What is Research?

Introduction: What is Research?

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Class Website • www.vivaafrica.info

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Recommended Text Boateng, R. (2014) Research Made Easy, Accra: PearlRichards Foundation. • Students can buy book from the University of Ghana Bookshop from 8th April 2014

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Objectives Research plays a critical role in business and society. However, what makes a piece of exercise of asking questions a research. This chapter seeks to introduce readers to the purpose of research and explain the research process. The learning outcome is to understand what is and what is not research, understand the classifications or different types of research and explain research design. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Why Do Research

Understanding research Steps in Research | Purpose of Research Elements of a Research Proposal Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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What is Research? • Research is an investigation into a particular topic or social/business phenomena.

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What is Research? • This said, one will argue that every investigation on a topic of interest is research. • NO! That is not true.

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What is Research? Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.

1. SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of scientific procedures and principles which the researcher will NEED to follow in order to get reliable and accurate results.

2. ORGANIZED because there is a structure or method for doing research. The research process has a number of steps to guide the researcher. Adapted From Henrichsen, Smith, & Baker (1997) Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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What is Research? Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS. 3. FINDING ANSWERS because every research seeks to answer a question or a number of questions. Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an answer.

4. QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question, then how do we begin the research. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose. Adapted From Henrichsen, Smith, & Baker (1997) Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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So Why Do We Do Research? Create/develop something new Cause something particular to happen Make-sense-of what is happening Explain what is happening/verify Predict what will happen`

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So Why Do We Do Research? Discover/Explore Describe/Understand Explain/Predict or Create Social Phenomena

Research is partly a process of discovery and partly a process of knowledge creation.

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Absence of Research • • • • •

Authority Tradition Common Sense Media Distortion Personal Experience common sources of knowledge, perception and conclusion

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Absence of Research

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

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Who Needs Research? • Research feeds into – Future research – Practice – Policy

Research is needed by researchers, practitioners and policy makers. In these broad categories, there are a number of stakeholders including organizations, communities, government and nongovernmental institutions and society in general.

―And so what?‖ meaning what can we do with your findings and what are its implications? Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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The Research Process Research process is the step by step process of creating and carrying out a research project

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

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The Research Process 1. Selecting a Topic – Research Topic 2. Determining the Problem (Preliminary Literature Review) – Research Problem 3. Determining Research Gaps – Research Gaps 4. Determining the Hypotheses (Prelim. Literature Review) – Research Hypotheses 5. Determining the Objectives – Research Objectives 6. Determining the Question – Research Question 7. Detailed Review of Literature – Literature Review 8. Determining Research Framework – Research Framework (including hypotheses) 9. Designing the Research – Research Design 10. Collecting Data – Research Data Collection 11. Analyzing and Interpreting Data – Research Analysis and Conclusion 12. Informing Others – Research Write Up and Publishing

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Phases of The Research Process • Phase 1: Identify a social or business phenomenon to be studied; • Phase 2: Determine the right question to ask; • Phase 3: Design a research to find answers; • Phase 4: Inform others about the answers to the question or new knowledge.

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Research Process vs Research Design • Not the Same • The researcher‘s plan on how to implement the research in practice is known as the research design. • The research design describes how, when and where data are to be collected and how the data will be analyzed. • Research Design is the subset of the Research Process

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Research Activities are Often Iterative • Flexibility of revisiting previous activities to revise their focus • Rarely linear; it is more realistically cyclical • Researcher needs to have a bird‘s eyeview of the research process

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  

Application of the Research [Whom - Recipient] Purpose or Objectives of the Research [Why] Inquiry Procedure of the Research [Who – Researcher]

TYPES OF RESEARCH

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Types of Research

Application/Use of Research  Basic/Pure research • The scientific community • Focus is on the rigour of the process

 Applied research • Policy or Practice • Focus is on the outcome/implications of results • Evaluation research – Assess the effectiveness

• Social Impact Assessment Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

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Types of Research

Basic and Applied Social Research Compared

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

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Types of Research

Purpose of the Research – To explore (Exploratory research) – To describe (Descriptive research) – To explain (Explanatory research)

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

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Types of Research

Purpose of the Research – To explore (Exploratory research)

Exploratory research seeks to explore an area where little is known or little research has been done either in the context (research site) or on the research topic in that particular context (topic and context) Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

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Types of Research

Purpose of the Research – To describe (descriptive research) Descriptive research seeks to systematically describe a phenomenon or situation or problem. Usually asks the ‗what‘ and ‗how‘ question. For example, what are the attitudes of the community towards the community library or what are the living conditions in the farming communities in Ghana. Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

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Types of Research

Purpose of the Research – To explain (explanatory research) Explanatory research seeks to understand and explain a phenomenon or situation or problem. Usually asks the questions ‗why‘ and ‗how‘ a particular phenomenon occurs or there exist a relationship between two or more factors of a phenomenon. The researcher goes beyond merely describing the characteristics, to analyze and explain why or how something is happening.

For example, why and how do firms achieve value amidst the reported fierce competition in the micro-finance industry? Writing the Proposal - Data Collection Instrumentation http://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/researchcourse/steps.html Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

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Research Methods, Some Notes to Orient You. Source:http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic851950.files/Research%20Methods_Some%20Notes.pdf

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Types of Research

Inquiry Procedure of the Research 1. Approach of the Research 2. Time Dimension of the Research

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Types of Research

Approach of the Research Quantitative: to determine the extent of a problem or the existence of a relationship between aspects of a phenomenon by quantifying the variation. Methods include survey.

Qualitative: to explore the meanings, attitudes, values, beliefs people associate with a phenomenon in order to establish a better understanding, rather than to test to support or disprove a relationship. Useful for describing social phenomena or the nature of the variation... Methods include case study

Mixed-Methods: Combines the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research

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Types of Research

Approach of the Research Quantitative: For example, a researcher may ask, ‗to what extent have students adopted mobile phones? HYPOTHESIS: Students who obtain Grade A never miss a class!

Qualitative: For examples, a researcher may ask, ‗what is the working condition in the banking industry? What are the perceptions of traditional medicines among nurses?

Mixed-Methods: What are the type of primary schools in the city of Accra and the extent of their popularity in the city? Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Types of Research

Time Dimension of Research Time influences research in manner in which data is collected with respect to time. As a result, the number of different types of research, namely: Cross-Sectional Study Longitudinal Study   

Panel Cohort Time-series

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Types of Research

Cross-sectional Study A researcher collects information from a sample drawn from a population. The data you obtain is derived from a cross-section of the population at one point of time.

Longitudinal Study - Panel A researcher can identify a sample from the beginning and follow the specific respondents over a specified period of time to observe changes in specific respondents and highlight the reasons why these respondents have changed.

Longitudinal Study - Cohort Although the population remains the same, different respondents are sampled each time. The researcher‘s aim here is to see if there are changes in perceptions or trends that occur in the study

Longitudinal Study – Time Series A study in which selected aspects (variables) of a phenomenon is studied at different points in time, often with a view to studying social trends. Eg: Trends in the levels of crime OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education

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Structure of Long Essay • • • • • • •

Abstract Chapt. 1 – Introduction Chapt. 2 – Literature Review Chapt. 3 – Context of the Study Chapt. 4 – Research Methodology Chapt. 5 – Results and Discussion Chapt. 6 – Conclusion

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Assignment 1 On Monday, a journalist from Radio Universe interviewed 10 people randomly chosen on the streets on the university campus concerning the state of the Ghanaian economy. Six of the interviews were played on radio as part of their evening news bulletin.

From your understanding of research, do you think Radio Universe conducted a research?

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Assignment 2 The journalist ‗Anas‘ is usually engaged in a number of investigative assignments which generate reports on ills in society. By exposing these ills, Anas seeks to make society better.

From your understanding of research, do you think Anas is conducting research?

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Assignment 3 A student was asked by a lecturer to explain two differences between the simple definition of research and the detailed definition of research. From your understanding of research, what do you think the student should be the student‘s response?

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References 1. Boateng, R. (2014) Research Made Easy, Accra: PearlRichards Foundation. • Students can buy book from the University of Ghana Bookshop from 8th April 2014

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Chapter Two

Selecting A Topic & Literature Review - Part One

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Objectives • Before starting any research, the researcher needs determine the topic or issue to study. • However, the question is how does the researcher select a research topic or issue? Can every topic be researched? What is researchable and what is not researchable? • This session seeks discuss how to select a research topic and start a review on the topic. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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The Research Process 1. Selecting a Topic – Research Topic 2. Determining the Problem (Preliminary Literature Review) – Research Problem 3. Determining Research Gaps – Research Gaps 4. Determining the Hypotheses (Prelim. Literature Review) – Research Hypotheses 5. Determining the Objectives – Research Objectives 6. Determining the Question – Research Question 7. Detailed Review of Literature – Literature Review 8. Determining Research Framework – Research Framework (including hypotheses) 9. Designing the Research – Research Design 10. Collecting Data – Research Data Collection 11. Analyzing and Interpreting Data – Research Analysis and Conclusion 12. Informing Others – Research Write Up and Publishing

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What Can Be Researched The right topic to be researched often depends on a number of factors. First, let‘s consider topics to avoid: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Common/over-used topics Topics related to religion/controversy General/ broad topics Topics that are Too Narrow Controversial Politics related topics

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Selecting A Topic

Common/over-used topics • A number of research areas are very common and have been reused several times by numerous other students. Most importantly, try to be original. You can pick an over-used topic but you can place it in another context or sector. • For example, if internet banking in Ghana has been wellresearched, you may consider a topic on internet banking among rural banks in Ghana.

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Selecting A Topic

Topics related to religion,politics/controversy • Controversies have the propensity to arouse emotions in people, usually because the surrounding issues are highly subjective. • Select this topic – if required by programme of study. • Most importantly – you want to make sure you can complete the research on time and with relevant and appropriate data!

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Selecting A Topic

General/Too broad topics • Some topics are too broad and general in scope, and thus should be avoided. • A research on service marketing is too broad, however, service marketing in the insurance industry may be more appropriate.

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Selecting A Topic

Too narrow topics • Picking a topic that is too narrow should be avoided, because it will be near impossible to find enough information to conduct the research. • For example, consider the research topic ‗Why John broke up with Sarah‘. This topic are too narrow and focused on a single event. • if this topic is changed to: ‗Determinants of break-ups in relationships among undergraduate students‘ – the topic will become more researchable.

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Selecting A Topic

What can influence choice of topic

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Selecting A Topic

What can influence choice of topic YOU

the researcher values, belief, interests, relevance, and personal experiences can influence the choice of a research topic

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Selecting A Topic

What can influence choice of topic SUPERVISOR

Find out the research interests of the potential supervisors; have a discussion with them; read their publications

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Selecting A Topic

What can influence choice of topic Data Source

researchers are sometimes restricted to particular topics because of access to or lack of access to data in the specific field of study or time availability

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Selecting A Topic

What can influence choice of topic Current Trends

researchers can select a topic based on how important a particular issue is perceived to be to society at that point in time

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Selecting A Topic

What can influence choice of topic Sponsor

researchers can also restricted by the sponsor or funding agency. Most funding agencies have specific topics of interests which are based on their goals and objectives.

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Selecting A Topic

What can influence choice of topic Research Gaps

Discrepancies in existing research literature which need to be addressed or areas of study where there are reasonable gaps in the existing literature. The potential contribution to literature lies in the research gap.

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Research Problem – illustrating a research gap Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms

Corporate governance has been identified in previous studies to influence firms' financing or capital structure decisions which also affect performance (see Berger et al., 1997; Friend and Lang, 1988). These empirical studies tended to focus mainly on developed economies with inconclusive results. Very little, however, has been done on corporate governance in Sub-Saharan Africa, especially with respect to firms' financing decisions. In Ghana for instance, economic development and restructuring have introduced modern forms of business activity and diverse financing structures like the Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) in the past two decades (Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993). Thus firms are being exposed to more financing options than previously. It is crucial to determine how current issues in corporate governance affect the financing decisions of Ghanaian firms. This paper specifically examines the relationship between various variables of corporate governance and the capital structure decisions of firms listed on the GSE during the six-year period (1998-2003).

Abor, J. (2007) "Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms", Corporate Governance, Vol. 7 Iss: 1, pp.83 - 92 Ghana Stock Exchange. Ghana Stock Exchange Handbook 1993. Accra, Ghana: Marketing Department, Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993.

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The good research topic must: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Be original; Be of interest to both the researcher and the supervisor; Be timely and relevant; It must make a contribution to existing knowledge or respond to a research gap; Be specific and distinct, not too broad; Incorporate the main purpose of the research; Be clever, captivating and unforgettable; and The research questions that flow from it must be possible to address through a research design.

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RESEARCH GAPS and Topic Selection Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Selecting A Topic

Research Gap - Explained 1. Discrepancies in existing research literature which need to be addressed 2. Areas of study where there are reasonable gaps in the existing literature.

Critical Component of the research problem – and through which research objectives and questions emerge. Hence, the potential contribution to literature lies in the research gap

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Selecting A Topic

Research Gap - Explained • Answers the questions: – – – –

Why should I read your work? Are you just duplicating previous research? What is the potential contribution of this research? Is there any value or something new to be learnt or discovered, described or explained?

Critical Component of the research problem – and through which research objectives and questions emerge

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Types of Research Gaps A.

Issue Gap  An issue which is less discussed, or less represented in literature. Very little is known about this issue.

B.

Theory Gap  A theory or theoretical framework which is less discussed, or less represented in literature. Theory gap can also exist when current theories or conceptual models are inadequate in addressing a particular research issue.

C.

Method Gap  A research method which is less discussed or less represented in literature in respect to a particular research topic/issue. Sometimes researchers make a case for new research methods or approaches to be used for a particular research issue. Inconclusive/conflicting empirical results can also create method gaps.

D.

Context Gap  A research context – geographic region – which is less discussed or less represented in literature, especially in respect to a particular research issue.

