x t e r i o r facade. Here, the green glass combines with the yellow walls for a harmony of 'similarity'.

104

(4) C i r c u l a t o r y C o l o u r .

Colour between

playing the c i r c u l a t o r y

different

environmental

c o n t r a s t s between n e i g h b o u r i n g In

this

role,

colour

role establishes associations elements.

B o t h c o n t i n u i t y and

hues i n d i c a t e l o c a t i o n a l

contributes

to

the

urban

context.

'legibility'

a d v o c a t e d by L y n c h : s t r u c t u r i n g and i d e n t i f y i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i s a vital element among a l l m o b i l e a n i m a l s . Many k i n d s o f c u e s are used: t h e v i s u a l s e n s a t i o n s of c o l o r , shape, motion or p o l a r i z a t i o n of l i g h t . 8 2

(4.1)

Symbolic C i r c u l a t o r y Colour:

Identity.

I n t h i s p a r t , c o l o u r , e s p e c i a l l y when to

attract

particular giving

attention

to

the' s u r f a c e s

l o c a t i o n and r e p r e s e n t s

identity

orientation.

to

a

applied

i t adorns,

environmental

place,

colour

T h r o u g h s u r f a c e c o l o u r , we

decoratively signals a

'control'.

simplifies

By

spatial

express:

a wide range of v i s u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s from mutual attraction t o e x c l u s i o n as w e l l as s u b t l e d i s t i n c t i o n s such as c o m p l e t i o n s , c l a s h e s , contrasts, bridges and r e i n f o r c e m e n t s between c o m p o n e n t s . 4 3

Chromatic and

identity

with d i f f e r e n t planning

colour

serves

to

(Fig.22

considerable

municipal

contrasts

an

a t s e v e r a l s c a l e s of p e r c e p t i o n

requirements.

distinguish

countryside

also

occurs

&

area

a

Fig.23). planning. from

i n v o l v i n g community p l a n n i n g

city

At

the

from

This

urban

the

i t s neighbours,

to co-ordinate

surrounding

usually

At the d i s t r i c t

efforts

scale,

requires

scale, colour a

part

often

(Fig.24).

1 05

(Fig.22) Symbolic C i r c u l a t o r y Colour: I d e n t i t y . F e s t i v e I l l u m i n a t i o n , Grenoble. Colour through l i g h t s i g n a l l i n g l o c a t i o n at the c i t y s c a l e . This chromatic dynamism d e r i v e s from a combination of c o l l e c t i v e planning and individual enterprise that leave no doubt as to the i d e n t i t y of the p l a c e .

1 06

(Fig.23)

Symbolic

Circulatory

Colour.

C i t y Roofs, Florence. Seen from the h i g h e s t p o i n t i n the c i t y , the r o o f of the C a t h e d r a l , the d i s t i n c t i v e r e d r o o f s o f F l o r e n c e , which c o n t r a s t w i t h the s u r r o u n d i n g g r e e n e r y , give the city a special character. To p r e s e r v e the image of the p l a c e , p l a n n e r s have h e l p e d the c i t y d r a f t laws enforcing a strict range of acceptable roof c o l o u r s .

1 07

(Fig.24)

Symbolic

Circulatory

Colour:

Identity.

G r a n v i l l e I s l a n d and B r i d g e s R e s t a u r a n t , V a n c o u v e r . The e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o u r found i n t h i s area d i s t i n g u i s h e s i t from neighbouring ones. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e p l a c e a r e : (1) t h e use of i n t e n s e c o l o u r s u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n d u s t r y ; (2) a s y s t e m of s t r o n g l y c o l o u r e d i n d u s t r i a l pipes; (3) s t e e l - o u t l i n e d and multi-paned windows and doors as w e l l as c o l o u r f u l l y o u t l i n e d s k y l i g h t s - a l l e x p r e s s i v e of 'technology'; and (4) c o r r u g a t e d s t e e l c l a d d i n g and s t u c c o f i n i s h e s . The y e l l o w r o o f and s i d e s of B r i d g e s R e s t a u r a n t make i t s t a n d o u t as a l o c a l landmark, c l e a r l y visible but, seemingly, mysteriously inaccessible from most directions.

108

At the

street

distinguish

scale, a

structure

consultant provides scheme.

either

Uhl,

from

cohesive

for

architects, adjacent

unity with

example,

in

a

a

'thought through'

ones

and

owners

(Fig.25)

comprehensive

detailed

streetscape unity, o f f e r s s i x suggestions with

builders

or

colour

examination

for unifying

a

a

of

street

colour:

1) E m p h a s i z i n g t h e p l a n a r i t y o f t h e f a c a d e s by p a i n t i n g them a u n i f o r m , l i g h t t o n e on b o t h s i d e s of t h e s t r e e t ; 2) Composing the street in spatial terms w i t h a homogeneous d a r k scheme f o r f a c a d e s and dark asphalt pavements; 3) Having the f o r e g r o u n d c o l o u r of t h e f a c a d e r e l i e f t h e same t h r o u g h o u t , w i t h v a r i a b l e c o l o r s of rendering or v i c e v e r s a ; 4) Applying horizontal stripes of color, dividing f a c a d e s i n t o f o u n d a t i o n , b a s e , window z o n e s , r o o f z o n e , and t h u s l e n g t h e n i n g t h e s t r e e t ' s p e r s p e c t i v e ; 5) H a v i n g t h e f o r e g r o u n d l i g h t and t h e b a c k g r o u n d dark f o r c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r a s t ; and 6) C h a n g i n g f o r e g r o u n d and b a c k g r o u n d f r o m b u i l d i n g t o building in a regular patern.""

Finally,

at

the

i n d i v i d u a l property with colour that

building

and

owners d e c o r a t e

detail

scale

(Fig.26),

surfaces within their

domains

represents:

a s o r t of signature which, apart f r o m a c t i n g as a protective layer, describes personality, status and territory....More s u b t l e c h a n g e s can be f o u n d i n h i g h d e n s i t y a r e a s where c o l o u r and texture play tandem r o l e s i n d e f i n i n g a r e a s of t e r r i t o r i a l s p a c e . " 5

Altogether, aids c i r c u l a t i o n figurative contributes nonprofit,

environmental by

i n t h e p a r t of

'identity'

s y m b o l i c a l l y s e r v i n g as s i g n s of l i t e r a l

'place.' immensely public

colour

In

addition, to

what

interest

symbolic

the

and

C i r c u l a t o r y Colour

Townscape

organization

M a s s a c h u s e t t s , concerned w i t h urban l i v e a b i l i t y ,

Institute, in calls:

a

Cambrige,

109

(Fig.25) Symbolic C i r c u l a t o r y Colour;

Identity.

Broadway Streetscape, Vancouver. Colour here accentuates differences i n the form of b u i l d i n g s along a s t r e e t , s t r e s s i n g the i d e n t i t y of i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r t i e s . The common c o l o u r i s that of the p u b l i c pavement, which i n comparison with that on p r i v a t e facades i s drab, d u l l and d i s o r g a n i z e d . A l l buildings in t h i s group, however d i v e r s e i n s t y l e , emphasise the roof or roof line with colour i n some d i s t i n c t i v e way.

110

(Fig.26) Symbolic C i r c u l a t o r y Colour: I d e n t i t y . Store, Vancouver. Unusual c o n t r a s t i n g c o l o u r s q u i t e u n l i k e those of neighbouring s t r u c t u r e s serve to draw a t t e n t i o n to the place and give i t a d i s t i n c t i d e n t i t y , e s p e c i a l l y as the colours also act as locational clues. In a d d i t i o n , the type of c o l o u r s used i n d i c a t e the nature of the store: hues considered 'cheap' by conventional t a s t e s i g n a l the p o s s i b l i t y of bargains w i t h i n .

111

The human need for connection and identity with place, a relationship that enriches the s p i r i t and heightens one's sense of aesthetic p l e a s u r e . 46

(4.2) Aesthetic Circulatory Colour: Spatial Progression. When playing this part, colour "gives continuity and form to the

experience

of

moving

through

occurs both spontaneously and as a although, this in

spaces." result

of

Such colour use

47

careful

planning

as Bacon laments at the start of a detailed analysis of

part in The Design of C i t i e s : "the purposeful use of colour a

sequential

practice."

48

surrounding

sense

i s almost

unknown

in

contemporary

Both Lynch and Cullen stress that chromatic changes movement engenders an appreciation of

urban

beauty.

Smith, in Architecture and the Human Dimension, offers a specific examination of circulatory a e s t h e t i c s . In

particular,

Smith

49

distinguishes

between

teleological

aesthetics, which involves progression towards a climax or and

lineal

extending

aesthetics,

which

relates

to the kind of urbanism

over considerable areas of a c i t y without reaching

discernible

goal.

goal,

any

Colour contributes to both types of aesthete

progression. Telelogical possible

progression,

attributes.

The

first

which impel movement (Fig.27). teleological pavement

progression

colours,

according

Smith,

has

four

i s facades, such as arcades,

The second factor contributing to

is a

prestige

gradient.

Venetian

for example, indicate proximity to the v i t a l

core of the c i t y , the Piazza San Marco. s t r i c t l y speaking,

to

passages,

grey

In outlying streets, or,

granite

setts

provide

the

1 12

visible

base

for

the b u i l t

environment.

more e x c l u s i v e a r e a s , m o s a i c s s t a r t unusual

colours

Marco b o a s t s Halprin

and

beatiful

notes

of

"can

be

pink

floor

rich

rug

underfoot."

The

third

has

a

the

intermittent

with

the P i a z z a

San

exemplifying,

as

i n the world,

that

the

thrown l i k e

of a v i s i b l e

green

identifying

as a f o u r t h f a c t o r ,

glimpsing

paving

distinctive

downtown,

V a n c o u v e r a c t s as a landmark

of

finally,

spaces

i s the presence

going

Finally,

pavements

a

5 0

often

Vancouverites

white

the P i a z z a , i n

p a t t e r n e d , t e x t u r e , c o l o r e d , and

factor

which

and

decorate

Then,

a l l g r e a t urban

city

goal,

patterns.

to

Nearer

Smith

further

scenes

along

curves

of

road

a

of

the

colour.

Thus,

for

roof

the

their

of

way,

whose

Hotel

destination.

indicates

the

part

the

importance

such

hues

as

the

contrast

with

surroundings. One

of

t h e most d r a m a t i c

progression four

occurs at the

attributes

prestige visible like

of t e l e o l o g i c a l

y e l l o w and secret

most n o t a b l y As

treasure

through

d e s c r i b e d by

Bacon,

the

for

final

chromatic

buildings

with

t r o v e ; and Gate.

with

5 1

a distinct

neutral

I t has

i n t e r m s of a c c e s s i b i l i t y ;

t h e Green

each

in Peking.

black

City's

all

glimpses

viewer

of

first, roofs

the prepare

gleaming

further

passes

Outer

a

the h i g h l y

roofs,

colour, that heighten

climax:

spatial

progression: e l e v a t e d arcades;

g o l d of t h e F o r b i d d e n

zones, the

Imperial Palace

gradient expressed

a

u s e s of c o l o u r t o e m p h a s i z e

scenes,

through

four

anticipation City

t h e eye

for

where fresh

1 13

experiences;

then

brilliant

blue-purple

ornaments; next the

the

most

Inner

City

tile

roofs

brightly and

the gate t o the Imperial

immobile

colour

which

5 2

chromatic

splendor

City

gold

and y e l l o w

r o o f s marking a

through

chromatic

with

gold

i n green,

stability;

contrast

and,

and

between

the

peak o f t h e h e a v e n l y one.

also contributes

consistency

with

and i n t e n s i t y o f t h e F o r b i d d e n

t o p s o f t h e t e m p o r a l w o r l d and t h e b l u e colour

doors

indicates

the

Environmental

red

City, outlined

finally, with

beckoning

to l i n e a l

contrast

progression

(Fig.28).

Smith

specifies: it i s the older cities that are r i c h in contrast between l i g h t and shade, between one b u i l d i n g p l a n e and a n o t h e r , and between c o l o u r s and t e x t u r e s . 5 3

The - c o l o u r s Bacon, "

exemplify

5

progression.

into

articulated." colour

the

pedestrian chromatic

There, u n l i k e

of many c o l o u r s massed

of a l o n g

are

large 5 5

used zones

The n e u t r a l

mall

i n R o t t e r d a m , c i t e d by

contribution

i n North America

together,

where o f t e n

monochromatic

"where t h e p r o g r e s s i o n or

to

subdued

C i r c u l a t o r y Colour,

pleasure

of

variations

i n colour

lineally,

progression

therefore,

through

of

c o n t i n u i t y with

surface backdrop

pedestrians.

contributes

space.

occasional

to

the

Teleologically,

c o n v e y a n t i c i p a t i o n and f u l f i l l m e n t ,

they provide

are

o f movement i s

on pavements and f a c a d e s a c t s a s a complementary

Aesthetic

flowers

flowers

continuity

t o t h e e v e r c h a n g i n g n a t u r a l hues o f p l a n t s and

lineal

change.

while,

114

(Fig.27) A e s t h e t i c C i r c u l a t o r y Colour: S p a t i a l P r o g r e s s i o n . Rue de R i v o l i , P a r i s . The arcade's light and shade pavement patterns, similar in e f f e c t to railway t i e s , heighten the aesthetic pleasure of moving through space by p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y i m p e l l i n g movement and, thus, c o n t r i b u t i n g to the experience of t e l e o l o g i c a l progression.

115

(Fig.28)

Aesthetic Circulatory

Colour:

Spatial

Progression

Pedestrian M a l l , Strasbourg. Black and w h i t e half-timbered facades i n the h i s t o r i c part o f town c o n t r i b u t e to lineal p r o g r e s s i o n t h r o u g h c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r a s t s between l i g h t and s h a d e , v o l u m e s and t e x t u r e s and between d i f f e r e n t b u i l d i n g p l a n e s .

116

(4.3)

Functional C i r c u l a t o r y Colour: Functionally,

legibility

Colour

and a c t s as a spur t o

particularly for

Circulatory

to

Legibility. also

movement.

transportation

planning,

improves

This

actual

part

applies

b o t h f o r v e h i c l e s and

pedestrians. Functional

legibility,

envrionmental

information,

o r shape

be

depends

can on

three

between

for

the

expression

against

i t s background."

f a c t o r s : (1) a p p r o p r i a t e i t s angular

size;

illumination; and

(3)

t h e f i g u r e and i t s background.

that the l i g h t - d a r k contrast

of

i s "the c a p a c i t y w i t h which a f i g u r e

recognized

s i z e of the f i g u r e or contrast

necessary

i s more i m p o r t a n t

This

5 6

(2) t h e

the

colour

Birren

reports

than the chromatic

contrast: b l a c k on y e l l o w h o l d s f i r s t p l a c e , t h e n g r e e n on w h i t e , r e d on w h i t e , b l u e on w h i t e , a n d b l a c k on w h i t e . In strong illumination light c o l o r s on d a r k b a c k g r o u n d s are s u p e r i o r ; i n dim i l l u m i n a t i o n the l i g h t background seems e s s e n t i a l , w i t h d a r k c o l o r s c l e a r l y c o n t r a s t e d on it. Visibility depends a l m o s t e n t i r e l y on c o n t r a s t , w i t h y e l l o w s u p e r i o r t o white because i t produces less b l u r and comples a t t e n t i o n . 5 7

Surface

legibility

i s r e l e v a n t t o r o o f s and facades

as b a c k g r o u n d s t o s i g n s g i v i n g d i r e c t i o n s a n d t o traffic the n o r t h white

markings.

pavements

with

A t L o n s d a l e Quay P u b l i c M a r k e t , f o r e x a m p l e ,

facade c a r r i e s a l a r g e c y l i n d e r announcing

s u p e r i m p o s e d on a d a r k Pavement

serving

'MARKET'

in

background.

markings,

using

high

contrast

d i f f e r e n t i a t e between p e d e s t r i a n a n d v e h i c l e z o n e s , d i v i d i n g d i r e c t i o n s of t r a f f i c

as

and i n d i c a t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e

colours, well

as

driving

1 17

behaviour.

Crosswalk

markings,

a l t e r n a t i n g bands of w h i t e c r o s s i n g s whose p a t t e r n The

addition

legibility

by

of R u t l a n d ,

of

and

a

f u r t h e r c o l o u r and

as

the t o be

as

colour

on

English

to

Fernand

very

few

now

of

urban

more

variations

Kerrisdale,

f o r example, the p r i n c i p a l p e d e s t r i a n

t h e warm r e d hues o f b r i c k

surfaces

colour

to a l t e r

our

mediates

to

common.

the

visual

of t h e b u i l t

environment.

from

instinctive

attention

contrast

be in

b u i l d i n g s and

our

of c o l o u r

effective in relative

t o i d e n t i f y and this

lightness,

d e t a i l s , and

be

also

between

perception

most c o n t r a s t i n g f e a t u r e s of a s c e n e ,

To

Such

5 8

Vancouver's

relation

b r i g h t e s t and

space.

color

Colour.

derives

t h e e y e ' s use

hailed

crosswalks

r o l e ' s power

and

embellish

creative

In

town

(Fig.29).

(5) I l l u s o r y

Illusory

When t h e

planning."

chromatic

contain

are

improves

t h i s move was

examples

seen i n American

'zebra'

crosswalks

Leger

i n the S i x t i e s ,

simple

nature.

texture contrast.

artist

with colour

experimentation

black,

third

l o c a l crosswalks of

example, are o f t e n

symbolically alludes to

Vermont, h i r e d

"one

for

role, occur

seen i n

colours

mainly

context.

to

the

synaesthesia,

to define

the

This

objects used

at the

in

must

scale

of

1 18

(Fig.29) F u n c t i o n a l C i r c u l a t o r y Colour:

Legibility.

K e r r i s d a l e Crosswalk, Vancouver. T h i s crosswalk uses three colours to improve the l e g i b i l e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of s p a t i a l zones, e s p e c i a l l y for p e d e s t r i a n s with impaired vision f o r whom the texture r e i n f o r c e s the chromatic markings. In a d d i t i o n , the c o n t i n u i t y of the warm red hues of surrounding sidewalks across the asphalt roadway emphasizes the importance of p e d e s t r i a n zones and v i s u a l l y l i n k s d i f f e r e n t segments of the shoppping area.

1 19

In

place,

interest

to

Illusory

planners

Colour

p l a y s three p a r t s of p a r t i c u l a r

concerned

with

i t ,symbolically,

urban

attaches

beautification

projects:

(1)

from t h e i r

s e t t i n g s ; (2) i t a e s t h e t i c a l l y emphasizes

a p p e a r a n c e ; a n d , (3) i t f u n c t i o n a l l y ,

(5.1)

Symbolic I l l u s o r y Colour: In

this

ownership, visually This

part,

similarity attaches

i s one

of

surfaces

aspects

of

camouflages.

A t t a c h m e n t and D e t a c h m e n t .

colour, of

or detaches

usually

activities

or

or detaches surfaces

environmental

symbolic

of

architectural

from t h e i r

colour's

property

oldest

style,

surroundings.

parts,

present

throughout h i s t o r y : back t o a n c i e n t t i m e s when a man l i v e d i n a c a v e a t t h e same t i m e a s he b u i l t t e m p l e s , d e l i b e r a t e l y and s y m b o l i c a l l y placed i n the l a n d s c a p e . 5 9

Symbolic I l l u s o r y setting

by

(Fig.30).

using

colours

integrates

culled

S i m i l a r hued p a v e m e n t s

extensions highlight

Colour

of

facade

colour.

from are

especially

their,

surfaces

important

as

Such v i s u a l attachment s e r v e s t o

group u n i t y .

environment

attention

with

neighbouring

In c o n t r a s t , Symbolic I l l u s o r y C o l o u r from

surfaces

with

(Fig.31).

unusual These

or

bright

a

and i n t e n s i f i e s o u r e x p e r i e n c e

c o l o u r s on d i f f e r e n t

hues

that

c o l o u r s d i s t i n g u i s h between

m a t e r i a l s a n d d e f i n e f o r m and volume i n architecture

also isolates

way

that

of i t .

6

0

s u r f a c e s a s w e l l a s on t h e l i n e s ,

openings of a b u i l d i n g c l a r i f y

the s c a l e of the b u i l t

surfaces attract various

celebrates Contrasting p l a n e s and form.

120

(Fig.30)

Symbolic I l l u s o r y Colour:

A t t a c h m e n t and

Detachment.