E. Level of Analysis Gap  A level of analysis (meta, macro, meso and micro) – which is less discussed or less represented in literature, especially in respect to a particular research issue. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Types of Research Gaps Research gaps are sometimes complex in their presentation, thus two or more types of research gaps are combined to create a Complex Research Gap.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Issue + Context Issue + Theory Issue + Method Issue + Level of Analysis Theory + Context Theory + Method

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Selecting A Topic

Research Gap - How By Reviewing Existing Literature: Establish the field Summarize previous research and complement

Create a research space

Establish Research

1. Identify the broad problem and state its importance 2. State what is significant in what has already been written. 3. Describe the gaps and select the gap you propose to fill in the existing research literature. This then creates an opportunity for you to make a contribution to the research in the area. 4. Establish your research purpose, objectives and questions.

Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from: http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm, on June 25, 2012 Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Problem – illustrating a research issue gap complement

While there has been some research on the general impact of female unemployment (Coyle,1984; Popay,1985), little has been written about the effects of pit closure on women's lives.

Research Gap identified: The effects of pit closure [in coal mining] on women's lives. Gap

Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from: http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm, on June 25, 2012 Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Problem – illustrating a research issue gap Social networking in Public Sector in Mexico The adoption of social media by the government confronts a series of barriers. Some of these barriers relate to records management, privacy and security issues, accuracy, and administration-specific requirements (Bertot et al., 2012; Bryer and Zavattaro, 2011;Landsbergen, 2010 and Sherman, 2011). As social media includes two-way communications, the risk of inserting malware into governments' websites exists (Bertot et al., 2012), so the IT people should be prepared to protect government's information technology infrastructure. Governments that would like to implement social media need to verify if people in charge of updating the media will have the time to update the new communication channel; they also need to answer other questions such as what to post, how and when often they will update (Bryer and Zavattaro, 2011 and Landsbergen, 2010). The lack of resources and procedures could undermine the accuracy of the information posted on social media. Although the use of social media in Mexican state government portals is recent, the development of relationships between government and citizens is growing fast (SandovalAlmazán et al., 2011). However, in contrast with other countries, to our knowledge, there is still no guideline for the use of social media in Mexico. The study of perceived risks, benefits, and strategies will be very helpful in the development of those guidelines.

Sergio Picazo-Vela, Isis Gutiérrez-Martínez, Luis Felipe Luna-Reyes, Understanding risks, benefits, and strategic alternatives of social media applications in the public sector, Government Information Quarterly, Volume 29, Issue 4, October 2012, Pages 504-511, ISSN 0740-624X, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2012.07.002.

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Research Problem – illustrating a theory/model gap In education in general, evaluation has played a vital role for more than one hundred years (Madaus et al, 1983). In English Language Teaching also, evaluation has been a major concern for over twenty years (Strevens, 1976; Stern, 1983; Lynch, 1996). In contrast, it is only recently (Star, 1994; Gardner & Miller, 1999) that attention has been paid to the evaluation of learning outcomes in self-access centres. However, if we are to argue that such centres provide an effective and efficient alternative to other existing modes of language learning, it remains a matter of serious concern that there is no research-based model designed for their evaluation. This paper will suggest four key issues which need to be addressed when considering the development of such an evaluation model…

Research Gap identified: A research-based model for the evaluation of self-access language learning centres. Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from: http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm, on June 25, 2012 Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Problem – illustrating a method gap complement

There have been a number of valuable studies of selfemployment using cross-section data (Rees and Shah, 1986; Blanchflower and Oswald, 1993; Taylor, 1996), all of which present evidence on a number of employment and personal characteristics on the sector. However, none of these studies provides a picture of the changes over the last decade or forecasts the trends in self-employment as the recession of 1990 took hold. Gap

Research Gap identified: The need for a study of the changes in self-employment over the last decade. Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from: http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm, on June 25, 2012 Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Problem – illustrating an issue-context gap Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms

Corporate governance has been identified in previous studies to influence firms' financing or capital structure decisions which also affect performance (see Berger et al., 1997; Friend and Lang, 1988). These empirical studies tended to focus mainly on developed economies with inconclusive results. Very little, however, has been done on corporate governance in Sub-Saharan Africa, especially with respect to firms' financing decisions. In Ghana for instance, economic development and restructuring have introduced modern forms of business activity and diverse financing structures like the Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) in the past two decades (Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993). Thus firms are being exposed to more financing options than previously. It is crucial to determine how current issues in corporate governance affect the financing decisions of Ghanaian firms. This paper specifically examines the relationship between various variables of corporate governance and the capital structure decisions of firms listed on the GSE during the six-year period (1998-2003).

Abor, J. (2007) "Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms", Corporate Governance, Vol. 7 Iss: 1, pp.83 - 92 Ghana Stock Exchange. Ghana Stock Exchange Handbook 1993. Accra, Ghana: Marketing Department, Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993.

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Research Problem – illustrating a context-issue gap complement

Extant literature has fairly covered studies on the mobile phone‟s usage and mobiles for development in sub-Saharan Africa. The studies include mobile phones and fisherman and farmers in Ghana (Boadi et al., 2007); mobile phone sharing practices in Ghana (Sey, 2009); mobile phones and development in Nigeria (Heeks and Jagun, 2007; Jagun et al., 2008); mobile payments in Uganda (Duncombe, 2009) and mobile phone ownership and social capital in Tanzania and South Africa (Goodman, 2005). Despite these studies, there is a call for more studies to test earlier findings in different contexts and in different micro-economic activities in order to contribute to better understanding of the impact of mobile phones in developing economies. Gap Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from: http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm, on June 25, 2012 Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Gaps may be communicated as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Missing issues in literature Limited discussion in literature Conflicts in theoretical approach Missing theoretical model Conflicts/ in empirical methods (data collection and context) 6. Mixed previous empirical results 7. Less contextual evaluation or geographic representation 8. Complex (limited previous results, conflicts, absence, mixed views) Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from: http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm, on June 25, 2012 Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Gap - Identify • Academic Journal Articles – Gaps are usually presented in the introduction of the journal articles These gaps focus on why it is important to read that journal article. It establishes the gaps in the previous research and points out the focus of the journal article. – Future Research Directions or Gaps for Future Research Usually the conclusion of an academic journal article focuses on discussing the implications of the findings of the research and also point out gaps for future research. This is important for researchers to find out the gaps pointed out by previous researchers.

Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from: http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm, on June 25, 2012 Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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6 Steps to Creating a Title for Research 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Identify broad topic and academic discipline Determine the scope Conduct Preliminary Literature Review Write Research Problem Determine Research Purpose, Objectives and Questions 6. Revisit your Topic to create a Title which fits your purpose and questions

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Identify broad topic and academic discipline

Business Problem

Research Problem

Decline in employee productivity

Employee productivity in organizations

How can our company improve the productivity of its employees?

What factors influence employee productivity? What are the characteristics of productive employees?

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Determine the Scope 1. Studying one part of an organization 2. Comparing several parts or functions of an organization 3. Studying one organization 4. Comparing two or more organization 5. Studying a sector/industry

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Creating a Title for Research 1. Identify broad topic and academic discipline 2. Determine the scope

3. Conduct Preliminary Literature Review 4. Write Research Problem 5. Determine Research Purpose, Objectives and Questions 6. Revisit your Topic to create a Title which fits your purpose and questions

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How to identify and locate literature Learn about scholary journals

LITERATURE REVIEW – PART ONE

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What is the Literature Review? A literature review IS: 1.

2.

A synthesis of available resources and materials with a strong relation to the topic in question, accompanied by a description AND a critical evaluation and comparative analysis of each work Focused on a particular question or area of research

Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available: http://www.library.arizona.edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012]

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Why do a literature review? 1. So that your research will have a strong theoretical base on which to stand. The literature review is not a chore to be finished quickly so that you can get on to the meat of your project, or a university departmentimposed hoop to jump through before you can get on with the writing of your thesis or dissertation. It is the very basis of your argument. It places your research in context within your discipline and demonstrates how your research improves your discipline. In other words, the literature review is the meat of your project.

Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available: http://www.library.arizona.edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012]

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Why do a literature review? 2. To justify your research a) To prove that there are gaps in knowledge in your field that merit a closer investigation b) To demonstrate that your work will improve your field in some way, filling in gaps and adding to knowledge in and understanding of your field c) To prove that your work hasn‟t been previously contributed and it is indeed original d) For purely practical considerations: a good literature review demonstrates that you‟ve read extensively in your field, that you have a thorough comprehension of your field and that you are capable of intelligently ad knowledgeably critiquing others‘ work Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available: http://www.library.arizona.edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012]

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A good literature review will help you do the following : – Narrow your research focus; – Pose questions that might not have previously occurred to you; and – Build a knowledge base for future

Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available: http://www.library.arizona.edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012]

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The LR stages are : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Select and refine a topic Identify and Locate literature Ensure Relevance Record and Retrieve Review and Summarize Write

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Identify Literature • Where to Find Research Literature – Periodicals – Scholarly journals – Books – Dissertations – Government documents – Policy reports and presented papers – Existing Statistics and Industry reports

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Scholarly Journals @ UG • http://library.ug.edu.gh/screens/balme/onc ampus.html Or • http://tinyurl.com/ugjournals

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Scholarly Journals @ UG • • • • • • •

EBSCOhost Emerald JSTOR Palgrave Macmillan Journals Sage Journals Online ScienceDirect Wiley – Blackwell

Password may be needed when accessed outside the university network

http://tinyurl.com/ugjournals

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Scholarly Journals @ UG • • • • •

African Journals Online (AJOL) Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) Google Scholar (Multidisciplinary) Topics in Development World Bank Databases

http://tinyurl.com/ugjournals

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Scholarly Journal 1. Emerald - www.emeraldinsight.com username: uofghana password: emerald

Password may be needed when accessed outside the university network

2. EBSCOhost - http://search.epnet.com/ username: s5210036 password: password

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Identify and Locate 1. Go to the journal database 2. Use the search box – Basic Search – Advanced Search

3. Type in your research topic 4. Review results – Check Relevance – Refine search parameters

5. Record and Retrieve 6. Review and Summarize

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Record and Retrieve • Save the document onto your PC • Categorize the documents

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Spider Diagrams summarize a lot of information on one page in a visual and memorable way.

For more on this and other aspects of academic study, see our website at www.reading.ac.uk/studyadvice

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Spider Diagrams Put the main topic in the middle and add key words on the ―arms‖ of the diagram – the key thing is to keep it brief.

For more on this and other aspects of academic study, see our website at www.reading.ac.uk/studyadvice

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Spider Diagrams Put the main topic in the middle and add key words on the ―arms‖ of the diagram – the key thing is to keep it brief.

For more on this and other aspects of academic study, see our website at www.reading.ac.uk/studyadvice

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Read, Review and Summarize Article Summary (one page) 1. Article Reference: Author lastname, Other initials (year of publication) Title of the journal article, Name of the Journal, Volume/Number, page range.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Research Problem/Research Question Research Frameworks Used Research Methods Results/Findings and Discussions Conclusions Gaps for Future Research

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Practice Assignment • Go to www.emeraldinsight.com • Enter the username and password • Search for this paper and download ―Mobile phones and micro-trading activities‖

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The LR stages are : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Select and refine a topic Identify and Locate literature Ensure Relevance Record and Retrieve Review and Summarize Write

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Ensure Relevance After researching • From reading the titles and abstracts, priorities the literature that we have identified and make a note of why it has a high, medium or low priority (at this stage).

• Develop the habit of screening the literature for relevance before we download it or print it out. This way we will not become overwhelmed with all of the reading that we have to do. Santoy, J. (2007) Using Research in Academic Writing, Available: http://www.janiesantoy.com/UsingResearch/3select.html [February 2012] Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available: http://www.library.arizona.edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012]

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Review • When taking notes be sure be clear about when we are quoting and when we are paraphrasing. We cannot risk unintentionally plagiarizing ideas and information, the penalties are harsh and the damage to our reputation could be irreparable. • Always keep the page numbers with anything taken from the literature so that we can easily check back to the quote or idea paraphrased when editing.

Santoy, J. (2007) Using Research in Academic Writing, Available: http://www.janiesantoy.com/UsingResearch/3select.html [February 2012] Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available: http://www.library.arizona.edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012]

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Questions When reading relevant texts and writing the literature review you should ask yourself the following questions 1. How will I organize my discussion of the literature? 2. What headings will I use? 3. What are the grounds for including and excluding literature?

Santoy, J. (2007) Using Research in Academic Writing, Available: http://www.janiesantoy.com/UsingResearch/3select.html [February 2012] Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available: http://www.library.arizona.edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012]

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Literature Review as a process

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Structure of Long Essay & LR • • • • • • •

Abstract Chapt. 1 – Introduction Chapt. 2 – Literature Review Chapt. 3 – Context of the Study Chapt. 4 – Research Methodology Chapt. 5 – Results and Discussion Chapt. 6 – Conclusion

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Descriptive and Analytical Writing

For more on this and other aspects of academic study, see our website at www.reading.ac.uk/studyadvice

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Analyzing and Writing • Two main stages are involved in analyzing the literature: evaluating the source and analyzing the source.

Evaluating A Source – Ask: "Is this item relevant: does it tell me something I need for my research paper/long essay?" If not, then reject it. If so, then continue. – Never simply accept what is written or said.

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Analyzing and Writing: Evaluating A Source Questions to Ask • Who wrote this? • Why did they write this – do they have some particular interest or 'angle' that would make them likely to present data in a particular light (e.g. a company with a financial involvement)? • How did they get their data and come to their conclusions – are there any possible problems with what they have done? • When did they do the work – is it up-to-date, or likely to have been superseded? • What else do you know – does this support or contradict other sources of evidence? Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Analyzing and Writing: Evaluating A Source Triangulation • viewing an issue from various different sources, • evidence types, and • perspectives in order to get a balanced view. • Your overall evaluation will give you a sense of how valuable, or not, the particular source is.