F l a s e C r e e k Townhouses, V a n c o u v e r . A t t h i s h o u s i n g c l u s t e r , the identical beige facade c o l o u r a t t a c h e s i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s to the group. In a d d i t i o n , as a shade of t h e brown p r e d o m i n a n t as a surface hue in the area, colour links this cluster to n e i g h b o u r i n g o n e s , w h i l e , as an e a r t h t o n e , i t v i s u a l l y t i e s them t o the l a n d s c a p i n g . The r e d r o o f s f u r t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h t h e units as p a r t of a d i s t i n c t c l u s t e r , a l t h o u g h t o a v o i d monotony and t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e somewhat between units, blue-red and orange-red hues a l t e r n a t e i n random p a t t e r n s . A d d i t i o n a l attachment to the a r e a o c c u r s by h a v i n g h o u s i n g w i t h i d e n t i c a l h u e s i n b o t h halves of t h e o r i g i n a l F a l s e C r e e k d e v e l o p m e n t . However, when s e e n f r o m a distance, the red r o o f s d e t a c h t h e c l u s t e r s as a w h o l e f r o m their surroundings and act .as an orientation landmark r e p r e s e n t i n g F a l s e Creek i n g e n e r a l .

121

( F i g . 3 1 ) S y m b o l i c I l l u s o r y C o l o u r : A t t a c h m e n t and

Detachment.

K i t s i l o n o Townhouses, V a n c o u v e r . F a c a d e c o l o u r n o t o n l y d e t a c h e s the development f r o m a c h r o m a t i c , monotone n e i g h b o u r s , b u t a l s o s i g n a l s the d i f f e r e n c e between the commercial lower levels, p a i n t e d a d a r k , p r a c t i c a l g r e y , and t h e b r i g h t e r h u e d , p o l y c h r o m e housing section above. However, even the apparent chromatic d e t a c h m e n t between u n i t s i s an i l l u s i o n : e a c h f l o o r of t h e same cloured section i s a c t u a l l y a separate u n i t .

122

Thus,

by

visually

detaching

surfaces,

symbolically expresses i n d i v i d u a l character

distinction

to

attach

or

detach

m a t t e r of e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t e x t . both approaches. natural

environment

He

and

aesthetic

with

The

for

new

believes that colour,

powers

of

expression... i s

colour

that

is

environment

incorporates

Lenclos

Aesthetic

colour

u r b a n and "by

its

able

to

I l l u s o r y Colour:

t h e eye

deceives

the

a p p a r e n t s i z e , w e i g h t and spatial

Since

warm

cool

seem and

therefore,

and

plastic

natural

imposes

and

an 6 1

rhythmical

release a poetic

dimension

6 2

pleasurably

mind

deceives

through synaesthesia,

depth.

In p l a c e ,

the

mind

environment. including

t h i s power s e r v e s

d a r k c o l o u r s make s u r f a c e s

and

colours

enlarge

narrow passages.

to

to

character.

smaller

light

exemplifies

industrial projects.

s u c h hues make a l a r g e s t r u c t u r e o r s p a c e , plaza,

much a

sympathetic

that

a b o u t t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e b u i l t

Colour

i s very

Altered Spatial Perception.

In t h i s I l l u s o r y p a r t , c o l o u r

underline

special

o r , where no

w h i c h c o m p l e m e n t s t h e man-made e n v i r o n m e n t . "

and

the

work of L e n c l o s

e i t h e r uses c o l o u r

traditional

exists,

artificial

(5.2)

and

Colour

of a b u i l d i n g .

Whether

the

Illusory

the

more i n t i m a t e seem

to

apparent

such

smaller,

as

a

gigantic

In

contrast,

in scale.

expand size

appear

of

space.

hues,

small courtyards

Along s t r e e t s , the background tone

i n f l u e n c e s t h e a p p a r e n t s i z e of d e t a i l s and

Such

of

or

facades

s t r e e t f u r n i t u r e seen

1 23

a t t h e same t i m e , ones,

with l i g h t e r

especially

shades.

Colour

fragmenting

with

contrasting

large

surfaces

altered perception

vertical

(Fig.32

&

heavy.

from a w h i t e

Porter

and

environments.

pattern

height

(Fig.37)

pavement

a

and

offer

instance,

suggestions

establish

and v i o l e t s

positive

roof plane,

horizontal gradations skyscrapers

for

supported

with

at

architectural ascending

a

by y e l l o w looks

top

f o r using the

stability

in

external

gravitational

link

to manipulating

on t h e f a c a d e s

the

t o encourage e q u i l i b r i u m i n

heaviest

exists

" t h e form of

of h i g h - r i s e

higher

mass.

levels A

range

between ascending

buildings

c o l o u r a t t h e i r base."

d a r k , heavy base c o l o u r s anchor s t r u c t u r e s t o t h e hues

to the

These r a n g e f r o m a r t i c u l a t i n g h e a v y c o l o u r s , s u c h

6 3

where

A red roof

pavement,

to

saturated reds, blues

identity

a

of weight a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y

Mikellides

apparent weight of c o l o u r

light

background

Fig.4.1) a n d v e r t i c a l o r

t o emphasize e i t h e r

arrangement of s u r f a c e s .

columns r i s i n g

spaces

and

darker

(Fig.20).

An

as

foreground

a l s o a l t e r s a p p a r e n t s i z e by means o f

h o r i z o n t a l bands on f a c a d e s or w i d t h

o b j e c t s l o o k i n g l a r g e r than

Overall,

ground,

while

reduce the apparent heaviness of

facade g i v e s d i f f e r e n t

ordered

colour

or

of

gradations

l e v e l s of a b u i l d i n g s p e c i a l

(Fig.10).

Regarding perceived colours

appear

heighten

the o v e r a l l

protusions

to

depth, since

advance,

warm,

u s e d on f a c a d e s

sense of e n c l o s u r e

and

dark

spaces.

saturated

edging spaces draw

In c o n t r a s t , c o o l , pale or unsaturated

m i n i m i z e f a c a d e p r o t r u s i o n s and w i d e n

or

attention hues

they to

optically

1 24

(Fig.32) A e s t h e t i c I l l u s o r y Colour: A l t e r e d S p a t i a l Fairmont Medical B u i l d i n g , alter spatial perception large s u r f a c e s : h o r i z o n t a l than height, while the f u r t h e r reduces the a c t u a l

Perception.

Vancouver. Facade c o l o u r acts to by fragmenting the apparent s i z e of white bands emphasize width rather alternating p a t t e r n of purple blocks vastness of a massive block.

125

However, B r u n o T a u t d e m o n s t r a t e d when a r t i s t i c the

planning

division

on

during

i f proper

the planning

dark

lighting of c o l o u r

colours

can

plays

psychological a

more

schemes.

environmental trompe l ' o e i l objects of

effects,

pictorial colour

Aesthetic

part.

Thus,

reportedly

painted

our

surroundings

I l l u s o r y Colour

to

decieve

the

also eye,

a c t s a s an i n t e g r a l e l e m e n t o f l a r g e - s c a l e

paintings

painting.

optical

6 4

(Fig.33).

These

as though they e x i s t e d i n three

the

produce

c o n d i t i o n s a r e taken i n t o account

In a d d i t i o n t o a l t e r i n g t h e appearance of through

of

B e r l i n ' s p u b l i c housing board i n the

1920's t h a t even r e l a t i v e l y widening

director

Used

since

such r e a l i s t i c

attempt

to

represent

dimensions at the surface

ancient

Greece,

when

grapes that b i r d s t r i e d

Zeuxis to

eat

them, t r o m p e 1 ' o e i 1 p a i n t i n g became p o p u l a r a s a c h e a p s u b s t i t u t e for

expensive

cornices,

building

rusticated

without shutters.

materials

stonework,

and e x t e r i o r ornament s u c h a s

stucco

and

windows,

C i t i n g European examples, P o r t e r

with

states:

At the time when t h e work o f a s k i l l e d p a i n t e r a n d decorator cost f a r less than the m a t e r i a l s of rich ornament, the t h r i f t y Genoese resorted t o a sham d e c o r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o b r i n g an i m p r e s s i o n o f o p u l e n c e and e l e g a n c e i n t o t h e i r s t r e e t s . 6 3

or

1 26

(Fig.33) Aesthetic Illusory Colour: Altered Spatial Perception. Kerrisdale Trompe l ' O e i l , Vancouver. Realistic but inexpensive facade embellishment enlivens a blank wall with witty colour that challenges our sense of perspective and gives character to the previously unremarkable building.

1 27

Today,

when

skilled

d e t a i l e d i l l u s o r y colour buildings realistic

such

as

i s u s u a l l y remedial,

the

trompe l ' o e i l

trompe l ' o e i l p a i n t e r s are r a r e , such

Old

Jail

in

f i l l s a blank

often

on

Strasbourg marring

historic

where a very

the

symmetry

of

facade f e n e s t r a t i o n . Now,

trompe l ' o i e l ' s

material.

tend

to

references,

repercussions

(5.3)

in the

often

Functionally, them as

community.

inconspicuous

facade

unforeseen

for i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .

make

but p o s i t i v e

colour

camouflages

surfaces,

as p o s s i b l e or in some way T h i s i s the reverse of

6 7

or

Camouflage.

Colour

changing

using

vivid

plays t h i s part n a t u r a l l y on

the

fur and

f e a t h e r s of many animals, and was

man

in war,

e s p e c i a l l y to conceal m i l i t a r y

air.

than

66

environmental

apparent s i z e or i d e n t i t y . colours

pictorial

monochrome

producing

F u n c t i o n a l I l l u s o r y Colour;

making

more

U s u a l l y commissioned as part of a b u i l d i n g improvement

scheme, they e i t h e r e n l i v e n a blank historic

be

Thus, for instance, the w a l l s and

o r i g i n a l l y used

by

i n s t a l l a t i o n s from the

roof of a b u i l d i n g may

be

p a i n t e d so that a road appears to run across i t . In

more

ordinary

settings

with

environmental colour as camouflage from or d i s t o r t s them. of

a

street

some u n s i g h t l y elements,

either

disguises,

When, for example, "one

improvement

plan

is

of the

recommends

'painting

out'

e l e c t r i c a l boxes and metal brackets

objectives

to t i d y up a l l the b i t s

pieces that accumulate on b u i l d i n g s over the y e a r s , " Trust

distracts

badly

sited

6 8

the

pipes,

that cannot be removed.

and

Civic wires,

128

(Fig.34)

Functional

Illusory

Colour:

Camouflage.

Parkade, Vancouver. T h i s parkade, i n s t e a d of having a unifrom facade colour, such as grey, w i t h v i s i b l e c a r s p r o v i d i n g the occasional v i s u a l v a r i e t y , i s enlivened by bright red piping. This stylized camouflage creates a c e r t a i n mystery about the b u i l d i n g ' s f u n c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y on t h e top floor, as well as brightening the edge of a dark, open interior, accenting a r c h i t e c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t s s u c h as g l a s s c a n o p i e s , and r e d u c i n g t h e a p p a r e n t s i z e and m a s s i n g of t h e s t r u c t u r e .

129

Camouflage (Fig.34).

colour

In

construction, explains

addition it

the

d'Habitation

also

also

serves

to

being

remedies

camouflage

to

at

distract

planned

at

unexpected Le

attention

the

time

of

problems.

Jencks

famous

l'Unite

Corbusier's

in Marseilles:

t h e use o f c o l o r on t h e reveals was conceived as a result of a mistake i n the m u l l i o n d e s i g n when Le C o r b u s i e r was away f r o m h i s o f f i c e . The c o l o u r e d sides were c r e a t e d t o t a k e o n e ' s eye away f r o m the monotony of the window p a t t e r n , but they also serve other i n c i d e n t a l f u n c t i o n s , one o f w h i c h i s to reduce the s c a l e of the g i g a n t i c p r o j e c t . 6 9

The

camouflage

Corbusier's light,

use

successful

into

camouflage

f o r example,

project

that

to

deflect

interiors. also

Porter

to

praises

modified

Le

natural

7 0

d i s t o r t s the

f r a g m e n t i n g s c a l e and decided

now

a p p e a r a n c e of

mass.

'humanize'

a

Architect massive

the

Carlo

housing

i n B o l o g n a by p a i n t i n g e x t e r i o r w a l l s w i t h c u r v e d , m u l t i -

coloured Such a use the

as

paint,

e n v i r o n m e n t by

Santi,

so

of e x t e r i o r c o l o u r

t i n t e d by

Colour built

was

shapes of

totally

unrelated

to

large-scale environmental

name ' S u p e r g r a p h i c s ' .

Porter

the

forms they

colour

covered.

sometimes

earns

explains:

Drawing f r o m Pop A r t s y m b o l i s m , s t r i p e s , a r r o w s , and letterfoms etc. Have been m a g n i f i e d to building proportions as a means o f b r e a k i n g up b l a n k e x t e r i o r p l a n e s , i n some c a s e u s e d p a r a d o x i c a l l y t o change t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l i m p r e s s i o n s of p h y s i c a l f o r m . 7 1

Some curvacious Fig.36).

of

the

facades

most of

distincive eight

These u n u s u a l and

express a philosophy

that:

Supergraphics

tower b l o c k s

witty colour

adorn

in Nanterre

schemes by

the

(Fig.35

Fabio

&

Rieti

1

(Fig.

35 & 36) F u n c t i o n a l

I l l u s o r y Colour:

30

Camouflage.

Apartments, Nanterre. 'The architectural monument to Supergraphics' attempts to camouflage the s i z e of a monumental mass by a p p a r e n t l y random a r e a s o f b r i g h t c o l o u r t h a t f r a g m e n t area. Some c o l o u r s s u g g e s t t h e c o n t o u r s and c o l o u r s o f t h e e a r t h and n a t u r a l f o l i a g e ( F i g . 3 5 ) , w h i l e o t h e r s adapt t h e hues and formations of c l o u d f i l l e d s k i e s ( F i g . 3 6 ) .

131

When a b u i l d i n g i s considered out of s c a l e with i t s s e t t i n g or a s i t e considered devoid of c o l o u r i d e n t i t y , promotes the injection of strong colour as a 'humanizing' element which w i l l introduce a sense of place." 7 2

(6) P i c t o r i a l

In t h i s r o l e , environmental s c a l e outdoor a r t and

and

colour

advertizing.

i s both p r a c t i c a l , s i n c e the white

Colour.

The

contributes

to

large-

power of P i c t o r i a l

Colour

information p o t e n t i a l of a black

image i s increased when t r a n s f e r r e d onto a coloured

p l e a s u r a b l e , as c o l o u r f u l murals and

mosaics

and

image,

are

excellent

symbolically

edifies,

ways to b e a u t i f y c i t y s c a p e . In

place,

Pictorial

Colour

a e s t h e t i c a l l y e n t e r t a i n s or, f u n c t i o n a l l y educates about consumer products.

In a l l these p a r t s , environmetnal c o l o u r a c t s both

the frame and six

main

as an e s s e n t i a l element of the p i c t u r e .

and

Of a l l the

r o l e s environmental colour p l a y s , the P i c t o r i a l one

the most l i k e l y to r e u n i f y the three architecture-

whose

paths

arts-

diverged

painting,

as

is

sculpture

during the Renaissance

when: the age of the s p e c i a l i s t was at hand....The p a i n t e r kept c o l o r as h i s p r i n c i p a l means of expression; the s c u l p t o r turned to form and the a r c h i t e c t to line. This division was true u n t i l r e c e n t l y , and each a r t l o s t something by being separated from the o t h e r s . 7 3

1 32

(6.1)

Symbolic Symbolic

paintings

and

representing Traditionally,

Pictorial

Colour:

'Edifier'.

P i c t o r i a l C o l o u r , most f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d t o sculpture,

serves

religious

mysteries

every c o l o u r

had

to

an

edify or

observers

moral

assigned

facade by

principles.

meaning.

Birren

stresses: T h e r e were few a b s t r a c t i o n s as today, murals that a t t e m p t t o s p i r i t u a l i z e commerce, p r o g r e s s , and w h a t n o t t h r o u g h t h e e m o t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of hue... s y m b o l s and hues were as f i x e d . . . a s t h e l e t t e r s of t h e a l p h a b e t . " 7

S u c h n o t a b l e and

now

monochrome b u i l d i n g s as t h e

Parthenon,

Notre-Dame and W e l l s C a t h e d r a l a l l e x e m p l i f i e d P i c t o r i a l

Colour's

symbolic

medieval

times,

p a r t i n t h e i r polychrome p a s t . sculpture

architectural Originally, Above

and

elaboration,

the Parthenon

columns t i n t e d

the c a p i t a l s , whose

relief

reconstructed

Museum.

painting not

was

were

considered

simply not

a

sculpture, cornices can

be

as

essential

isolated art

pristine

i v o r y , g i l d i n g and

colour

I n a n c i e n t and

marble

to

forms. temple.

c o n t r a s t i n g hues a d o r n e d and

seen

freizes, at the Royal

some

of

Ontario

Porter explains:

t h e p e d i m e n t s and f r i e z e s acted as giant billboards narrating the mythology of a G o l d e n Age. Here, a s t r o n g c o l o u r - much as i t d o e s on modern hoardingsplayed a symbolic role. Blue, f o r example, was associated with 'truth' and 'integrity', colour a t t r i b u t e s w h i c h were l a t e r t o r e - e m e r g e i n t h e c l o a k e d Madonna of C h r i s t i a n s y m b o l i s m . 7 5

In the M i d d l e Ages, P i c t o r i a l of

the

C o l o u r , e n f o r c i n g the

teaching

M y s t e r i e s , s y m b o l i c a l l y e n l i v e n e d c a t h e d r a l facades

as W e l l s ' where a l l one

h u n d r e d and

seventy

six full

size

such

statues

133

were b r i l l i a n t l y revealed,

coloured.

In g e n e r a l ,

exterior colour,

as

research

a t N o t r e Dame

s e e n i n b r i g h t s u n l i g h t , was

v i v i d than i n t e r i o r c o l o u r ,

seen i n

light

diffused

much more

by

stained

glass. Over

time,

problem that addition,

still

and

m a i n l y on

(6.2)

the P r o t e s t a n t

Aesthetic Since

removed

weathering, a

the

Colour.

need

Refomation c r i t i c i z e d

surrounding

for

Islamic

art

is a

Colour:

Renaissance,

p o p u l a r e l e m e n t of

leading

colour

its

use

mosques,

as

occurs

Oriental

Artwork.

Pictorial

Colour

has

d i s t i n c t a e s t h e t i c p a r t , e n t e r t a i n i n g t h e v i e w e r and increasingly

In

temples.

Pictorial

the

from

Today, s y m b o l i c P i c t o r i a l C o l o u r

surfaces

Eastern

suffered

l i f e s p a n of P i c t o r i a l

literacy

'sensuous'.

the

s h r i n e s and

exteriors

reduces the

increased

symbolism w h i l e 'pagan'

these

way

of

the

forming

'urban e x p e r i e n c e ' .

familiarizing

p o t e n t i a l of e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o u r .

played

the

Porter

public

a an

Outdoor with

the

recommends:

Generally, the instrument of colour can be u s e d t o invest e x i s t i n g buildings with a l l the elements of expression, s t o r y - t e l l i n g , a m b i g u i t y and c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t i t l o s t some t i m e a g o . 7 6

Wallpainting Style

ranges

(Fig.38). (Fig.39)

is d e l i g h t f u l l y diverse

from

the

abstract

in

style

(Fig.37)

Murals, in a d d i t i o n to being

to

painted,

or even s c u l p t u r a l i n e f f e c t ( F i g . 4 0 ) .

and the may

friezes

colour

dark.

i n t e r p l a y of

l i g h t and

realistic be

Indeed,

a d v o c a t e s t r e a t i n g m o n o c h r o m a t i c w a l l s as g i a n t v a r i a t i o n from the

source.

tiled Halprin gaining

134

(Fig.37)

Aesthetic Pictorial

Colour:

Artwork.

Office Building, Tel Aviv. Abstract rainbow-style mural exemplifies l a r g e - s c a l e environmental a r t while also educating observers about p o s s i b l e c o l o u r g r a d a t i o n s and e m p h a s i z i n g t h e b u i l d i n g ' s h e i g h t by c h r o m a t i c f r a g m e n t a t i o n . The pavement hues and pattern also s e r v e t o a l t e r s p a t i a l p e r c e p t i o n and a t t r a c t the eye.