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Example

Analyzing and Writing: Evaluating A Source Social networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon in the social and business lifestyles of employees. Statistics from the 2011 Forbes report on Social networking and business stated that, 85 per cent of workers in America spend a minimum of 30 minutes of working hours to visit social networking websites (Forbes, 2011). These statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent study in South Africa also found that 70 per cent of South African workers interviewed browsed Facebook during working hours (Ngu, 2011). Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of social networking platforms in the workplace, there have been concerns about the implications it has on both employers and employees (Jackson, 2012). While some employers have been reported to be requesting access passwords to employee accounts (California Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011). Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Example

Analyzing and Writing: Analyzing A Source What I am Looking For…?? • If you're looking for some specific item of data, e.g. how many commercial banks are in Ghana? • If you're looking for conceptual models that can inform your research paper, e.g. which model will explain the social determinants of internet banking adoption? • If you‘re looking for examples of the use of particular research methods to study the topic in question in a particular context, e.g. are there any quantitative studies on internet banking adoption in an African country or developing country? Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Example

Analyzing and Writing: Evaluating A Source Social networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon in the social and business lifestyles of employees. Statistics from the 2011 Forbes report on Social networking and business stated that, 85 per cent of workers in America spend a minimum of 30 minutes of working hours to visit social networking websites (Forbes, 2011). These statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent study in South Africa also found that 70 per cent of South African workers interviewed browsed Facebook during working hours (Ngu, 2011). Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of social networking platforms in the workplace, there have been concerns about the implications it has on both employers and employees (Jackson, 2012). While some employers have been reported to be requesting access passwords to employee accounts (California Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011). Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Example

Analyzing and Writing: Synthesizing A Source 1. Select one common sub-theme/argument and divide it into sub-topics that represent paragraph size “chunks.” Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of social networking platforms in the workplace, there have been concerns about the implications it has on both employers and employees (Jackson, 2012). While some employers have been reported to be requesting access passwords to employee accounts (California Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Employee Social Media Privacy Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

Sales and Marketing and Social Media

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Example

Analyzing and Writing: Synthesizing A Source 2. For each “chunk” create a topic sentence that (1) synthesizes the literature to be discussed, and (2) describes the literature to be discussed.

Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of social networking platforms in the workplace, there have been concerns about the implications it has on both employers and employees (Jackson, 2012). While some employers have been reported to be requesting access passwords to employee accounts (California Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011). Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Example

Analyzing and Writing: Synthesizing A Source 3. Support the topic sentences you created in #2 with quotes, paraphrases and references from/on the source material. Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of social networking platforms in the workplace, there have been concerns about the implications it has on both employers and employees (Jackson, 2012). While some employers have been reported to be requesting access passwords to employee accounts (California Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

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A literature review IS NOT: • A summary of available materials without any critical description or component: or • An annotated bibliography

Argument/View and Evidence

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Write – LR as a process The literature review has its own internal structure. It starts with an • Introduction: Opening sentence or paragraph; • Body: discusses the literature in a logical and coherent way. this is where you discuss your sources; and • Conclusion: concludes with a paragraph that relate the literature to the research project. Santoy, J. (2007) Using Research in Academic Writing, Available: http://www.janiesantoy.com/UsingResearch/3select.html [February 2012] Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available: http://www.library.arizona.edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012]

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Structure the Review 1. Chronology 2. Themes  Purpose, Objective  Conclusions/Gaps

3. Methodology 4. Type of Paper  Empirical  Conceptual

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Structuring the literature review Chronologically: for example, if writers' views have tended to change over time. It should show a clear trend or changes in trends. Literature demonstrates that the key factors which contribute to unemployment in Africa have tended to change over time. In the late 1990‘s researchers argued that inflation and low wages contributed to unemployment (Uche, 2000; Benson, 2003). For example a study by Uche (2000) on unemployment in the banking industry in Nigeria highlighted that inflation affected the turnover of banks which had also had an effect in salary payments. Over 2000 bank employees lost their jobs by the end of 1999. On the other hand, by 2004, researchers discussed that lack of capital for start-up initiatives and high interest rates on loans stalled entrepreneurial ventures and contributed to unemployment or the lack of job opportunities (Thakur, 2005). A comparative study (Kinson 2006) on the SME industry in Ghana and Uganda shared similar findings on the effects of startup capital and interest loans on entrepreneurship and unemployment. In a recent study on unemployment in Egypt, Salia (2011) found political instability, poor governance and lack of foreign direct investment to be the critical factors influencing unemployment. Other studies in Cote d‘Ivoire and Sierra Leone attests to these findings (Johnson, 2009; Pern, 2010). In effect, unemployment in Africa may be viewed from a multi-facet perspective. It cannot be reduced to one single factor.

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Structuring the literature review Thematically: take particular themes in the literature, for example in the literature review of poverty and unemployment. Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time. – Structure of Unemployment • What is unemployment • Causes of unemployment

– Structure of poverty • Education, employment, income and poverty

– The Link between poverty and unemployment – Mitigating poverty in the unemployed • Policies for unemployed • Social/relational support • Capacity development

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Structuring the literature review Body: this is where you discuss your sources. thematically: take particular themes in the literature, for example in the literature review of mobiles and micro-trading – Impact of mobiles on micro-trading • What is trading: Trading is about Information – Transaction Costs Theory

• Stages of trading • Benefits of mobiles/technology in commerce/trade – Strategic – Relational – Operational

• Impact of mobiles – Incremental Effects – Transformational Effects – Production Effects

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Structuring the literature review Body: this is where you discuss your sources. methodologically: here, the focus is on the methods of the researcher, for example, qualitative versus quantitative approaches. Method of data collection – Quantitative vs Qualitative vs Mixed-Methods – Survey vs Case Study

Unit of Analysis – – – –

Micro: Individuals Meso: Organizational Macro: National Meta: Global/Cross-country

Region/Geo. Location • Developing vs Developed • Country • Rural vs Urban Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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example

Social networking in workplace

Social networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon in the social and business lifestyles of employees. Statistics from the 2011 Forbes report on Social networking and business stated that, 85 per cent of workers in America spend a minimum of 30 minutes of working hours to visit social networking websites (Forbes, 2011). These statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent study in South Africa also found that 70 per cent of South African workers interviewed browsed Facebook during working hours (Ngu, 2011). Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of social networking platforms in the workplace, there have been concerns about the implications it has on both employers and employees (Jackson, 2012). While some employers have been reported to be requesting access passwords to employee accounts (California Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011). Somehow businesses have to respond to this growing phenomenon. However, the questions are should employers be concerned - what are the potential risks and benefits of social networking in the workplace and how can businesses address the risk? Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Good and Bad Literature Review

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Bad Literature Review Sexual harassment has many consequences. Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt (1983) found that some women students said they avoided taking a class or working with certain professors because of the risk of harassment. They also found that men and women students reacted differently. Benson and Thomson's study in Social Problems (1982) lists many problems created by sexual harassment. In their excellent book, The Professor, Dziech and Weiner (1990) give a long list of difficulties that victims have suffered.

Neuman, W. Lawrence. (2003). Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches, 5th ed, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.

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Good Literature Review The victims of sexual harassment suffer a range of consequences, from lowered self-esteem and loss of selfconfidence to withdrawal from social interaction, changed career goals, and depression (Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt, 1983; Benson and Thomson, 1982; Dziech and Weiner, 1990). For example, Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt (1983) noted that 13 percent of women students said they avoided taking a class or working with certain professors because of the risk of harassment.

Neuman, W. Lawrence. (2003). Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches, 5th ed, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.

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A literature review IS NOT: • A summary of available materials without any critical description or component: or • An annotated bibliography

Argument/View and Evidence

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Literature Referencing The act of providing evidence for arguments and perspectives presented in literature write up – article, long essay, report and et cetera. 1. References provided within the text or the body of the text 2. Compiled references at the end of the text

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References Within Text • In the late 1990‘s researchers argued that inflation and low wages contributed to unemployment (Uche, 2000; Benson, 2003; Mensah et al., 2004). • A comparative study (Kinson 2006) on the SME industry in Ghana and Uganda shared similar findings on the effects of start-up capital and interest loans on entrepreneurship and unemployment. In a recent study on unemployment in Egypt, Salia (2011) found political instability, poor governance and lack of foreign direct investment to be the critical factors influencing unemployment.

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Referencing List •

•

•

Boateng, R. (2011). Mobile Phones and Micro-Trading Activities – Conceptualizing The Link, Info: The Journal for Policy, Regulation and Strategy, Volume 13 Number 5, pp. 48-62. Deakin University Library (2001, April 26). The Literature review [Homepage of Deakin University Library], [Online]. Available: http://www.deakin.edu.au/library/litrev.htm [2001, June 11]. De Vaus, D. (2001). Research Design in Social Research, Sage Publications, London.

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Types of Referencing Popular 1. Harvard Style 2. APA Style 

American Psychological Association

Other types • • •

Chicago Manual of Style AMA (American Medical Association) CSE (Council of Science Editors)

For a list of all referencing styles • http://tinyurl.com/listofrefstyle

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Popular Styles for Students • For Harvard style. Please refer to: – http://tinyurl.com/harvardrefstyle

• For APA style. Please refer to: – http://tinyurl.com/aparefstyle

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Harvard Style Referencing • A reference in the text or citation consists of a name and date • e.g. one or more surnames or the name of an organization -and a date, – – – – –

Smith (2005) or (Smith, 2005) (Wilson & Patel, 2007) or Wilson & Patel (2007) (Wilson and Patel, 2007) or Wilson and Patel (2007) United Nations (1948) Mensah et al. (2009) or (Mensah et al., 2009)

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Harvard Style Referencing: within Text • If the reference name naturally forms part of a sentence, then include it exactly as if no reference is being given. Follow the name by a space and the full year of publication, enclosed in parentheses. (Multiple authorship is dealt with in the same way.) Examples: •

Carson (1970) argued that ... The system developed by Brown & Smith (1986) is ... The declaration of human rights published by the United Nations (1948) was ... AI has been effective as Hamza (1983) claims ... On the other hand, Jones et al. (1988) have reported that ... Carson (1970: 23) argued that... • Carson (1970, p.23) argued that...

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Harvard Style Referencing: within Text Multiple references by the same author(s) can be dealt with by placing a list of years in parentheses. Examples: • Jones (1980, 1983, 1987) has repeatedly argued that ... • The system developed by Brown & Smith (1986, 1988) is . Of if the references are not part of the sentence…. • This point has been made a number of times (Jones 1980, 1983a, 1987; Brown & Smith 1986; Carson 1970), but ...

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Harvard Style Referencing: within Text • Carson's (1970) paper argues ... • The last example is not universally acceptable; the possessive can always be avoided by appropriate re-phrasing, e.g.:

•

A paper by Carson (1970) argues ..

Wrong • An earlier paper Carson (1970) states that... •

It has been claimed that the economic plan has been effective, Hamza (1983).

Correct • An earlier paper by Carson (1970) states that... •

It has been claimed that the economic plan has been effective (Hamza,1983).

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Harvard Style Referencing: within Text • If the reference name does not form a natural part of the sentence, include both the name and the year, enclosed in parentheses, at an appropriate point in the sentence. (A comma can be placed between the name and the year, but this must be done consistently.) • Examples: • An earlier paper (Carson 1970) argues that ... The ARGA program (Brown & Smith 1986) is ... The ARGA program (Brown & Smith, 1986) is ... The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations 1948) specified ... On the other hand, it has been reported (Jones et al. 1983) that ..

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Harvard Style Referencing: within Text • Sometimes I prefer to join two names by "&" rather than "and". An advantage of this is that sentences like: • Both Brown & Smith (1986) and Carson (1970) argue ... are clearer because the "&" and the "and" are distinct

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Harvard Style: List of References Book – – – – – –

Surname, initials (year of publication) Title Edition Publisher Place of publication

Example • Patton, M.Q. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods , 2nd ed., Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.

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Harvard Style: List of References Journal articles – – – – – –

Surname, A.N. (year of publication) "Article title" Journal Title Volume number, Issue number (if it exists) Article page numbers.

Example • Baron, R.M. and Kenny, D.A. (1986) "The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 51 Issue 2, pp. 1173-1182.

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Harvard Style: List of References • Electronic sources • – Website of a company or newspaper     

Name (year of publication) "Article title" available at: full url (accessed date)

 Example – Better Business Bureau (2001), "Third-party assurance boosts online purchasing", available at: http://bbbonline.org/about/101701.asp (accessed 7 January 2002). – Deakin University Library (2001, April 26). The Literature review [Homepage of Deakin University Library], [Online]. Available: http://www.deakin.edu.au/library/litrev.htm [2001, June 11].

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Referencing List •

•

•

Boateng, R. (2011). Mobile Phones and Micro-Trading Activities – Conceptualizing The Link, Info: The Journal for Policy, Regulation and Strategy, Volume 13 Number 5, pp. 48-62. Deakin University Library (2001, April 26). The Literature review [Homepage of Deakin University Library], [Online]. Available: http://www.deakin.edu.au/library/litrev.htm [2001, June 11]. De Vaus, D. (2001). Research Design in Social Research, Sage Publications, London.