135

(Fig.38) A e s t h e t i c P i c t o r i a l Colour: Artwork. 'The Whale', Vancouver. R e a l i s t i c mural e n l i v e n s blank facade with giant outdoor artwork that shows the observer what they might have seen had no b u i l d i n g s e x i s t e d between the parking l o t and the waterfront. Adding an unexpected s p l a s h of c o l o u r and spontaneity to the l a r g e l y subdued hues of the surrounding surfaces i n the f i n a n c i a l d i s t r i c t , t h i s mural i s now a Vancouver landmark, acting as an identifying marker aiding spatial or i e n t a t i o n .

1 36

(Fig.39) A e s t h e t i c

P i c t o r i a l Colour: Artwork.

Courtyard, Barcelona. T i l e d mural o f f e r i n g a fleeting glimpse, through a gate, of P i c t o r i a l Colour p r i m a r i l y as an adornment of p r i v a t e space, but a l s o v i s i b l e from p u b l i c areas.

1 37

(Fig.40) A e s t h e t i c P i c t o r i a l Colour: Artwork. Casa Batllo^, Barcelona. P i c t o r i a l Colour with a a sculptural twist. Both the facade and roof here act as a canvas, exemplifying the p o t e n t i a l of ordinarily flat s u r f a c e s for imaginative e x p r e s s i o n .

138

Specifically, citing University

in

surface since

t h e e x a m p l e o f D a n z i g e r ' s e n t r a n c e t o Hebrew

Jerusalem,

Halprin

urges

making

t h e most o f a

by

u s i n g i t as a c a n v a s f o r w o r k s o f a r t , o r m o d e l i n g it as sculpture, the w a l l g a i n s a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n and a c h i e v e s a s e n s e o f s c a l e , t e x t u r e and shadow pattern, w h i c h makes i t i n t e r e s t i n g f o r t h e p a s s e r b y . 7 7

Wall

paintings

are e i t h e r

sponsors u s u a l l y apply P i c t o r i a l environments

or,

as

modern a r c h i t e c t u r e . either

celebrate

or

in

The

Colour

France,

or spontaneous.

to

improve

Civic

dilapidated

to a l l e v i a t e the harshness

Spontaneous m u r a l s , o f t e n community criticize

indigenous to the s e t t i n g . was

sponsored

One

events,

issues

or

based,

characters

o f t h e most famous f a c a d e

Good, t h e Bad and t h e U g l y

in

of

murals

B a t t e r s e a , London

which:

" g r a p h i c a l l y documented l o c a l d i s c o n t e n t a t the d e c l i n e of

their

a r e a " , o n l y t o be d e s t r o y e d i n t h e p r o c e s s o f u r b a n Pavements, opportunities

as

well

of

facades,

f o r outdoor artwork.

innovative with a r t i s t i c schemes

as

The

floorscapes.

provide

excellent

These

range

from

m u l t i - c o l o u r e d b r i c k s l a i d o u t l i k e a woven

profusions

and

protusions

7 8

F r e n c h a r e among t h e most

a l o n g a r e s o r t ' s promenade, ( F i g . 4 1 ) t o G e r a r d pavement

renewal.

simple tapestry

Singer's

playful

o f b l u e , d e s i g n e d t o amuse

c h i l d r e n with a f a n t a s t i c pretend lake at a high density

housing

scheme

spatial

in

illusions totally

Evry,

and

to

i n C r e t e i l New transformed

open p l a z a b e f o r e

the

evocatively describes:

Victor

Vasarely's

Town where c o l o u r and

the

roof

public

dramatic patterning

of the C e n t r e Commercial buildings.

There,

as

alone and

the

Duttmann

1 39

(Fig.41) Aesthetic

Pictorial

Colour: Artwork.

Plaza, Valras Plage. Pavements a l s o a c t a s c a n v a s e s f o r a r t i s t i c effects with colour. H e r e , t h e m u l t i c o l o u r e d b r i c k s weave a warm pattern i n the s t y l e o f an a b s t r a c t t a p e s t r y . The p o l y c h r o m e i r r e g u l a r p a t t e r n a l s o serves t o fragment the apparent size of the p l a z a .

The roof of the huge shopping centre is a l a n d s c a p e o f emergency e x i t s and v e n t i l a t o r s , painted in s t r i p e s of w h i t e and v a r i o u s b l u e s ; one t h i n k s of t h e s a i l b o a t s on t h e n e a r b y l a k e , and t h e roof itself i s l i k e a body of w a t e r w i t h a new c i t y on i t s h o r i z o n . The plaza i n f r o n t o f t h e C e n t r e de Commerce i s p a v e d e n t i r e l y with glossy blue and white slabs; gently undulating lines create the i l l u s i o n , f r o m n e a r and f a r , of d e p t h , of m o d e l l e d s u r f a c e water in motion. The surrouning b u i l d i n g s , o t h e r w i s e u n r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r , seem a l l t o f l o a t , d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e e a r t h . 7 9

(6.3)

Functional

Pictorial

Colour:

Functionally, Pictorial attracting

attention

advertizing

has

Summerians

used

colour

to

products.

3000

i n f l u e n c e on example,

an

to

makes

Colour

more

sausage.

is

either

indirect

In

t h e c o m m e r c i a l use organ

adorning

store

Environmental

flank walls

of

and

s c a l e of

side

wall

of an

the

to

consumer

the

life

of

a

Colour

record

(Fig.42).

a

with,

pig

As

store,

for stereo

painted

the C i v i c

stresses: P r o p e r l y h a n d l e d i n t e r m s of s i t i n g , s c a l e and volume, [advertizing] can o f f e r a more r a t i o n a l use of c o l o u r t h a n t h e sometimes a r b i t r a r y p a i n t i n g of buildings in different colours. 8 0

Los

music i s a prominant

a keyboard c o r n i c e , a

and

actual

a mural.surrounding a

Pictorial

boasting

part

references

Vancouver,

speakers, a

the

Circus.

Pictorial

shop a mural of g i a n t musicians

When

o c c a s i o n a l l y , i t occurs at the

Hog's Heaven, f o r i n s t a n c e ,

piglet

Colourful

B.C.

blank facades,

Angeles meat-packing p l a n t , w i t t i l y d e p i c t s from

advertizer,

possibilities.

about

t h i s p a r t on

in Piccadilly

a d v e r t i z e m e n t or

since

an

p i c t u r e s t o promote t h e i r wares.

gable ends, although,

Functional

C o l o u r a l s o a c t s as

purchasing

existed

usually plays

s t r e e t , as

Advertizer.

trust

141

(Fig.41) F u n c t i o n a l P i c t o r i a l Colour: A d v e r t i z e r . Black Swan Records, Vancouver. The s i d e facade of t h i s s t o r e features an eye-catching ensemble of painted musicians whose artistic e f f o r t s suggest the type of s t o r e they adorn. Not only does such functional Pictorial Colour attract business unostrusively, but i t a l s o enhances the appearance of the neighborhood.

142

Endnotes

P e t e r S m i t h , A r c h i t e c t u r e and t h e Human D i m e n s i o n G e o r g e G o d w i n , 1 9 7 9 ) , p.85. 1

2

ibid,

p.87.

3

ibid,

p.85.

J o h n R u s k i n , , The S e v e n Lamps o f A r c h i t e c t u r e Y o r k : F a r r a r , S t r a u s s and G i r o u x , 1 9 8 6 ) , p . 1 3 4 . ft

New

Faber Birren, "The Off-White Epidemic: R e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of C o l o r " , AIA J o u r n a l , J u l y , 1977, 5

Tom P o r t e r , p.69.

6

1982),

ibid,

7

Colour Outside

(New

York:

Rosalie Staley, "Granville A r c h i t e c t s Forum, 3 ( 1 ) , 1983, p.9.

Island's

J o o s t B a k k e r , c i t e d i n Sean R o s s i t e r , W e s e t e r n L i v i n g , 18 ( 3 ) , p.28. 9

W. p.20.

1972),

i

1

(1848;

rpt.

A Call p.66.

for a

Watson

Guptill,

p.68.

8

1 0

(London:

Faulkner,

Porter,

p.110

Post-Industrial,"

"The

A r c h i t e c t u r e and C o l o r

(New

Market

Men,"

York:

Wiley,

143

C.L.

1 2

1930).

W o o l l e y , Ur of t h e C h a l d e e s

(New

York:

Scribners,

F a u l k n e r , p.5.

1 3

J.S. Ackerman & C. P e t e r s o n , " A r t of A r c h i t e c t u r e , " E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , 1 (New Y o r k : Encyclopaedia Britannica I n c . , 1979), p.951. 1 4

F a u l k n e r , p.21.

1 5

Hubert R o i g t , L a C o u l e u r , 2nd. E d i t i o n s P o u r q u o i P a s , 1 9 8 1 ) , p.158. 1 6

Ed.

(Arthabaska,

P.Q.:

L.B. Wexner, "The D e g r e e t o which Colors (Hues) a r e Associated with Mood T o n e s , " J o u r n a l of A p p l i e d P s y c h o l o g y , 6 (1954), pp.432-435. 1 7

1

8

Porter,

p.121

1 9

ibid,

p.123.

2 0

S m i t h , p.127.

F a b e r B i r r e n , L i g h t , C o l o r and E n v i r o n m e n t N o s t r a n d , 1 9 8 2 ) , p.55. 2 1

(New Y o r k : Van

L e w i s Mumford, The Brown D e c a d e s , a book whose title captured t h e mood of t h e A m e r i c a n p o s t - C i v i l Wat e r a , when brown b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s were p o p u l a r . 2 2

2 3

Birren,

(1982).

144

2 4

Townscape

M.F. D u t t m a n n , F. ( S a n F r a n c i s c o : W.H.

Schmuck, & J . Uhl, Freeman, 1981), p.32.

Color i n

Warren B o e s c h e n s t e i n , " E x p r e s s i v e Urban C o l o r " , J o u r n a l A r c h i t e c t u r a l and P l a n n i n g R e s e a r c h , 3 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , p.279. 2 5

of

2

6

P o r t e r , p.40.

Paolo P o r t o g h e s i , "Colour 1980), p . 2 0 . 2 7

in

Town",

2 8

R o g e r Moss, "You c a n ' t p i a n t 'em w h i t e

2 9

S m i t h , p.49.

3 0

U h l i n Duttmann e t a l , p . 9 0 .

3 1

ibid.

P.91.

3 2

Smith,

p.129.

3 3

i b i d , p.49.