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To learn More and Read More • For Harvard style. Please refer to: – http://tinyurl.com/harvardrefstyle

• For APA style. Please refer to: – http://tinyurl.com/aparefstyle

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Chapter Four

Research Proposal

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References • • •

•

•

Babbie, E.R. (2011) The Basics of Social Research [With CDROM and Infotrac], Wadsworth –Thomson Publishing, Belmont, CA. – ISBN – 0495812242 Babbie, E.R. (2005) The Basics of Social Research [With CDROM and Infotrac], Wadsworth –Thomson Publishing, Belmont, CA. Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available: http://www.library.arizona.edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012] Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379 Santoy, J. (2007) Using Research in Academic Writing, Available: http://www.literaturereviewof.com/identifying-gaps[February 2012]

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Research Proposal

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Research Proposal vs Chapter One Research Proposal

Chapter One Outline

Introduction

Research Background

Research Background Research Problem

Research Problem

Research Purpose

Research Purpose

Research Objectives

Research Objective

Research Questions

Research Question

Significance of the Research Literature Review

Proposed Research Methodology

Research Methodology

Significance of the Research

Research Limitations

Research Limitations

Project Schedule

Chapter Outline

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Research Background • Usually provides an introduction to the research issue • It may examine current discourse, trends or views concerning a social phenomena in order to pose a research question • The research question will not be explicitly stated but implied in an argument

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Research Background Social networking in workplace Social networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon in social and business lifestyles of employees. Statistics from the 2011 Forbes‘ report on Social networking and business, stated that, 85 per cent of workers in America spend a minimum of 30 minutes of working hours to visit social networking websites (Forbes, 2011). These statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent study in South Africa also found 70 per cent of South African workers interviewed browsed facebook during working hours (Ngu, 2011). Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of social networking platforms in the workplace, there has been concerns about the implications it has on both employers and employees (Jackson, 2012). While some employers have been reported to requesting access passwords to employee accounts (Carlifornia Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011). Somehow businesses have to respond this growing phenomena. However, the questions are should employers be concerned - what is the potential risks and benefits of social networking in the workplace and how can businesses address the risk?

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Research Problem • A situation in need of a solution, improvement, or alteration; or a discrepancy between the way things are and the way they ought to be.

Foust. C.(2004) Examples of Research Problems, Southwestern Oklahoma State University, available: http://faculty.swosu.edu/cindy.foust/share/ [accessed 17 February, 2012] Burns, N. and Grove, S. (1995) Understanding nursing research. W.B. Sunders, Philadelphia. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Problem 1 Social networking in Public Sector in Mexico The adoption of social media by the government confronts a series of barriers. Some of these barriers relate to records management, privacy and security issues, accuracy, and administration-specific requirements (Bertot et al., 2012; Bryer and Zavattaro, 2011;Landsbergen, 2010 and Sherman, 2011). As social media includes two-way communications, the risk of inserting malware into governments' websites exists (Bertot et al., 2012), so the IT people should be prepared to protect government's information technology infrastructure. Governments that would like to implement social media need to verify if people in charge of updating the media will have the time to update the new communication channel; they also need to answer other questions such as what to post, how and when often they will update (Bryer and Zavattaro, 2011 and Landsbergen, 2010). The lack of resources and procedures could undermine the accuracy of the information posted on social media. Although the use of social media in Mexican state government portals is recent, the development of relationships between government and citizens is growing fast (SandovalAlmazán et al., 2011). However, in contrast with other countries, to our knowledge, there is still no guideline for the use of social media in Mexico. The study of perceived risks, benefits, and strategies will be very helpful in the development of those guidelines.

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Research Problem Example 2 Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms

Corporate governance has been identified in previous studies to influence firms' financing or capital structure decisions which also affect performance (see Berger et al., 1997; Friend and Lang, 1988). These empirical studies tended to focus mainly on developed economies with inconclusive results. Very little, however, has been done on corporate governance in Sub-Saharan Africa, especially with respect to firms' financing decisions. In Ghana for instance, economic development and restructuring have introduced modern forms of business activity and diverse financing structures like the Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) in the past two decades. Thus firms are being exposed to more financing options than previously. It is crucial to determine how current issues in corporate governance affect the financing decisions of Ghanaian firms. This paper specifically examines the relationship between various variables of corporate governance and the capital structure decisions of firms listed on the GSE during the six-year period (1998-2003).

Abor, J. (2007) "Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms", Corporate Governance, Vol. 7 Iss: 1, pp.83 - 92

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Research Purpose as part of Research Problem • A purpose is a concise, clear statement of the specific goal or aim of the study. The purpose includes the variables, population, and setting for a study. The study seeks to explore the perceived risks and benefits of social media among public servants from Mexico, and especially the strategic elements to include social media in egovernment policy and as a communication channel with citizens. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Purpose = Problem Statement • The purpose of this study is to understand [what] of [who or what] involving [what or who] from [when] to [purpose].

The study seeks to explore the perceived risks and benefits of social media among public servants from Mexico, and especially the strategic elements to include social media in egovernment policy and as a communication channel with citizens. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Problem & Research Objective • Research problem: typically a rather general overview of the problem with just enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding of the research [it may include the research purpose] • Research objective: more specific, focused statements and questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the study

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Research Problem & Research Objectives/Statement •

Research Problem [begin with description of the problem from literature and practice and end with research purpose]

– The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of high school students to mandated drug testing programs.

• Research Objective – This study examines the differences between males' and females' attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs.

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Research Objective The study seeks to explore the perceived risks and benefits of social media among public servants from Mexico, and especially the strategic elements to include social media in egovernment policy and as a communication channel with citizens. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are: 1. To investigate the main risks of using social media in government 2. To investigate the potential benefits of using social media in government. 3. To investigate strategic guidelines to take advantage from social media in government

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Research Question • Research questions are interrogative statements that focus on what variables or concepts are to be described and what relationships might exist among them.

Foust. C.(2004) Examples of Research Problems, Southwestern Oklahoma State University, available: http://faculty.swosu.edu/cindy.foust/share/ [accessed 17 February, 2012] Burns, N. and Grove, S. (1995) Understanding nursing research. W.B. Sunders, Philadelphia.

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Research Question RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are: 1. To investigate the main risks of using social media in government 2. To investigate the potential benefits of using social media in government. 3. To investigate strategic guidelines to take advantage from social media in government.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. What are the main risks of using social media in government? 2. What are the potential benefits of using social media in government? 3. What could be some strategic guidelines to take advantage from social media in government?

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Good Research Questions  Is your research question clear? research questions must be as clear as possible to offer direction

 Is your research question focused?  Is your research question complex? Research questions should not be answerable with a simple ―yes‖ or ―no‖ or by easily-found facts. They should, instead, require both research and analysis on the part of the researcher. Retrieved online from the George Mason University Writing Centre http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/resources-template.php?id=59 Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Good Research Questions: CLARITY  Unclear: Why are social networking sites harmful?  Clear: How are online users experiencing or addressing privacy issues on such social networking sites as MySpace and Facebook?  The unclear version of this question doesn‘t specify which social networking sites or suggest what kind of harm the sites are causing. It also assumes that this ―harm‖ is proven and/or accepted. The clearer version specifies sites (MySpace and Facebook), the type of harm (privacy issues), and who the issue is harming (users). A strong research question should never leave room for ambiguity or interpretation. Retrieved online from the George Mason University Writing Centre http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/resources-template.php?id=59 Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Good Research Questions: FOCUS • Unfocused: What is the effect on the environment from global warming? • Focused: How is glacial melting affecting penguins in Antarctica? • The unfocused research question is so broad that it couldn‘t be adequately answered in a book. The focused version narrows down to a specific cause (glacial melting), a specific place (Antarctica), and a specific group that is affected (penguins). When in doubt, make a research question as narrow and focused as possible. Retrieved online from the George Mason University Writing Centre http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/resources-template.php?id=59 Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Good Research Questions: COMPLEXITY Too simple: How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.?

Appropriately Complex: What are common traits of those suffering from diabetes in America, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the medical community in prevention of the disease? • The simple version of this question can be looked up online and answered in a few factual sentences; it leaves no room for analysis. The more complex version is written in two parts; it is thought provoking and requires both significant investigation and evaluation. •

As a general rule of thumb, if a quick Google search can answer a research question, it‘s likely not very effective.

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Research Objective The study seeks to explore the perceived risks and benefits of social media among public servants from Mexico, and especially the strategic elements to include social media in egovernment policy and as a communication channel with citizens. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are: 1. To investigate the main risks of using social media in government 2. To investigate the potential benefits of using social media in government. 3. To investigate strategic guidelines to take advantage from social media in government

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Literature Review/Relevant Literature • The literature review section in a research proposal often seeks to explain the concepts behind the research and also present a theoretical approach to addressing the research questions. This is often difficult for new researchers as they may not be sure of theoretical approach/model/factors to use for the research they are yet to begin. • As a general rule of thumb, you can use this section to introduce the relevant literature you need to read or review for your research. Also explain the key concepts in the research and possible factors or issues to be explored. If a research framework has been identified you can mention it. This is a good starting point. • That is why it is good to categorise literature and identify the keywords in your research.

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Example: Mobiles Phones and Micro-trading This study investigates the impact of mobile phones on the micro-trading activities of women traders in Ghana. To obtain answers to this objective, four strands of literature will be reviewed. The first strand will explore the concept of trading/commerce from the perspective of the transaction cost theory. Transaction cost theory is arguably the most commonly used theory in studying issues relating to assessment of the impact of ICTs on commerce or trade (Pare, 2003). Transaction costs are described as ―the costs of running a system‖ (Williamson, 1985: 19). The study will use the costs involved in micro-trading. The second and third strands of literature will review literature on features of mobile phones and benefits of using those mobile phones in the reducing costs of trading. The fourth strand of literature will examine the impact of mobile phones generated by virtue of the benefits. Mobile phones are conceptualized to have three effects on its adopters – incremental or amplification, transformational and production (Heeks and Jagun, 2007). These effects will be used to analyze the impact of mobile phones on trade. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Methodology

PROPOSED

• Identify the type of study to be carried out – Quantitative or Qualitative or Mixed Methods study – Unit of Analysis: Individual/households, Organizations, Industry, Country

• What research strategy will be used to conduct the study and why were those strategies were selected? – Case study or survey

• Where data will be collected and what methods will be used? Why – Study Population – Primary Data: Questionnaires, Interviews, Observation – Secondary Data: Industry reports, company documents

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Example: Gender Differences in E-banking Adoption • The study will use a quantitative approach to study the gender differences in the adoption of e-banking services among university students. The study population are students in the University of Ghana Business School. A study by Turkson (2009) found that students enrolled in finance and accounting programmes are more likely to adopt e-banking services. A survey will be carried out on a sample selected from students in the third and fourth year enrolled in finance or accounting programmes. • A questionnaire concerning the adoption and use of e-banking services will be administered to 150 students. The study will also examine statistics on student banking activities from campus banks.

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Significance of the Research This section discusses the potential benefits or implications of this research study on Future Research, Practice and Policy

– Implications to research: how does it inform research area? – Implications to Practice (managers, practitioners, employees, organizations etc) – Implications to Policy (if applicable)— what do your findings tell government, international community, development agencies etc. Source: Boateng (2011) Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Example: E-banking in Rural Banks •

•

•

The significance of the study can be viewed along three strands: research, practice and policy. Concerning the research significance, this study goes beyond current research on e-banking in rural banks by examining the strategies for implementing and integrating ebanking technologies. Literature on strategic perspective on e-banking in rural banks is arguably non-existent on Ghana and perhaps this spreads to the West-Africa region. Concerning significance to practice, the study will provide guidelines to other rural banks on the factors which influence e-banking adoption and strategic options to address challenges in managing and sustaining e-banking applications. This will be very helpful to ARB Apex Bank and to rural banks in its network. Concerning significance to policy, the study will provide feedback on policies driving the computerization of rural banks which is critical to the operations of financier, the Millennium Challenge Corporation, the government of Ghana and other donors who have interest in supporting ICT integration in rural banks. These contributions to practice and policy will become necessary to the development of more advanced or complex functionalities for rural banks including internet banking and mobile banking.

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Research Limitations • Limitations are influences that the researcher cannot control. They are the shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled by the researcher that place restrictions on your methodology and conclusions. Any limitations that might influence the results should be mentioned. – your analysis – the nature of self-reporting – the instruments you utilized – the sample – time constraints

http://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/researchcourse/develop_writing_methodology_limitations.html Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Delimitations • Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which should be mentioned. They describe the boundaries that you have set for the study. This is the place to explain: – the things that you are not doing (and why you have chosen not to do them). – the literature you will not review (and why not). – the population you are not studying (and why not). – the methodological procedures you will not use (and why you will not use them). Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might reasonably expect you to do but that you, for clearly explained reasons, have decided not to do. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Limitations and Delimitations • Points out the limitations in the research issues which may influence the research • Definitional concepts – what is included and what is not

• Scope and Constraints – which respondents will not be involved and, perhaps why

• Variables - Which data will not be collected/studied

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Research Limitations and Delimitations

Example: E-banking in Rural Banks • A sample size of 50 computerized RCBs will be selected out of the 97 based on proximity for ease of data collection and time constraint for the study. The study will not cover the use of electronic channels such as ATM, POS, mobile phone and internet since these channels have not yet been deployed to the banks. It will only focus on the computerization project under the mandate of the ARB Apex Bank. • Also there is a possibility that some of the respondents may not return their questionnaires since it will touch on their financial and operational performance before and after computerization. • The study will focus more on the banks than their customers in assessing the challenges and prospects of the project. Source: Boateng (2011) Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Project Schedule • Activities to done • Time required • Time it will be finished

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Project Schedule

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Project Schedule

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Project Schedule • • • •

Activities to done – Use the Chapter Outline Assess how much time you have Be Realistic Consider ―No Show of Data‖ – Time required – Time it will be finished

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Chapter Outline • Present an outline for the long essay detailing the objective of each chapter • Gives an indication on the number of chapters in the dissertation

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Example: Use of Technology by Health Care Professionals • The first chapter comprises; research background, research problem, research purpose, objectives of the study, research questions, research significance, scope and limitation of research and the chapter synopsis/organization of research. • Chapter two focuses on a review of relevant literature on the overview of HIS and research framework. The third chapter entails the context of the study, which covers the brief overview of the health care system in Ghana and the profile of the case setting. • Chapter four deals with the methodological approaches which highlights on study area, source and study population, sampling techniques and sample size, data collection instrument and method, data processing and mode of analysis, variables and ethical considerations. Chapter five entails data presentation, analysis, and discussion of findings. Finally, chapter six comprises the summary, conclusions and recommendations. The references and appendices follow this chapter. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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References 1. Babbie, E.R. (2011) The Basics of Social Research [With CDROM and Infotrac], Wadsworth – Thomson Publishing, Belmont, CA. – ISBN – 0495812242 2. Babbie, E.R. (2005) The Basics of Social Research [With CDROM and Infotrac], Wadsworth – Thomson Publishing, Belmont, CA. 3. Burns, N. and Grove, S. (1995) Understanding nursing research. W.B. Sunders, Philadelphia. 4. Burns, N. and Grove, S. (2007) Understanding nursing research. 4th ed. New Delhi: Elsevier. 5. Foust. C.(2004) Examples of Research Problems, Southwestern Oklahoma State University, available:http://faculty.swosu.edu/cindy.foust/share/ [accessed 17 February, 2012] 6. McMIllan (2010) Educational Research: Fundamental for the Consumer, Pearson Education, Inc.Companion Website for Educational Research, Available: http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_mcmillan_edresearch_4/16/4150/1062447.cw/index.html [accessed February, 2012] 7. Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379 8. The Writing Center (2009) How to write a research question, The Writing Center, George Mason University, Available: http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/resources-template.php?id=59[accessed February, 2012]

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Chapter Five

Research Theory Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Objectives • To explain the role of theories in the research process • To introduce students to different research theories and conceptual models relevant for business and social science research

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Research Framework • Presents the way of studying variables/concepts concerning a phenomena in order to find/investigate the solution for the research problem • It outlines the relationships between the variables/concepts in manner which explains or predicts a social phenomena within a specific research problem

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.