3 4

(London:

3 5

Rizzoli,

3

6

Domus,

602 ( J a n .

anymore.

Tom P o r t e r & Byron M i k e l l i d e s , C o l o u r f o r A r c h i t e c t u r e S t u d i o V i s t a , 1976), p.39.

Charles Jencks, 1 9 8 0 ) , p.32.

P o r t e r , p.72.

Late-Modern A r c h i t e c t u r e

(New Y o r k :

145

P o r t e r & M i k e l l i d e s , p . 1 0 5 . The e f f e c t o f c o l o u r on o u r s e n s e o f t i m e and tempo o f b e h a v i o u r i s o f s p e c i a l interest to r e s e a r c h e r s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e t o t a l l y a r t i f i c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t s of manned s p a c e c r a f t c e n t r e s . 3 7

F a u l k n e r , p.5.

3 8

ibid.

3 9

Porter & Mikellides,

4 0

a

p.143.

i F a u l k n e r , p.17. K e v i n L y n c h , The Image o f t h e C i t y 1960), p.3.

4 2

Press,

4 3

B o e s c h e n s t e i n , p.278

4 4

U h l i n Duttman e t a l , p . 9 7 .

a

5

Porter,

Ronald Lee House, 1 9 8 2 ) , p.6.

E.N. 1 9 6 7 ) , p.37.

4 8

ibid.

MIT

p.110

4 6

4 7

(Cambridge, Mass.:

Bacon,

F l e m i n g , Facade S t o r i e s

The D e s i g n o f C i t i e s

(New Y o r k : H a s t i n g s

(New

York:

Viking,

1 46

4 9

5 0

p.92.

5 1

Smith,

chap.9-11.

Lawrence

Bacon,

Halprin,

Ro i g t ,

5 3

S m i t h , p.111.

5 5

5 6

5 7

York: R e i n h o l d , 1963),

p.16 5.

Bacon,

ibid,

(New

pp.232-239.

5 2

5 4

Cities

pp.228-231.

p.228.

F a u l k n e r , p.21.

ibid.

P a t r i c i a Sloane, Colour: Basic P r i n c i p l e s , ( L o n d o n : S t u d i o V i s t a , 1 9 6 7 ) , p.70. 5 8

5 9

Foster Associates,

6 0

Porter,

i n P o r t e r and M i k e l l i d e s ,

Directions

p.62.

p.116.

E. Verity, 1 9 8 0 ) , p.150. 6 1

New

C o l o r Observed

(New

York:

Van

Nostrand,

147

6 2

Lenclos,

in Porter & M i k e l l i d e s ,

6 3

P o r t e r and

Mikellides,

6 4

Duttmann,

p.24.

6 5

Porter,

6 6

Fleming,

6 7

Faulkner,

p.143.

p.32.

p.88.

p.20.

Civic S u r r o u n d i n g s , 2nd. 6 8

p.75.

Trust, P r i d e of P l a c e : How t o Improve Y o u r Ed. ( L o n d o n : C i v i c T r u s t , 1 9 7 4 ) , p.51.

Charles Jencks, Modern Movements i n A r c h i t e c t u r e Y o r k : A n c h o r P r e s s , 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 87. 6 9

7 0

Porter,

p.20.

7 1

ibid,

p.118.

7 2

ibid,

p.120.

7 3

Faulkner,

7 4

Birren,

(1982),

7 5

Porter,

p.13.

p.2.

p.185.

(New

7 6

ibid,

7 7

Halprin,

7 8

Porter,

7 9

Duttmann,

8 0

Civic

p.32.

p.132.

p.

126.

p.159.

Trust,

p.50.

1 49

Conclusion

(1)

Summary o f F i n d i n g s

B a s e d on a renowned

about the

literature

examples

of

review

colour

t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o u r may 'Place'

and

'Power'

environmental colour The and

place

social

and has

different

constraints

Pavements

form

but,

the

in

the

attention however,

in

and

ooportunities

the

most

and

cultural

history

influential.

between

they

At

and the

b u i l d i n g s and

s c a l e of b u i l d i n g s and

of

for

s c a l e of

the

s c a l e of

intended details,

relatively

potential.

place

the

whe

streets,

little

Facades, character. seen

from

visible.

in place and

the

various civic

e f f e c t of

local

scae

of

visual important, enlivens

at

cities,

b a c k g r o u n d of

colour

use.

are

regions

moods a r e

offers

p a r t l y because they receive

At

physical

city

modify

ethnic

role,

colour

surface

s l o p i n g r o o f s more

climate.

of

in a

chromatic

preferences

terms

manmade s u r f a c e

i d e n t i t y to a on

or

planner

one

c h r o m a t i c e l a b o r a t i o n and

At the

g e o l o g y , t o p o g r a p h y and activities,

number

factors also influence colour

s c a l e s of p e r c e p t i o n . customs

t e a r and

their

in

playing

a

large-scale

of

recent

parts.

Each

above o r a f a r , w i t h c o l o u r Different

from

largest continuous colour

terms

reveal

far

domain,

Colour.

t h i s t h e s i s shows t h e

i s d e t e r m i n e d by

public

by

'thought through'

that,

Roofs, in t u r n , give colour

all

be

p a r t l y b e c a u s e of wear and

mainly

>

use,

supplemented

many p r e c i s e

of c o l o u r

factors.

R o l e of E n v i r o n m e n t a l

districts,

residents

are

relationships while at surfaces

the and

1 50

either

integrates

Understanding

or

these

isolates

them

The

power

provides

the

ones.

planner

know

' though through' c o l o u r .

power i s b o t h s p a t i a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n e f f e c t .

to

transform

vital

visual

the

appearance

variety.

c o n d i t i o n s t h a t change over qualities

neighbouring

i n f l u e n c e s of p l a c e h e l p s

where t o s e t g o a l s f o r p r o m o t i n g Colour's

from

that vary with

This

of

our

derives

surroundings from

lighting

t i m e and w i t h p l a c e , s u r f a c e s p e c t r a l

the

type

and

texture

of

materials,

a l t e r a b l e a n g l e s of p e r c e p t i o n r e g a r d d i r e c t i o n and d i s t a n c e , and s y n a e s t h e s i a of c o l o u r temparature, power

w e i g h t , d e p t h , and s i z e .

t o i n f l u e n c e our w e l l - b e i n g a f f e c t s both our behaviour

moods.

We

respond

heightened

or

t o c o l o u r i n terms

lowered;

(2)

of:

to

both

c o n t r o l , depending and

In

The

planner

modify

Timely, C i r c u l a t o r y ,

colour's

of:

in

no

'Coding'; 'Heat

and

(3)

'competence' 'thought

aesthetic

and

Background, M e a n i n g f u l ,

I l l u s o r y , and P i c t o r i a l Since the

Roles t o produce the literature

presents

c o n s i s t e n t way, t h i s t h e s i s d i s c u s s e s them i n t e r m s

(1) B a c k g r o u n d

Meaningful

experiences

promote

symbolic,

i t s general

many p r e c i s e p a r t s c o l o u r p l a y s . them

to

either

power.

place, environmental values

seeking

and

emotional,

system;

on t h e e f f e c t s c o l o u r h a s on o u r

c o l o u r taps t h i s

functional

from

aesthetic

t h e n e o c o r t e x and t h e l i m b i c

'cognition'.

through'

arousal,

pleasure, deriving

s o c i a l a n d s p a t i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , and f r o m appealing

(1)

The

'Backdrop',

'Metaphor', (3) T i m e l y

Absorbtion

'Foil',

'Expression

and ' D i r t D i s g u i s e r ' ;

of M a t e r i a l and L i g h t ' , and

' H i s t o r i c a l Reference',

and

Reflection';

(2)

'Tempo S e t t e r ' ,

(4) C i r c u l a t o r y

and

'Identity',

151

'Spatial

Progression',

and

Detachment',

and

(6) P i c t o r i a l

Putting

and

'Legibility';

(5) I l l u s o r y

'Altered S p a t i a l Perception' 'Edifier',

colour

' A r t w o r k ' and

in place

artists,

architects,

However,

decisions

builders by

environmental colour

i s , of

both d i r e c t l y

play of

the

realizable

a v a r i e t y of our

important

surroundings

and

c o n c e r n e d about

the

'rebirth'

colour,

in

through' c o l o u r

and

likely

owners.

role

roles that

Planner.

transform

i n f l u e n c e our

should

of

the

well-being, and

undertake

aware of to

to

appearance the

planner

the

recent

promote

'thought

by:

colour

t o have on

encouragement, and Strategies about

and

awareness and

the

discussing colour of

effects

the

issues

importance

planning

decisions

to of are

i t s role;

(2) Developing

information

the

of

indirectly.

p h y s i c a l environment

professional

environmental

property

p o t e n t i a l of e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o u r

(1) Reading about, o b s e r v i n g increase

responsibility

influence

(2) Recommendations t o t h e Given

the

individual

planners

'Camouflage',

'Advertizer'.

course,

and

and

'Attachment

strategies

of

education,

exemplification,

enforcement.

of e d u c a t i o n the

use

of

i n c l u d e p u b l i s h i n g and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o u r as

distributing well

as

1 52

Guidelines

for local

use

and,

i f necessary,

setting

up

a

commission to develop a c i v i c colour p a l e t t e . To

exemplify

authorities

can

programming,

'thought through' environmental c o l o u r , p u b l i c develop

f o r example

1

colour designations uses

and

public

have continuous local

strategies

to

public

identify

paths,

of

appropriate

jurisdictions

the

aid hues

could

involves

either

of

serve as an

co-operative

consultation

'thought through' c o l o u r

as

a

local

to the m a j o r i t y of c i t i z e n s , the planner i n order to

choice

and

treatment of environmental c o l o u r .