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Research FRAMEWORK • It is called a research framework because it FRAMES the Research • Outlines relationships = how concepts or variables relate to explain or predict a particular social phenomena

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Research Framework – Forms part of the literature review – An outcome of the literature review which provides direction for data collection and analysis

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Structure of Long Essay • • • • • • •

Abstract Chapt. 1 – Introduction Chapt. 2 – Literature Review Chapt. 3 – Context of the Study Chapt. 4 – Research Methodology Chapt. 5 – Results and Discussion Chapt. 6 – Conclusion

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Research Framework

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Example: Mobiles and Micro-trading What is the impact of mobiles on microtrading activities of market traders? 1. How do market traders use mobiles? 2. What benefits do market traders obtain from mobiles? 3. What is the impact of benefits of using mobiles in micro-trading activities of market traders?

Source: Boateng (2011) Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Framework (Conceptual)

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Research Framework – exists in a form… of • Theory – Theoretical framework • Hypotheses • Mathematical model

• Conceptual – Factor/Concept based-model (no specific theory) • Literature review • Hypotheses (may propose) or mathematical model

– Factor/Concept based-model (revised a theory to test) • Modified from a theory or a number of theories • Hypotheses (may propose) or mathematical model Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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THEORY-BASED FRAMEWORKS

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Theory • “A coherent set of general propositions used as principles of explanation, understanding and/or prediction of the apparent relationships of certain observed phenomena”. • Has been empirically tested & verified • can be shown as schematic diagram or mathematical equation

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Framework (theoretical) Theory of Planned Behaviour

H1

(Azjen, 1991)

H2

H3

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H5

H4

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Theory as a mathematical equation the Theory of Reasoned Action can be expressed as the following equation: • where: • BI = behavioral intention • AB = one's attitude toward performing the behavior • W = empirically derived weights • SN = one's subjective norm related to performing the behavior Hale, J.L.; Householder, B.J. & Greene, K.L. (2003). The theory of reasoned action. In J.P. Dillard & M. Pfau (Eds.), The persuasion handbook: Developments in theory and practice (pp. 259–286). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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Research Framework – exists in a form… of • Theory – Theoretical framework • Hypotheses • Mathematical model

• Conceptual – Factor/Concept based-model (no specific theory) • Literature review • Hypotheses (may propose) or mathematical model

– Factor/Concept based-model (revised a theory to test) • Modified from a theory or a number of theories • Hypotheses (may propose) or mathematical model Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Factor-based model (Conceptual – literature review) Low wages

Political Instability H1 H4

Lack of start-up capital

H2

H3

High Interest Rates

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Unemployment

Factors which contribute or cause Unemployment (Literature Review)

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Research Framework (conceptual) Age H1 H6 H2

H3

H5

H4

Modified from Theory of Planned Behaviour (Azjen, 1991)

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TYPES OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

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Conceptual Framework • Are analytical schemes • Simplify reality to make it easier to discuss, analyze or research • Simplify reality by selecting certain phenomena/variables and suggesting certain relationships between them;

Fisher, C. (2010) Researching and Writing a Dissertation, An Essential Guide For Business Students, Pearson Education Limited, Essex.

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Conceptual Framework: CAUSE AND EFFECT

• Cause and effect conceptual frameworks identify the various factors which affect a phenomena • They are often the basis of hypothesis type of research. The arrows are converted into series of hypothesis

Fisher, C. (2010) Researching and Writing a Dissertation, An Essential Guide For Business Students, Pearson Education Limited, Essex.

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Factor-based model (Conceptual – literature review) Low wages

Political Instability H1 H4

Lack of start-up capital

H2

H3

High Interest Rates

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Unemployment

Factors which contribute or cause Unemployment (Literature Review)

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Conceptual Framework: Stages in a process

• Process-based conceptual frameworks show how concepts are related in process which has stages/phases and lead to an outcome • The sequence can be linear or cyclical process

Fisher, C. (2010) Researching and Writing a Dissertation, An Essential Guide For Business Students, Pearson Education Limited, Essex.

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Research Framework (Conceptual – no theory) Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Research Framework (Conceptual – no theory)

Source: Boateng (2011) Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Conceptual Framework: Hierarchical relationships

• Hierarchy-based conceptual frameworks show how concepts are related in higher or lower positions on a scale. • The higher concept or factor has to be at the apex and lower at the base of the hierarchy

Fisher, C. (2010) Researching and Writing a Dissertation, An Essential Guide For Business Students, Pearson Education Limited, Essex.

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Maslow Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Conceptual Framework: Maps and Coordinates

• Map-based conceptual frameworks show how concepts are related through vertical and horizontal scales of a map. Most common are two scale maps. • In a two-by-two matrix, or table each scale or axis is divided into two.

Fisher, C. (2010) Researching and Writing a Dissertation, An Essential Guide For Business Students, Pearson Education Limited, Essex.

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SECI Model

Source: Nonaka &Takeuchi (1995) Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Conceptual Framework: Force-Field Diagram or Pairs of opposites

• Force-Field Diagram conceptual frameworks show the duality between concepts. They demonstrate the competing forces which can bring about a change in social phenomena. Driving Forces Competitive opportunity

Restraining Forces Lack of resources

New Employees

Manager attitude

Stakeholder pressure

Low awareness of environment

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Conceptual Framework: Gap Analysis

• Gap-based conceptual frameworks use concepts to expose gaps in the phenomena which need to be addressed • Gaps may show a discrepancy or failure in the phenomena.

Fisher, C. (2010) Researching and Writing a Dissertation, An Essential Guide For Business Students, Pearson Education Limited, Essex.

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For Example: SERVQUAL •

SERVQUAL is a multi-item scale developed to assess customer perceptions of service quality (Parasuraman et. al., 1988).

•

The scale decomposes the notion of service quality into five constructs as follows: – – – – –

Tangibles - physical facilities, equipment, staff appearance, etc. Reliability - ability to perform service dependably and accurately Responsiveness - willingness to help and respond to customer need Assurance - ability of staff to inspire confidence and trust Empathy - the extent to which caring individualized service is given

SERVQUAL represents service quality as the discrepancy between a customer's expectations for a service offering and the customer's perceptions of the service received, requiring respondents to answer questions about both their expectations and their perceptions (Parasuraman et. al., 1988). Parasuraman,A., Berry,Leonard L. and Zeithaml,V.A., (1988) ―SERVQUAL: A Multiple-Item Scale For Measuring Consumer Perceptions of Service Quality‖, Journal of Retailing, 64, 1, 12-40.

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Defining Theory • A theory is an organised, coherent, and systematic articulation of a set of issues that are communicated as a meaningful whole. • Theories provide complex and comprehensive conceptual understandings of things that cannot be pinned down: how societies work, how organizations operate, why people interact in certain ways.

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Use of Theories • • • •

used to help design a research question, guide the selection of relevant data, interpret the data, and propose explanations of causes or influences.

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Building Blocks of A Theory • Constructs are abstract concepts specified at a high level of abstraction that are chosen specifically to explain the phenomenon of interest. • Propositions are associations postulated between constructs based on deductive logic. The empirical formulation of propositions, stated as relationships between variables, is called hypotheses. • Logic acts like a ―glue‖ that connects the theoretical constructs and provides meaning and relevance to the relationships between these constructs. • All theories are constrained by Assumptions about values, time, and space, and boundary conditions that govern where the theory can be applied and where it cannot be applied. Bhattacherjee, Anol (2012) Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, And Practices, Global Text Project Reeves et al (2008) BMJ 2008;337:a949 doi:10.1136/bmj.a949

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Research Framework (theoretical) Theory of Planned Behaviour

H1

(Azjen, 1991)

H2

H3

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H5

H4

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Where can we find theories • Literature • Database of Theories – www.tinyurl.com/businesstheory – www.tinyurl.com/financetheories

• Ask Academic supervisors/lecturers

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Theories in Economics & Finance www.tinyurl.com/financetheories

Popular: Arbitrage Pricing Theory, Rational Choice Theory, Prospect Theory, Cumulative Prospect Theory, Monte Carlo Option Model, Binomial Options Pricing Model, Gordon Model, International Fisher Effect, Black Model, and Legal Origins Theory. The Arbitrage Pricing Theory, for example, addresses the general theory of asset pricing. The Arbitrage Pricing Theory states that the return that is expected from a financial asset can be presented as a linear function of various theoretical market indices and macro-economic factors. Here it is assumed that the factors considered are sensitive to changes, and that is represented by a factor-specific beta coefficient. Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) proposes how rational investors should use diversification in order to optimize their portfolios. It also discusses how a risky asset should be priced. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Finance_theories Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Theories in Economics & Finance Schools of Thought • Classical • Marxism • Keynesian (positive) • Neoclassical synthesis • Austrian School Economic Systems • Free market capitalism • Market socialism • Central planning • Mercantilism • Shock therapy • Washington consensus www.tinyurl.com/financetheories Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

Economic Cycles • Keynesian (normative) • Monetarism • The Phillips curve • Permanent income hypothesis • Rational expectations • Time consistency • Financial accelerator • Financial instability hypothesis • Lender of last resort Growth • Neoclassical growth • New growth theory • Creative destruction • Human capital • The rule of law • Limits to growth 214

Theories in Economics & Finance Global Trade • Comparative advantage • Heckscher-Ohlin trade model • New trade theory • Optimal currency area • The impossible trinity • Purchasing power parity Choice • Rational choice • Game theory • Public choice • Expected utility theory • Prospect theory

www.tinyurl.com/financetheories

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Markets • The invisible hand • Marginalism • The tragedy of the commons • Property rights • Polluter pays principle • Adverse selection • Moral hazard • Efficient market hypothesis • Rent seeking Tax & Spend Policies • Tax incidence • Excess burden • Supply-side economics • Crowding out

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Theories in Accounting theory • New approaches to accounting theory include: – the events approach – the behavioural approach – the human information processing approach – the predictive approach – the positive approach • Each of these approaches has generated new methodologies and interest, and has employed unique ways of looking at accounting problems

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Theories in Accounting theory The nature of the events approach/School of thought

• The events approach suggests that the purpose of accounting is ‗to provide information about relevant economic events that might be useful in a variety of decision models‘ • The characteristics of an event may be directly observed and are of economic significance to the user • Given the number of characteristics and the number of events susceptible to observation that might be relevant to the decision models of all types of users, the events approach suggests a tremendous expansion of the accounting data presented in financial reports. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Theories in Accounting theory The value school The value school, also called the use-need school, considers that needs of users are known sufficiently to allow the deduction of an accounting theory that provides optimal input to the specified decision models

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Theories in Accounting theory Financial Statements Reporting • In the value approach: – the income statement is perceived as an indicator of the financial performance of the firm for a given period – the statement of cash flows is perceived as an expression of the changes in cash • In the events approach: – the income statement is perceived as a direct communication of the operating events that occur during a given period – the statement of cash flows is better perceived as an expression of financial and investment events – in other words, an event‘s relevance rather than its output on cash flow determines the reporting of an event in the statement of cash flow Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Theories in Accounting theory The normative events theory of accounting

• The normative events theory of accounting has been tentatively summarised as follows: – „In order for interested persons … to better forecast the future of social organizations, … the most relevant attributes … of the crucial events … which affect the organization are aggregated … for periodic publication free of inferential bias‟ • The objective of the normative events theory of accounting is to maximise the forecasting accuracy of accounting reports by focusing on the most relevant attributes of events crucial to the users Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Theories in Marketing Hierarchy-Of-Effects Theory :

A series of steps a consumer goes through in which they receive and use information in order to reach a decision about which actions to take, for example, whether or not to purchase a product.

A hierarchical representation of how advertising influences a consumer's decision to purchase or not purchase a product or service over time.

Read more: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/hierarchy-of-effectstheory.asp#ixzz26gBdREsi

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Theories in Marketing SERVQUAL •

SERVQUAL is a multi-item scale developed to assess customer perceptions of service quality (Parasuraman et. al., 1988).