Venice,

may l i m i t the surface colour to o f , as

easily

in

Siena

and

and p u b l i c i t y .

p o l i t i c i a n s with p e r t i n e n t information

hues,

centrally

'thought through' environmental c o l o u r g e n e r a l l y

a d v i s i n g or of sponsorship

acceptable

If a

f o r planners.

strategies

To enforce

be

and could

'cognition'.

d i s p l a y e d , as at T u r i n ' s c i t y h a l l where they

Encouraging

similar

such as the Boston Freedom T r a i l ,

i s developed,

v i s i b l e reference

colour

b u i l d i n g s c o u l d have

or graduated c o l o u r to

palette

systematic

known

a

tradition

must

provide

regulate

the

Such laws, as i n

prescribed

range

of

f o r d i s t i n c t l y hued pavements,

p r o t e c t c o l o u r by r e s t r i c t i n g v e h i c u l a r access

to

avoid

surface

discolouration. These

strategies

aim

to

ameliorate

the appearance of the

b u i l t environment at v a r i o u s s c a l e s of perception and to the

quality

of

life

for c i t i z e n s

by

tapping

p o t e n t i a l of colour to i n f l u e n c e mood and behaviour.

improve

the p o s i t i v e

1 53

The all,

choice

on

places,

the

of

encouraged tastes

played setting

theory,

"The

places,

referee, social

requiring the

T.I.

reformer. should

With

He

results

is,

to

with such

one as

knowledge

problems.

However,

the as

perspective

in a classic

can

play:

on

no

be

of

colour

various

parts

the

civic

domain

use.

and

skills of

of

each

planning

outlines

several

public

servant,

technocrat,

t h a t , as

to

and

article

stage agent,

and

planners of

P r o f e s s i o n a l Planner",

colour

controls

scientific 2

in

some

type

needs

by

through' colour

concludes

i n which the

means,

colourist,

places

In

the

a plurality

in place

above

social

learner

s i n g l e part

and

suffices,

l e a r n i n g which s i t u a t i o n s

require

2

chooses

Ideally,

the

concentrate

regard

technocrat,

power

special

Gunton,

which

refereeing

with

'thought

roles planners

which r o l e s .

of

colour

advocate, bureaucrat,

planners

that

some

potential

the

R o l e of

professional

citizens.

In o t h e r

enforced.

Applying role.

the

exists

example of

planning

of

colour

environmental

(3)

opinions

depends,

environmental

about

the

community

r e a s o n s , a c o n s e n s u s on

exists,

by

n e e d s and

any

for h i s t o r i c a l

and

education

strategies in

colour

often

treatment

of

typical

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and somewhat

Lenclos.

Both

in

efforts

their

colourist,

planner, the

r o l e of

p r o f e s s i o n a l sets goals,

exception,

the

a result,

i s s u e s , the

also

claim

like to

to

similarities

reviews that

use

solve

of

as and the a

objective society's

i s narrower

artistic

in process

planner

identifies

finally

whose s c o p e

invokes

the

than

creativity.

improve

1 54

Professional prevent

communication,

overlap

Then,

and

the

analysis

planner

on

effectuation promote

bridge

is

Enzo

municipal

Supervisor

chromatic

g l o r y of

As

of

lauded

who

aesthetic

pleasure

between

the

keeps

selection

need and

program

the

and

for a

alternative reviewing interest

(3)

the

results.

This

New

texture

overall

efforts,

on

York H o u s i n g modifications

in

of

of

context

an

to

the

i n terms

to

the of

adjudicate These

scale

often

and

the

Planners

advocate, or

the

cause,

to

on

such as

with

initial

goals a

and

particular

of c o l o u r ;

(2)

heritage

sites,

specific

provide

planner

identifying

accept

group.

r e s i d e n t s of C l a s o n

despite

long

identified,

colours.

s u i t s planners

to

scale,

mind

some

such

role.

group

Authority

and

scheme.

debates. at

'competence' of a behalf

and

Turin's

city

serves

positive effects

in a specific the

the

colour

politicians role

as

large

specifically

role

interest

lobbying

on

civic

of a p p r o p r i a t e

i n the

means,

i t s effect

Newman's

specific

use

the

interest

this

expert

situations

1987,

restore

scheme

often play

the

in

chromatic

colour

application

i n : (1)

beneficial

in

doing.

A l e a d i n g example of

' c o n t r o l ' responses,

Even more a c t i v e l y , a

not

style

identification

chromatic

s e t up

1800

are

in

providing

means

to

public

sides

review panels

for

servant

who,

Housing,

its original

differing

concern

works

Gentili

a r e f e r e e when g o a l s

planner,

design

public

guidelines.

Biffi

differences

between knowing and

s u i t e d to evaluate

a planner

widely

gap

the

formulation,

s o l u t i o n s such as

t e r m , now

the as

value i s well

while

facade

Point,

or

Oscar urging

colour

extra cost,

its

and

exemplify

1 55

this role.

Indeed, w i t h

Thompson s t r e s s

regard

to p u b l i c w e l f a r e ,

Friedman

and

that:

in the realm of 'competence', advocacy p l a n n i n g and changes i n norms o f behavioural laws so that individuals can have i m p a c t on t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t , i n t h e p l a n n i n g and p o s t - p l a n n i n g s t a g e s , e x e m p l i f y p o l i c y solutions. 3

In

contrast,

the

planner

as

bureaucrat,

e f f i c a c y of a v a i l a b l e means o f a c h i e v i n g clients the

in

the

s c e n e s and

planning As

identification

f o r and a

with

state

involving colour during the his

aspects

the p l a n n e r working f o r s o c i a l

h i s term as A r t i s t i c

of

a

manifesto

stressed

the

1920's. titled

harmony

t r a d i t i o n of B r u n o

D i r e c t o r f o r the

B e r l i n H o u s i n g B o a r d i n t h e mid

A r c h i t e c t u r e " , he

works b e h i n d

colour.

agent,

in

values,

administrative

f o l l o w s somewhat i n t h e

colleagues

the

o b j e c t i v e s and a s s i s t i n g

o f t h e i r own

i s w e l l s u i t e d t o the

analyzing

Taut

Planning

D i v i s i o n of

Earlier,

speaking

" I n v i t a t i o n to

to

Coloured

need:

t o g i v e b a c k t o a r c h i t e c t s and p l a n n e r s t h e taste for c o l o u r i n s i d e and o u t s i d e h o u s e s . . . c o l o u r i s t h e j o y o f life, and since i t e n t a i l s only l i m i t e d resources we must i n s i s t t h a t i t be a d o p t e d . "

In the more U t o p i a n r o l e of applicable dynamics, directly are as

talents for

P r i d e of

chapter

skills

example,

with

among t h e

are

the leaders

devoted

at

promoting

public.

learner,

the

communication publications

and and

field,

publishing

at

to

colour,

nd

group

working Trust

guidelines

t o Improve Your S u r r o u n d i n g s ,

directly

planner's

B r i t i s h p l a n n e r s a t the C i v i c

in this

P l a c e : How

social

with

consultatively

such a co-

156

ordinating

efforts

some s e n s e of o r d e r F i n a l l y , as the

need

with t o the

social

experimentation colour

and

with

hues r a n g i n g motive,

of

r e f o r m e r , the

selected High planner's

s o c i a l u n i t s , lends

with colour. social

Marne l a V a l l e e . Rieti,

colours

shop keepers to

There,

planning

as

life

by

i s slowly in

professional

perspective

and

In the

probably

skills

grow

as

O v e r a l l , though, largest and

the

more the

p o l i c y formulation further

cities

planner

contribution.

requiring

part

of

planner to

advocate

environmental

complexity

The the

encouraging

'Marne l e has

Bleu'.

a special

power o f c o l o u r as

referee

review

colour

will

colour

clearly

makes

is

in

use. the

making

complex,

and

Research.

d i v e r s i t y of e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o l o u r ' s

provides

ample s c o p e f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h

leading

t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of c l e a r c r i t e r i a

'good c i t y

values.

study.

(3) S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r The

local

Even t h e n , the p r o c e s s of d e c i s i o n about

Fabio

with

thus

role, therefore,

decide as

Town of

than a e s t h e t i c : t o improve

s u i t e d to promoting the

future,

experiemtns

architect

various

providing d i s t i n c t i o n ,

planning

considerable

'blueing'

r e s i d e n t s t o i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s as c i t i z e n s o f Each

on

need f o r

F r e n c h New

explains,

to v i o l e t rather

to

of t h e most n o t a b l e

Porter

approval,

is social

l o c a l q u a l i t y of

place.

perspective

itself

reform occured at the

from t u r q u o i s e

though,

One

bring

Streets.

f o r fundamental s o c i a l change, e s p e c i a l l y the

more s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t

with

house owners and

colour.'

These

suggestions

in

several

role

directions

o f what c o n s t i t u t e s

concern

studies

about

1 57

colour and

and

the

p u b l i c i n t e r e s t , exemplary c o l o u r use e l s e h e r e ,

ways o f d e v e l o p i n g

further

pertinent colour policies.

knowledge i s needed,

informed

decisions,

by

the

planner

In p a r t i c u l a r ,

seeking

to

make

regarding:

(1) Ways o f d i s c o v e r i n g a n d a p p l y i n g the environmental c o l o u r p r e f e r e n c e s o f t h e m a j o r i t y , w i t h b a l a n c e between private and p u b l i c i n t e r e s t s ;

(2) Ways of encouraging public participation i n the promotion of 'thought through' environmental colour, with particular a t t e n t i o n t o t h e needs of s p e c i f i c groups such as r e s i d e n t s of p u b l i c housing p r o j e c t s ;

( 3 ) The c o s t s a n d b e n e f i t s o f a n i n c r e a s e d m u n i c i p a l of l a r g e - s c a l e e n v i r o n m e n t a l a r t ;

(4) The r e p o r t e d experiments with colour

successes elsewhere;

and

failures

of

support

planning

(5) The i m p o r t a n c e o f c o l o u r t o t h e 'image; o f a p l a c e a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y f e l t by r e s i d e n t s , w i t h s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o new, h i s t o r i c o r rundown e n v i r o n m e n t s ; a n d

(6) The d e v e l o p m e n t o f p o l i c y g u i d e l i n e s f o r c o l o u r use i n a particular locale, with s p e c i a l e f f o r t s t o i m p r o v e t h e use o f c o l o u r t o improve environmental cognition for various groups whose ' s e n s e o f p l a c e * i s weak. Altogether, develop

such

strategies

environmental

i n c r e a s e d knowledge w i l l

and

colour,

evaluate

options

help the planner

about

the

role

e s p e c i a l l y i f , a s E i l e e n Marx c o n f i d e n t l y

predicts: la t c i c h e de d'approfondir de l a c o u l e u r e

of

l'urbaniste futur sera sans doute l e sc r i t e r e s q u a l i t a t i f s et q u a n t i t a t i f s e t de l a l u m i e r e , en c o l l a b o r a t i o n

158

etroite avec l e s b i o l o g i s t e s , des p s y c h o l o g u e s , e t des s o c i o l o g u e s q u i a u r o n t d'e'fini l e s b e s o i n s fondamentaux de silence, de l'espace, d'information et de c o m m u n i c a t i o n de l " e t r e h u m a i n . 5

1 59

Endnotes

1

Color

As a d v o c a t e d by M.F. D u t t m a n n , F. Schmuck, and J . i n Townscape (San F r a n c i s c o : W.H. Freeman, 1 9 8 1 ) .