•

The scale decomposes the notion of service quality into five constructs as follows: – – – – –

Tangibles - physical facilities, equipment, staff appearance, etc. Reliability - ability to perform service dependably and accurately Responsiveness - willingness to help and respond to customer need Assurance - ability of staff to inspire confidence and trust Empathy - the extent to which caring individualized service is given

SERVQUAL represents service quality as the discrepancy between a customer's expectations for a service offering and the customer's perceptions of the service received, requiring respondents to answer questions about both their expectations and their perceptions (Parasuraman et. al., 1988). Parasuraman,A., Berry,Leonard L. and Zeithaml,V.A., (1988) ―SERVQUAL: A Multiple-Item Scale For Measuring Consumer Perceptions of Service Quality‖, Journal of Retailing, 64, 1, 12-40.

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Theories in Marketing (strategy) • The structure-conduct-performance model attempts to explain "why some industries, on average, are more profitable than others." • The efficiency perspective provides insights into "why some firms in an industry are more profitable than others." • Porter Models provide insights into "how the structural characteristics of an industry and the competitive strategy pursued by a business jointly determine the performance of a business.‖ • The resource-based view of the firm attempts to explain superior firm/business performance in terms of firm-specific skills and resources that are rare, valuable, non-imitable, and characterized by absence of equivalent substitutes. • Institutional theory suggests that the actions of firms and the outcomes of these actions are influenced by the knowledge systems, beliefs, and rules that characterize the context of the organization. Varadarajan, Rajan P. and Satish Jayachandran. (1999) ―Marketing strategy: An assessment of the state of the field and outlook‖, Academy of Marketing Science, (Spring), 120-143

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Theories in Marketing • Game Theory • Game theory is a mathematical concept that analyzes how strategic interactions between individuals, or agents, produce outcomes based on the agents' choices. The agents may be assumed to have conflicting priorities. •

Collective Intelligence

• The theory of collective intelligence holds that groups are smarter and more productive than the sum of their parts. • Generational Theory • Generational marketing theory holds that consumers born of the same generation -- defined as a 20-year period -- have common attitudes and behaviors because of shared experiences that influenced their childhoods and shaped their views of the world. •

Pew Internet reported in a 2010 study that millennials, who are 18 to 33 years old, are most likely to access the Internet wirelessly. Generation X, on the other hand, who are ages 34 to 45, are more active than millennials in such activities as researching financial information. Uhlig, D.K. (n.d) Theories of Digital Marketing, Demand Media Retrieved on July 22, 2012 from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/theories-digital-marketing-36397.html

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Theories in Marketing • There are more marketing theories which are applicable to the specific area of study – Consumer behavior – Relationship marketing – Corporate social responsibility – Service marketing – enterpreneurship

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Theories in Management (motivation) Taylor • Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 – 1917) put forward the idea that workers are motivated mainly by pay. His Theory of Scientific Management argued the following: – Workers do not naturally enjoy work and so need close supervision and control – Therefore managers should break down production into a series of small tasks – Workers should then be given appropriate training and tools so they can work as efficiently as possible on one set task. – Workers are then paid according to the number of items they produce in a set period of time- piece-rate pay. – As a result workers are encouraged to work hard and maximise their productivity. http://tutor2u.net/business/gcse/people_motivation_theories.htm

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Theories in Management (motivation) • Herzberg • Frederick Herzberg (1923-) had close links with Maslow and believed in a two-factor theory of motivation. He argued that there were certain factors that a business could introduce that would directly motivate employees to work harder (Motivators). However there were also factors that would demotivate an employee if not present but would not in themselves actually motivate employees to work harder (Hygienefactors) •

Motivators are more concerned with the actual job itself. For instance how interesting the work is and how much opportunity it gives for extra responsibility, recognition and promotion. Hygiene factors are factors which ‗surround the job‘ rather than the job itself. For example a worker will only turn up to work if a business has provided a reasonable level of pay and safe working conditions but these factors will not make him work harder at his job once he is there.

http://tutor2u.net/business/gcse/people_motivation_theories.htm

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Theories in Management (motivation) • Herzberg • Herzberg believed that businesses should motivate employees by adopting a democratic approach to management and by improving the nature and content of the actual job through certain methods. Some of the methods managers could use to achieve this are: • Job enlargement, Job enrichment and Empowerment

http://tutor2u.net/business/gcse/people_motivation_theories.htm

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Theories in Management (motivation) • Maslow • Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) along with Frederick Herzberg (1923-) introduced the Neo-Human Relations School in the 1950‘s, which focused on the psychological needs of employees. Maslow put forward a theory that there are five levels of human needs which employees need to have fulfilled at work. • A business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfill each need in turn and progress up the hierarchy. Managers should also recognise that workers are not all motivated in the same way and do not all move up the hierarchy at the same pace. They may therefore have to offer a slightly different set of incentives from worker to worker.

http://tutor2u.net/business/gcse/people_motivation_theories.htm

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Maslow Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Theories in Public Administration • New Public Administration • New public management (NPM) denotes broadly the government policies, since the 1980s, that aimed to modernise and render more effective the public sector. • The basic hypothesis holds that market oriented management of the public sector will lead to greater cost-efficiency for governments, without having negative side-effects on other objectives and considerations. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Characteristics of NPM

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Critique of NPM • Critics like Dunleavy proclaim that NPM is 'dead' and argue that the cutting edge of change has moved on to digital era governance focusing on reintegrating concerns into government control, holistic (or joined-up) government and digitalization • In his book Bad Samaritans, economist Ha-Joon Chang claims that "increased NPM-inspired reforms have often increased, rather than reduced, corruption," as a result of "more contacts [of state-sector functionaries] with the private sector, creating new opportunities for bribes" and future, direct or indirect, employment in the private sector.[8]

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Theories in Information Systems and Management

• http://istheory.byu.edu/ • IS theories originate from social science and other disciplines

• It draws on diversity of perspectives to create models and frameworks – – – – –

Technology Acceptance Model Diffusion of Innovation Theory of Planned Behaviour Transaction Cost Theory Resource-based Theory

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Diffusion of Innovation Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system : • Knowledge – person becomes aware of an innovation and has some idea of how it functions, • Persuasion – person forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation, • Decision – a choice to adopt or reject the innovation, • Implementation – person puts an innovation into use, • Confirmation – person evaluates the results of an innovation-decision already made. Rogers, E.M. (1995) Diffusion of Innovations, Fifth Edition 2003, Free Press, New York Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Level of Theory • Micro-level Theory – Not abstract – Deals with Small slices of time, space, or numbers of people – “Physician attire affects doctor-patient interaction”

• Meso-level Theory – Works at the meso-level – Theories of organizations, social movements and communities – Resource-Based Theory of the Firm

• Macro-Level Theory – Macro-level explain larger aggregates such as social institutions and cultural societies, whole societies… – Modernization theory

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Level of Theory

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Structure of Long Essay • • • • • • •

Abstract Chapt. 1 – Introduction Chapt. 2 – Literature Review Chapt. 3 – Context of the Study Chapt. 4 – Research Methodology Chapt. 5 – Results and Discussion Chapt. 6 – Conclusion

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Research Framework

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Bibliography 1. Babbie, E.R. (2011) The Basics of Social Research [With CDROM and Infotrac], Wadsworth – Thomson Publishing, Belmont, CA. – ISBN – 0495812242 2. Bailey, K. D. (1978). Methods of social research (3rd ed.). New York: The Free Press. 3. Grinnell, (1988). Social work research and evaluation. Itasca: Illinois, F. E. Peacock Publishers. 4. Fisher, C. (2010) Researching and Writing a Dissertation, An Essential Guide For Business Students, Pearson Education Limited, Essex. 5. Kumar R. (2005). Research methodology. SAGE Publications 6. Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education 7. Oladunn, O.A. (2011) Course Outline: Statistics And Research Methods In Extension, National Open University Of Nigeria, available: http://www.nou.edu.ng/noun/noun_ocl/pdf/pdf2/aem%20401.pdf [accessed February 2012] 8. Siegle, D. (2011) Principles and Methods in Educational Research - a Web-based Course from the University of Connecticut, Neag School of Education - University of Connecticut, available: http://www.delsiegle.com/research/Variables/variablenotes.htm[accessed February 2012] 9. Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.

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Chapter Six

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods

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Objectives This session seeks to discuss the different approaches to qualitative and quantitative research. • By the end of the session, students will be able to understand and explain methods including case study, ethnography, content analysis, survey, and action research. • Students will also learn about the different methods for collecting data in research. These methods include interviews and focus group discussion.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUALITATIVE & QUANTITATIVE Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Quantitative research emphasizes 1. Starting with specific hypotheses or questions derived from theory/previous research 2. Selecting a sample representative of the population 3. Using objective instruments (e.g. fixed choice questionnaires, attitude scales, etc.) 4. Presenting results using statistics and making inferences to the population. 5. ―Distance‖ between researcher and subjects and emphasis on following the research plan Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, available http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed February, 2012] Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Qualitative research emphasizes 1. Starting with general research problems and not formulating hypotheses (hypotheses may emerge from the data analysis). 2. Selecting a small, purposive sample (not random) which may or may not be representative of the larger population. 3. Using relatively unstructured instruments (e.g. interviews, observations, etc.) and ―intense‖ data collection (e.g. over extended periods of time). 4. Presenting results mainly or exclusively in words, MORE ABOUT EXPLANATION, and de-emphasizing generalizations to the population 5. Researcher awareness of their own orientations, biases or experiences and personal interaction in the context with an emphasis on flexibility in the research. Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, available http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed February, 2012] Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Qualitative Research • The qualitative research method involves the use of qualitative data, such as interviews, documents and observation, in order to understand and explain a social phenomenon. • Qualitative research focuses on interpretation of phenomena in their natural settings to make sense in terms of the meanings people bring to these settings (Denzin and Lincoln 1994) .

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Types of Qualitative Research

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Case Study • Case study research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time,

• through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description and case-based themes.

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Case Study • Case study is a method used in both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. Yin (1994) suggested that case studies are empirical investigation of phenomena within their environmental context, where the relationship between the phenomena and the environment is not clear. • Therefore, a case is examined to understand an issue or provide input to an existing theory or a new theoretical concept. A case study‘s unit of measurement is associated with the entity concept. • A research work deploying the case study method may have single or multiple cases. Conclusion could be drawn up from similarities or differences among the cases involved in a research work.

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Example: Mobiles and Micro-trading Aunty Akosua (hereafter referred to as AA) is a tomato retail trader. She has junior high school level education and has been working as a tomato retailer since June 2008. AA works with Jane who serves as an intermediary between her and the farmers in the villages. Jane buys the tomatoes at wholesale prices from the farmers and AA retails them at the market. Prior to owning a mobile phone, communication between AA and Jane was constrained by distance. The limited access to Jane often contributed to poor inventory management, where AA could be out of stock of tomatoes for a week. In such scenarios, AA had to buy from other wholesalers, and that increased her coordination costs. She was then advised by a friend to get a mobile phone for Jane and herself, in order to enhance communication and reduce the cost and risk of frequent long journeys. In December 2008, AA purchased a used Samsung D500 for herself and a Nokia 3315 for Jane. The cost of Jane‘s mobile phone was deducted from her earnings from trading with AA. They are both using TiGO as their service provider. Boateng (2011) Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Case Study • The focus of the research is on process. The question is focused on what can be learned from this particular case. • Single case design is ideal for studying extreme cases, to confirm or challenge a theory or for cases where a researcher does not have access previously. Examples: A failure or success in a particular event or activity: Causing Financial Loss to a State – Lessons from the Woyome Case

• Multiple case design is appropriate when a researcher is keen to use more than one case to gather data and draw up conclusion based on the facts retrieved. • Multiple case design serves to confirm evidence which enhance the reliability and validity of a research work.

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Challenges 1. The identification of the appropriate case - Selecting the case requires that the researcher establish a rationale for his or her purposeful sampling strategy for selecting the case and for gathering information about the case .

2. In the choice of multiple case, the issue becomes, ―How many cases?‖ typically, however, the researcher to consider a large number of cases is the idea of ―generalizability,‖ a term that holds little meaning for most qualitative researchers. Focus should be on explanatory power

3. Deciding the ―boundaries” of a case – how it might be constrained in terms of time, events, and processes – may be challenging. Some case studies may not have clean beginning and ending points, and the researcher will need to set boundaries that adequately surround the case.

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Types of Qualitative Research

Phenomenology

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Narrative

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Ethnography • Ethnography is a qualitative research method which involves a description of people and nature of phenomena. Ethnography involves exploring the nature of phenomena and working with unstructured data, analyzing data through interpretation of the meanings attributed by research respondents. – What are the cultural patterns and perspectives of this group in its natural setting?

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, available http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed February, 2012] OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana

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Ethnography • An ethnographer is interested in examining shared patterns of behaviours, beliefs and language

• An ethnography focuses on an entire cultural group. This cultural group may be small, but typically large and may involve many people who interact over time.

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, available http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed February, 2012] OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana

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Ethnography • The emphasis is on documenting or portraying the every day experiences of individuals. Key tools are in-depth interviewing and continuous observations. There is seldom an initial hypothesis. The research is sustained over time. The goal is to paint a picture that as thorough, accurate, and vivid. •

Example - What is life like in a traditional palace?

Method – unstructured interviews, observation, field notes and use of secondary data including documents, maps, photographs, genealogies, and records Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, available http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed February, 2012] OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana

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Challenges • The researcher needs to have a grounding cultural anthropology and the meaning of a social-cultural system as well as the concepts typically explored by ethnographers. • The time to collect data is extensive, involving prolonged time in the field. • In many ethnographies, the narratives are written in a literacy, almost storytelling approach, an approach that may limit the audience for the work and may be challenging for authors accustomed to traditional approaches to writing social and human science research.

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Types of Qualitative Research

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Action Research • It views participants as co-creating their reality through participation, experience, and action. • There are four phases of action research: – the co-researchers agree on an area of inquiry/problem, – ideas and procedures are applied in everyday work/life – co-researchers become fully immersed in the activity/experience, – co-researchers reconsider the original research problem. • Aim 1 - produce knowledge and action directly useful to a group of people. • Aim 2 - empower people through the process of constructing their own knowledge. • Methods: unstructured observations, journaling, surveying, and reviewing documents/records. Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]

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Action Research

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TECHNIQUES FOR ACQUIRING QUALITATIVE DATA Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Forms of Qualitative Data 1. 2. 3. 4.

Observation (non-participant – participant) Interviews (close – open) Documents and Text (private – public) Audio-visual (audio, pictures, mobile phone text, social media, video et cetera)

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Context

Fieldwork – Establish Context • Fieldwork – the particular context in which data collection occurs. • Collection occurs simultaneously with analysis and interpretation and occurs throughout the study. •

The final product is a rich description or narrative with quotations typically used to illustrate the voice and understandings of the participants. The focus is to use language to paint a rich picture of the setting and its participants.

Selecting the Fieldwork 1. Justify: Determine why a particular site should be selected. 2. Access: How will permission be obtained for accessing the site? 3. Activity: What will be done at the site? 4. Interference: How will the researcher avoid disrupting the normal routine? Or How participative will the researcher be? 5. Time: What will be the duration and frequency of observations? Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012] Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Data Collection Method

Interviews • Interviewing is used to gather information in the subjects own words from which insights on their interpretations can be obtained. • Subjects are encouraged to talk about experiences, feelings, beliefs

Types of Interviews • •

•

Unstructured - exploratory, on a topic – open, flexible, no structured format, and impromptu questions Partially Structured – Topic is chosen and questions are formulated, but order is up to the interviewer. Open-ended Questions & responses are recorded nearly verbatim, possibly taped. Semi-Structured - - questions and order of presentation are determined. Questions are open-ended, interviewer records the essence of each response.

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012] Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Data Collection Method

Interviews Types of Interviews • •

Structured - - questions and order are pre-determined, responses are coded by interviewer as they are given. Totally structured - - questions, order, and coding are predetermined and the respondent is presented with alternatives for each question so that phrasing of responses is structured. Questions are self-coding in that each choice is preassigned a code. • Qualitative Study Interview – primarily focus on openended questions, flexible and purposively selected samples • Quantitative Study Interview – fixed choice questions, usually on random samples

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012] Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Data Collection Method

Interviews Guidelines 1. Listen more, talk less. Be Patient, Don‘t interrupt. Tolerate silence. 2. Follow up on what participants say and ask questions when you don‘t understand. 3. Don‘t be judgmental about participants‘ beliefs or views. You are there to learn about their perspectives whether you agree or not. 4. Keep participants focused and ask for concrete details. 5. Avoid leading questions, ask open ended questions. 6. Don‘t debate with participants over their responses. You are a recorder, not a debater.

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012] Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Data Collection Method

Focus Groups Focus groups is a type of interview where multiple participants are involved and responses can build on one another. A focus group is particularly useful in obtaining a variety of views or opinions about a topic or issue. Focus groups are used to obtain information of qualitative nature from a predetermined and limited number of people. • A semi-structured group session, moderated by a group leader, held in an informal setting, with the purpose of collecting information on a selected topic. A carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive non-threatening environment. Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012] Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Data Collection Method

Focus Groups Procedures • Duration 1-2 hours. General rule is to plan for less time than you tell participants. • Number Groups 3-6 different groups should be used. • Size 4-12 with certain characteristics in common (IDEAL size 6-8) • Composition participants alike in some way (not in opinions). General rule is to keep groups homogenous in terms of prestige or status. • Sample systematically selected (purposive sampling). In organizations, include groups with different roles. • Method - non-directive, nurture different points of view, identify trends and patterns in perceptions. Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012] Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Data Collection Method

Observation • Participant Observer - engages fully in the activities being studied but is known to the participants as a researcher. Example: a researcher gets permission from a teacher to sit in a class and make observations over a semester. • Goal is to immerse researcher in the setting so he/she can see, hear, feel, experience, subject‘s‘ daily life.

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012] Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Data Collection Method

Observation • Unobtrusive or Non-participant Observer - researcher watches but does not participate in group activities. Example: researcher conducts a number of interviews with teachers in a school.

• Naturalistic observation - observing individuals in their natural settings, making no effort to manipulate variables or control activities, but simply to observe and record. Example: observation of students at an athletic event. • Covert Observer - researcher disguises identity from other participants (ethical issues). Example: conducting the research in disguise • Simulations - asking subjects to act out certain situations or roles. May be individual or group role playing.

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012] Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Data Collection Method

Other Qualitative Techniques Textual Analysis (artifacts, documents, records) •

Documents and artifacts can include materials produced by the subject (writing portfolios), personal documents (diaries, letters), records, historical archives. Includes analysis of written records such as textbooks, newspapers, and non-written records such as audios, videos, computer files.

Personal Experience (journaling and other methods) •

This method involves directing participants to recall personal experience through a variety of techniques. Methods used in data collection include think-aloud techniques, stimulated recall, and key event reporting. The researcher works with the participants to create the data.

Field Notes • Written descriptions of people, events, objects, places, activities, conversations, etc. These notes may supplement information from official documents and interviews or may comprise the main research data. Field notes should also include the researchers‘ reactions, reflections, and tentative assumptions. Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University, http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012] Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Quantitative Approaches to Research

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Survey • Questionnaire to record answers from a sample • Kerlinger (1973) defined survey research as a study on large and small populations by selecting samples chosen from the desired population and to discover relative incidence, distribution and interrelations. • The ultimate goal of survey research is to learn about a large population by surveying a sample of the population; OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

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Types of Survey

OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education

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Cross-sectional Survey A researcher collects information from a sample drawn from a population. The data you obtain is derived from a cross-section of the population at one point of time.

OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education

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Longitudinal Survey - Panel a researcher can identify a sample from the beginning and follow the specific respondents over a specified period of time to observe changes in specific respondents and highlight the reasons why these respondents have changed.

Example: Age vs Volunteering Same units over time OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education

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Longitudinal Survey - Cohort Although the population remains the same, different respondents are sampled each time. The researcher‘s aim here is to see if there are changes in perceptions or trends that occur in the study

Example: 1967 birth cohorts vs racisim Same category of units in a specified time period over time OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education

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Survey Techniques 1. Mail and Self-Administered Questionnaire • Cheap, slow, lowest response rate 2. Web Surveys

• Cheapest, fastest, moderate response rate 3. Telephone Interviews

• Moderate cost, fast, moderate response rate 4. Face-to-face Interviews • Expensive, slow, highest response rate OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education

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Chapter Seven

Sampling

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Objectives • To introduce students to the role of sampling in research. • To explain the different sampling procedures applicable to qualitative and quantitative research.

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Sampling • Sampling is a process of selecting samples from a group or population to become the foundation for estimating and predicting the outcome of the population as well as to detect the unknown piece of information.

OUM (2010) Topic 10 Sampling, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana

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Sampling Terminology • • • •

Sample Population or universe Population element Census

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Sample • Subset of a larger population • We make conclusions on a population by studying or investigating a sample

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Population • Any complete group of entities within which we want to explore, understand or predict a social phenomena – People – Cars

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Census • Investigation of all individual elements that make up a population

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Sampling Frame • A list of elements from which the sample may be drawn – Working population – Mailing lists - database marketers – List of students in year 2

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Primary Goal • Quantitative – To obtain a representative sample from the population – Generalize/predict findings on a population

• Qualitative – Not about representativeness, more focused on samples which enhance understanding – Collect cases, events, or actions that clarify and deepen understanding in a specific context Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education

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Two Major Categories of Sampling • Probability sampling • Known, nonzero probability for every element

• Nonprobability sampling • Probability of selecting any particular member is unknown

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Non-Probability Sampling • This sampling technique is not based on random selection. • Sample size is not determined in advance and the researcher has limited knowledge about the population from which the sample is being drawn. – Haphazard/Convenience sampling – Snowballing – Purposive sampling – Deviant Sampling -----– Quota sampling Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Convenience/Haphazard Sampling • The sampling procedure of obtaining the people or units that are most conveniently available • Cases are obtained in any manner which is convenient but high possibility of being ineffective • Can produce highly unrepresentative samples – Person on street interviewed for TV – Cut-out a newspaper questionnaire and mail it in

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Quota Sampling • Ensures that the various subgroups in a population are represented on pertinent sample characteristics to the exact extent that the investigators desire – Identify the relevant categories (e.g., gender and age) – Set a quota for each category

• It should not be confused with stratified sampling. • Better than haphazard sampling

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Judgment/Purposive Sampling • An experienced individual selects the sample based on his or her judgment about some appropriate characteristics required of the sample. Often used in a exploratory research • Selecting particular cases for in-depth investigation • Selecting members difficult to reach – Research on prostitutes

• Selecting unique cases which are informative – Studying failed development project – Selecting the popular trend setting women magazine for a content analysis study

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Snowball Sampling • Network, chain referral or reputational sampling • Identifying samples in a network – multistage – beginning with a few people and grow through referral

• Initial respondents are selected by other methods like purposive sampling or random sampling • Additional respondents are obtained from information provided by the initial respondents

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Deviant Sampling • Searching cases that differ from the dominant pattern • Use various techniques to identify cases with specific characteristics that differ from the dominant – School dropouts who seem not to have no record of illegal activities and who are stable from two-parent, upper-middle income families

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Probability Sampling • Advantages – Saving time and cost – Accuracy

• Types – Simple random sampling – Systematic sampling – Stratified sampling – Cluster sampling

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Simple Random Sampling • A sampling procedure that ensures that each element in the population will have an equal chance of being included in the sample • Uses mathematical theory to select elements • Random-Number Table – For a population = 1000 – 1st selection = 1:1000 – 2nd selection = 1:999

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Random Number Table Population

Extract from Random Number Table

22

17

68

02

57

55

11

47

27

53

96

34

98

04

14

76

Sample Selected

Number

Name

01

Kwame

02

Adwoa

03

Nan

04

Grace

05

Hui

06

Pael

Number

Name

07

Nisci

02

Adwoa

08

Eren

11

Kay

09

Renee

04

Grace

10

Siade

11

Kay

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Systematic Sampling • Every kth name/element from the list will be drawn • You select the first element /name at random and the subsequent element /name by Sample interval . • Sample Interval is standard distance between elements selected in a sample. It is cyclical. • Sample Interval = population size sample size • Sample ratio = sample size population size • Sample ratio is the proportion of elements in the population that are selected. Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Systematic Sampling • Starting number: The researcher selects an integer that must be less than the total number of individuals in the population. This integer will correspond to the first subject. • Interval: The researcher picks another integer which will serve as the constant difference between any two consecutive numbers in the progression. The integer is typically selected so that the researcher obtains the correct sample size.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/systematic-sampling.html#ixzz28gK1Kn92

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Systematic Sampling - Example • From the sampling frame, a starting point is chosen at random, and thereafter at regular intervals. • For example, suppose you want to sample 8 students from a database of 120 students. • 120/8=15, so every 15th student is chosen after a random starting point between 1 and 15. If the random starting point is 11, then the students selected are 11, 26, 41, 56, 71, 86, 101, and 116.

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Systematic Sampling of Cyclical Data Population Number

Name

01

Kwame

02

Adwoa

03

Nan

04

Grace

05

Hui

06

Pael

07

Nisci

08

Eren

09

Renee

10

Siade

11

Kay

12

John

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This table presents the population of students in an English class. You are required to use systematic sampling to select a sample. Your sampling interval is 2. Randomly starting from number 9 (Renee), which student will be the last to be selected?

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Systematic Sampling of Cyclical Data Population Number

Name

01

Kwame

02

Adwoa

03

Nan

04

Grace

05

Hui

06

Pael

07

Nisci

08

Eren

09

Renee

10

Siade

11

Kay

12

John

Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

This table presents the population of students in an English class. Your sample size = 12 / 2 = 6 First to be selected is Renee 2nd – Kay 3rd – Kwame 4th – Nan 5th – Hui 6th - Nisci Other literature ignore the first randomly selected and choose by sample interval to obtain the first. 313

Interval (fractional/decimal) • For example, suppose you want to sample 8 students from a database of 125 students. • If there were 125 students, 125/8=15.625, so should you take every 15th student or every 16th student? If you take every 16th student, 8*16=128 so there is a risk that the last student chosen does not exist. To overcome this the random starting point should be between 1 and 13. • On the other hand if you take every 15th student, 8*15=120 so the last five students will never be selected. The random starting point should now be between 1 and 20 to ensure that every student has some chance of being selected. •

Population - ((Sample size – 1) * Sample Interval)) = Extreme starting point

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Systematic Sampling • Advantages – spreads the sample more evenly over the population – easier to conduct than a simple random sample

• Disadvantage – the system may interact with some hidden pattern in the population

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Stratified Sampling • Subsamples are drawn within different strata (distinct groups) • Each stratum is more or less equal on some characteristic. Do not confuse with quota sample – In study of 20,000 students you decide to pick 200 students. However, you are informed that 2 percent of the 20,000 students are foreign students. You need that representation in your 200 students. – Hence, you collect the list of the foreign students (400) and randomly select 4 students (2 % of 200) to include in your sample 200 students.

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western. Babbie, E.R. (2005) The Basics of Social Research [With CDROM and Infotrac], Wadsworth –Thomson Publishing, Belmont, CA.

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Cluster Sampling • The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample economically while retaining the characteristics of a probability sample. • The primary sampling unit is no longer the individual element in the population. The primary sampling unit is a larger cluster of elements located in proximity to one another. – We need to study a population of 1,000 students concerning banking services preferences. Our objective is to interview 400 students. However, the students are divided into 10 different programmes of study, each enrolling a minimum of 90 students. In this case, we can randomly select 4/5 clusters which add up to 400. Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western. Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Examples of Clusters Population Element

Possible Clusters

College seniors

Colleges

Airline travelers

Airports Planes

Sports fans

Football stadiums Basketball arenas Baseball parks

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Systematic Errors • Errors which systematically affect the measurement of the variable across the whole sample – Unrepresentative sample results – Not due to chance; Due to study design or imperfections in execution

– For instance, if there is loud traffic going by just outside of a classroom where students are taking a test, this noise is liable to affect all of the children's scores -- in this case, systematically lowering them. – Unlike random error, systematic errors tend to be consistently either positive or negative -- because of this, systematic error is sometimes considered to be bias in measurement.