2

Canadian

Uhl,

T.I. Gunton, "The R o l e of the P r o f e s s i o n a l P l a n n e r " , P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , 27, 3, ( F a l l , 1 8 8 4 ) , p p . 3 9 9 - 4 1 7 .

S. F r i e d m a n and S. Thompson, " C o l o u r , Competence and Cognition: Notes towards a P s y c h o l o g y of E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o l o u r " , i n Tom P o r t e r & B y r o n M i k e l l i d e s , Eds., Colour for Architecture ( L o n d o n : S t u d i o V i s t a , 1 9 7 6 ) , p.32. 3

4

(Jan.

Cited 1980),

i n P a o l o P o r t o g h e s i , " C o l o u r i n Town", Domus, p.20.

603

E l l e n M a r x , "Les C o n t r a s t e s de l a couleur", Dessein et Tolra (1972) cited i n Hubert Roigt, La C o u l e u r 2nd. Ed. ( A r t h a b a s k a , P.Q.: E d i t i o n s P o u r q u o i P a s , 1 9 8 1 ) , p.159. 5

(the t a s k of the f u t u r e urban planner w i l l undoubtably be to deepen the q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e c r i t e r i a o f c o l o u r and light, in direct collaboration with biologists, psychologists, and sociologists who will have d e f i n e d the fundamentals of silence, space, information and communication needed t o be human).

160

Glossary. Achromatic: - p e r t a i n i n g t o hues t h a t a r e c o l o u r l e s s , t h a t i n no way are reddish, y e l l o w i s h , g r e e n i s h or b l u i s h . Thus, s i n c e w h i t e , g r e y and b l a c k have no c o l o u r , t h e y are c a l l e d achromatic colours. Aesthetic Colour: -the use of pleasure.

a

specific

colour

Attachment, V i s u a l : - c l o s e d e g r e e s of v i s u a l c o n n e c t i o n its setting.

to

produce

between

an

f e e l i n g s of

object

and

Balance: -having apparent equal weight through Camouflage: -the use of colour to make possible or to change their identity. Chiaroscuro: - l i g h t and shadow e f f e c t s .

synaesthesia.

o b j e c t s as i n c o n s p i c u o u s apparent shape, size

as or

Chromatic: -pertaining to hues h a v i n g a c o l o u r ; t h a t i s , t h a t are some way r e d d i s h , y e l l o w i s h , g r e e n i s h o r b l u i s h .

in

Cognition: -psychological term for an organism's u n d e r s t a n d i n g of an e v e n t o r p l a c e .

or

Chroma ( s a t u r a t i o n ) : - P u r i t y o r i n t e n s t i y of

Colo(u)r: -the aspect of t h i n g s r e f l e c t e d o r e m i t t e d by Colourist: -professional surfaces.

colour.

knowledge

t h a t i s c a u s e d by q u a l i t i e s of them.

s p e c i a l i z i n g i n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g about

Competence: - p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e r m f o r an o r g a n i s m ' s c a p a c i t y e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h the environment.

to

light

coloured

interact

Complexity: -visual novelty r e s u l t i n g f r o m a m i s m a t c h between m a t e r i a l and e x t e r n a l phenomena (antonym of p a t t e r n ) .

stored

161

Contrast: - t y p e of harmony i n v o l v i n g c o l o u r s o f hue, f o r e x a m p l e , r e d and g r e e n .

distinctly

different

Control: -psychological term f o r the emotions of dominance s u b m i s s i o n c a u s e d by an e n v i r o n m e n t a l stimulus. Detachment, V i s u a l : -non-conformity to

setting.

Environmental Colour: - c o l o u r s u r r o u n d i n g us o u t d o o r s i n t h e built especially on the l a r g e manmade s u r f a c e s f a c a d e s and r o o f s .

environment, of p a v e m e n t s ,

Functional Colour: - t h e use of a s p e c i f i c c o l o u r t o meet a p r a c t i c a l which i t i s e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d . Harmony: -colours forming an agreeable, proportionate ' i d e n t i t y ' , ' s i m i l a r i t y ' and ' c o n r a s t ' . Hue:

and

- t h e a t t r i b u t e by w h i c h we d i s t i n g u i s h c o l o u r by p r o p e r t y t h a t makes b l u e d i f f e r e n t f r o m r e d .

Intensity: -chroma o r s a t u r a t i o n of

need

for

whole.

Cf.

kind,

the

colour.

Identity: -(1) individuality of a surface, object harmony o f c o l o u r s of t h e same o r n e a r l y t h e e x a m p l e , monchrome s h a d e s of g r e y .

or place; same hue,

(2) for

L i m b i c System: - o r g a n s w i t h i n t h e m i d - b r a i n and b r a i n stem r e g i o n s t h a t r e s p o n s i v e t o c o l o u r s s t r o n g i n chroma and l i g h t n e s s .

are

Lightness (value): -a measure of how much l i g h t i s r e f l e c t e d f r o m a s u r f a c e i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e amount of l i g h t r e f l e c t e d f r o m an optimal white surface. I n some c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m s , t o d e s i g n a t e a colour's lightness, a reference v a l u e of 'A' i s u s e d , w h i c h w i l l be somewhere b e t w e e n A=100 f o r p e r f e c t w h i t e and A=0 f o r a b s o l u t e b l a c k . Lineal Progression: -aesthetic term f o r movement for w i t h o u t any d i s c e r n i b l e v i s u a l g o a l . Monochrome: -having

o r u s i n g o n l y one

colour.

movement t h r o u g h

space

1 62

Neocortex: - h i g h e r b r a i n r e s p o n s i v e t o more s u b t l e c o l o u r s d e s c r i b e d as ' c e r e b r a l ' o r ' s o p h i s t i c a t e d ' . Pattern: of

(1) d e c o r a t i v e d e s i g n ; complexity).

Polychrome: -having

which

(2) r e g u l a r f o r m o r o r d e r

are

(antonym

several colours.

Primary Colours: -any s e t of c o l o u r s f r o m w h i c h o t h e r c o l o u r s may be d e r i v e d ; a l s o known as b a s i c o r p r i n c i p a l c o l o u r s . T h r e e t y p e s of. p r i m a r i e s may be d i s c u s s e d : 1) A d d i t i v e ( p e r t a i n i n g t o l i g h t ) - r e d , g r e e n and b l u e ; 2) S u b t r a c t i v e ( p e r t a i n i n g t o c o l o r a n t s ) - magenta (minusg r e e n ) y e l l o w ( m i n u s - b l u e ) , and c y a n (minus-red); 3) Psychological (main m e n t a l pairings)chromatic redg r e e n and b l u e y e l l o w , and a c h r o m a t i c black-white. Rhyme: -pleasurable

t e n s i o n between c o m p l e x i t y

and

pattern.

S a t u r a t i o n (chroma): - s t r e n g t h o r i n t e n s i t y o f c o l o u r , word t a k e n f r o m chemistry where i t i s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e s t r e n g t h of a s o l u t i o n . By analogy t o c o l o u r , t h e more p i g m e n t i s c a r r i e d i n a medium, t h e s t r o n g e r , d a r k e r , more s a t u r a t e d that colour becomes. I f any o t h e r c o l o u r i s a d d e d , s a t u r a t i o n d i m i n i s h e s . Scale: -a p r o g r e s s i v e Secondary C o l o u r s : -a mixture of colours.

step

in a classification

either

two

chromatic

Sense of P l a c e : - s p e c i a l i d e n t i t y of a p a r t i c u l a r

system. or

two

achromatic

setting.

Shade: -a t e r m f o r c o l o u r p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d t o i t s d e p t h , o r as d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m one n e a r l y l i k e i t , o r made d a r k e r by admixture of b l a c k ; a g r a d a t i o n of c o l o u r , f o r i n s t a n c e , a d a r k shade of p u r p l e . Similarity: - t y p e of c o l o u r harmony r e f e r i n g t o c o l o u r s l i n k e d by a s h a r e d hue, f o r e x a m p l e , b l u e and blue-green. Supergraphics: - l a r g e - s c a l e w a l l p a i n t i n g , o f t e n u s i n g Pop f r a g m e t n s c a l e and mass.

having

A r t symbolism,

to

163

Symbolic C o l o u r : - t h e use of s p e c i f i c v a l u e s or t h i n g s not

colours to present.

represent

abstract

Synaesthesia: -the p r o d u c t i o n of a m e n t a l s e n s e - i m p r e s s i o n by of a n o t h e r s e n s e ; f o r example, apparent colour temperature.

ideas,

stimulation weight or

Teleological Progression: - a e s t h e t i c t e r m f o r movement t h r o u g h s p a c e t o w a r d s a g o a l climax.

or

Territoriality: -a p a t t e r n of b e h a v i o u r and a t t i t u d e s h e l d by an i n d i v i d u a l or g r o u p t h a t i s b a s e d on perceived, attempted or actual c o n t r o l of a d e f i n a t e p h y s i c a l s p a c e , o b j e c t or i d e a and may involve habitual occupation, d e f e n c e , p e r s o n a l i z a t i o n and m a r k i n g of i t . Tint: - (1) a v a r i e t y of a c o l o u r , e s p e c i a l l y one made l i g h t e r by admixture of w h i t e ; (2) a t e n d a n c y t o w a r d s , a d m i x t u r e o f , a d i f f e r e n t c o l o u r , s u c h as r e d of a b l u i s h t i n t . Tone: - g e n e r a l e f f e c t of c o l o u r or of of c o l o u r , d e g r e e of l u m i n o s i t y Uniformity: -unvarying

sameness,

l i g h t and shade; t i n t , of c o l o u r .

shade

consistency.

Unity: -due

interconnection

and

c o h e r e n c e of

parts.

Value: (1) synonym for lightness; (2) worth, . d e s i r a b i l i t y , utility. Variety: - d i v e r s i t y , a b s e n c e of monotony or u n i f o r m i t y .

164

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