Trochim, W.M.K (2006) Measurement Error, Research Methods Knowledge Base, [Online] available: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/measerr.php [accessed February, 2012]

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Random Error • Random error is caused by any factors that randomly affect measurement of the variable across the sample. • For instance, each person's mood can inflate or deflate their performance on any occasion. In a particular testing, some children may be feeling in a good mood and others may be depressed. If mood affects their performance on the measure, it may artificially inflate the observed scores for some children and artificially deflate them for others. The important thing about random error is that it does not have any consistent effects across the entire sample. Instead, it pushes observed scores up or down randomly. • The important property of random error is that it adds variability to the data but does not affect average performance for the group. Because of this, random error is sometimes considered noise. Trochim, W.M.K (2006) Measurement Error, Research Methods Knowledge Base, [Online] available: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/measerr.php [accessed February, 2012]

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Errors Associated with Sampling • Sampling frame error – Sampling frame is biased

• Nonresponse error – Failure to adequately collect data on variables

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Chapter Eight

Questionnaire Design

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Level of Measurement • Variables is anything that can take a numerical value • Continuous variables have an infinite number of values or attributes that flow along a continuum – temperature, age, income, and crime rate. • Discrete variables have a relatively fixed set of separate values or variable attributes – gender (male or female), marital (never married singe, married, divorced or separated, widowed)

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Types of Variables Extraneous Variables

Dependent Variables

Independent Variables

Intervening Variables

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Types of Variables • change variables are referred to as independent variables while outcome variables are known as dependent variables. On the other hand, the unmeasured variables affecting the cause-effect relationship are called extraneous variables and the variables that link a cause and effect linking are called intervening variables.

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IT Awareness in a Rural Community

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Level of Measurement • Variables is anything that can take a numerical value 1. Conceptualization – Continuous (temperature – degrees) – Discrete (temperature – cold, hot)

2. Type of indicator   •



Nominal – indicate that there is a difference among categories; e.g. Gender – male and female Ordinal – indicate that there is a difference among categories and the categories can be ordered (e.g. Grade: A, B, C, D) Interval – measures everything nominal and ordinal do, plus they specify the amount of distance between categories. This measurement has a starting and a terminating point that is divided into space intervals (Celsius scale; income intervals: $100-$249; $250-$399). Ratio – measures everything all the others do, plus there is a true zero, which makes it possible to state relations in terms of proportion or ratios (e.g., money income: $0, $100, $500 or years of formal schooling: 1 year, 10 years, 13 years)

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Questionnaire Design Process The design of questionnaires involves a process with several general stages: 1. Preliminary design work on the areas to be explored in the interview. 2. Question wording and sequencing. 3. Physical design or layout. • Pilot testing may be part of any, or all, of these stages of design.

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Questionnaire Design • Questionnaires need a logical structure • Well-thought-out structure

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Pilot Survey • A pilot survey is generally a small-scale run through of the survey and can also be used to check questionnaire coding and method of analysis.

Curwin, J. and Slater, J. (2008) Quantitative Methods for Business Decisions , 6th Edition. Cengage Brain

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Question Structure Five possible objectives of a question a) To find if the respondent is aware of the issue –

Do you know of any plans to build a school in this community?

b) To get general feelings on an issue – 

Do you think a school should be built? A rating scale can be used for this type of question

c) To get answers on specific parts of the issue 

Do you think a school will affect the local environment?

d) To get reasons for a respondents views 

Why are you against the motorway being built?

e) To find how strongly these views are held 

How important is the tourist center that would be demolished if the school is built?

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Question Coding • Precoded questions give the respondent a series of possible answers from which one may be chosen or an alternative specified. – How many children do you have? • 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

• Sometimes codes are developed from the answers. – Where do you live?

• An open question will allow the respondent to say whatever he or she wishes: – Why do you choose to live in Kumasi?

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Question wording - bias • Two or more questions presented as one – Do you use self-service garages because they are easy to use and clean? – YES/NO

• Questions that contain difficult or unfamiliar words – Where do you usually shop? – How often is usual? Shopping also vary in terms of type of product, day of week and time of the year

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Question wording bias • Questions which start with words meant to soften hardness or directness – I hope you don’t mind me asking this, but are you a virgin? – YES/NO

• Questions which contain conditional or hypothetical clauses – How do you think your life would change if you had nine children? – This is a situation that few people will have considered….

• Questions which contain one or more instructions to respondents – If you take your weekly income, after tax, and when you have made allowances for all of the regular bills, how much do you have left to spend or save?

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Structuring the Questionnaire

• Field Notes

– Record Time, Date and Description of Natural Settings

• Introduction of research – Aimed at the interviewee – Definition of selected key terms (appendix or beginning)

May differ – Qualitative and Quantitative

• Demographics – Demographic data of respondent – Demographic data of the company/household

• Main Questions – Key sections may stem from themes/concepts/variables from the research framework – Key sections may stem from concepts/variables from the hypothesis

• Other Questions – Impromptu or emerging questions – Observations

• Conclusion – Review of answers, Future Review of transcription and Thanks Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Design Online Survey • Tool: www.surveymonkey.com • Basic Learning Tutorial • http://tinyurl.com/onlinesurveyeasy

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References 1. Curwin, J. and Slater, J. (2008) Quantitative Methods for Business Decisions , 6th Edition. Cengage Brain. 2. Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education 3. Curwin, (2010) Quantitative Methods for Business Decisions, Edition 6. 4. OUM (2010) Principles Supporting Qualitative Research, Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana 5. Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.

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Chapter Nine

Qualitative Data Analysis

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Learning Objectives This session seeks to discuss qualitative data analysis methods for case study research. • By the end of the session, students will be able to understand and explain within case analysis and crosscase analysis. • Students will also learn about how to write case studies.

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Components of Case Study Research Design

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

A study‘s questions; Its propositions, if any; Its unit(s) of analysis; the logic linking the data to the propositions; the criteria for interpreting the findings.

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Recap: Forms of Qualitative Data 1. 2. 3. 4.

Observation (non-participant – participant) Interviews (close – open) Documents and Text (private – public) Audio-visual (audio, pictures, mobile phone text, social media, video et cetera)

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Core Strategies for Qual. Data Analysis 1. Coding the data – Reducing the data into meaningful segments and assigning names to the segments

2. Combining the codes into broader categories or themes 3. Displaying and making comparison in data graphs, tables, and charts

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Case Study Research Process

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Case Study Research Process

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Organizing Qualitative Data for Case Study Step

Activity

Data Managing

Create and organize files for data

Reading, Memoing

Read through text, make margin notes form initial codes

Describing

Describe the case and its context

Classifying

Use categorical aggregation to establish themes or patterns

Interpreting

Use direct interpretation Develop naturalistic generalizations

Representing, visualizing

Present in-depth picture of the case using narrative, tables and figures

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Data Analysis Spiral

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Analysis within Case study Within Case Analysis: • Analysis consists of making a detailed description of the case and its setting.

• In Categorical Aggregation, the researcher seeks a collection of instances from the data, hoping that issue-relevant meanings will emerge. • Also, the researcher establishes patterns and looks for a correspondence between two or more categories. Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Analysis within Case study Case study Research: • In direct interpretation, on the other hand, the case study researcher looks at a single instance and draws meaning from it without looking for multiple stances. • It is a process of pulling the data apart and putting them back together in more meaningful ways.

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Analysis within Case study Cross-case study • Analytic technique when the researcher studies two or more cases. • A word table can be created to display the data from individual cases according to some uniform framework.

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Analysis within Case study Case study Research:- Cross-case • The implication of this is that the researcher can look for similarities and differences among the cases. • Finally, the researcher develops naturalistic generalizations from analyzing the data; generalizations that people can learn from the case either for themselves or to apply to a population of cases.

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Case Study Design Test

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Readings •

Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989) Building Theories from Case study Research, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 14, Issue 4, pp 532-550. – www.tinyurl.com/8m27nd2

•

Yin, R. K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods (3rd edition, Volume 5). SAGE Publications: London. – www.tinyurl.com/9co7xfa Other books – www.goo.gl/l6RA2

• •

Mason, Jennifer. Qualitative Researching, 2nd edition, Sage, 2002. Miles, Matthew B., and Huberman, A. Michael. Qualitative Data Analysis, 2nd ed., Sage, 1994. (or recent edition)

•

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative Enquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. SAGE Publications. London – –

Data Analysis and Representation Chapter 8

www.tinyurl.com/creswell2007a

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Chapter Ten

Conclusion and Abstract

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Objectives • This session examines the components of concluding chapter of a long essay or concluding section of a journal article. • The conclusion covers three key sub- sections: summary of the paper and revisiting the research model, implications (research, practice and policy) and future research directions. Some authors prefer to addresses these sub-sections as main sections..

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Examine the Structure of Long Essay • • • • • • •

Abstract Chapt. 1 – Introduction Chapt. 2 – Literature Review Chapt. 3 – Context of the Study Chapt. 4 – Research Methodology Chapt. 5 – Results and Discussion Chapt. 6 – Conclusion

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Recap: Discussion and Analysis In this section the author analyzes the findings or results from the study. The analysis may require the triangulation of data from various research methods to create, explain or predict social phenomena. The author is required to: 1. What do the findings tell you about your research? 2. How do the findings compare with previous studies highlighted in your literature review? 3. Are there any contradictions with previous research? 4. Why do these contradictions exist? 5. What are the key and new lessons? 6. How do the new lessons relate to the theoretical framework?

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Conclusion The conclusion covers three key sub- sections: 1. Summary of the paper and revisiting the research model/framework, 2. Implications to research, practice and policy and 3. Future research directions. Some authors prefer to addresses these sub-sections as main sections.

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Conclusion Part A – Summary • What is the ‗takeaway‘ – Summarize in few words what the study did and what has achieved – Revisit the research model (this can be done in the discussion and analysis for a journal article but for a long essay or dissertation, it can be done in the conclusion).

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Writing the summary 1. The study set out to … achieve/investigate/explore…. 2. Using the framework 3. Findings tend to suggest that…. 4. Now what is the way forward

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Sample - Summary • We began this dissertation with the quest of determining how organisations can learn and transfer knowledge in and between technology projects. To this quest we drew on theory of meaning structures in organisations, which was extended into a theoretical framework, the organizational learning cycle, as a means of facilitating a transformational learning process within technology projects and generating knowledge definable into actions which maximise success in technology projects. Evaluating this framework within a case study, we gained empirical evidence to strengthen its internal validity. At this stage we then ask ourselves, what is the way forward?

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Revisiting the research framework • In our literature review we proposed a research framework which suggests or proposes …… • However, the discussion and analysis of our findings, then to bring the following new insights and confirmations to the earlier propositions or hypothesis. • First – new insight/confirmation • Second – new insight/confirmation • …. Last – new insight/confirmation Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

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Conceptual Model before Data Collection

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Revisiting the research framework

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Implications to Research, Practice and Policy

• Discuss the each of the following in a paragraph/subsection: – Implications to research: how does it inform research area? This is an extension of the discussion on the research model. – Implications to Practice (managers, practitioners, employees, organizations etc) – Implications to Policy (if applicable)—what do your findings tell the organization, government, international community, development agencies etc.

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Future Research Directions • In relation to your findings, what should future research do? – Acknowledge the limitations of your research – Highlight what new or future research should do – Suggestions could be using new methods or new unit of analysis – Suggestions should be relevant to your topic

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References • Reference citations should follow the style recommended by the journal or institution (for a dissertation or long essay) • For Harvard style. Please refer to: – http://tinyurl.com/harvardrefstyle

• For APA style. Please refer to: – http://tinyurl.com/aparefstyle

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Abstract – Writing An Abstract • How do we write a good abstract? Emerald, the academic journal database (www.emeraldinsight.com), offers a set of guidelines for authors on how to write a good abstract. • The guidelines advise that an abstract should summarize these key elements of the research paper or study.

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Abstract – Writing An Abstract What Why How Whom

1. 2. 3. 4.

Purpose Methodology Findings Implications – Practice, Policy and Research 5. Originality

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Abstract – 150-250 words  Purpose What are the reason(s) for writing the paper or the aims of the research?  Design/methodology/approach How are the objectives achieved? Include the main method(s) used for the research and include the paradigm. What is the approach to the topic and what is the theoretical or subject scope of the paper?  Findings What was found in the course of the work? This will refer to analysis, discussion, or results.  Research implications (if applicable) What are the contributions to research? Which aspect of your work changes current research? What can researcher do with your research? What is new and how will that shape future research?  Practice and Policy implications What outcomes and implications for practice, policy, applications and consequences are identified? How will the research impact upon the business or enterprise? How is it influence policy? What changes to practice/policy should be made as a result of this research? What is the commercial or economic impact?  Originality/value What is new in the paper? State the value of the paper and to whom.

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Read through the work 1. Structure and Presentation Counts 2. Check references 3. Each paragraph presenting a key argument or statement should have reference. 4. Don‘t begin sentences with brackets – – (Danielson, 2003) argues that inflation is not affected by price of goods.

5. Know where to position your full stops – The price of goods does not affect inflation. (Danielson, 2003). In Nigeria and Ghana inflation is now a single digit.

6. Don't put initials into your in line reference. – The price of cocoa was affected by smuggling into other countries (Mensah, J., 2004).

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Check your paragraphs

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Check your paragraphs

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Check your paragraphs

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Check your paragraphs

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Marking for MBA

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Your work is going to be challenged….

Conclusion Does it Matter?

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