World Atlas of Biodiversity - International Food Safety Consultancy

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY EARTH'S LIVING RESOURCES

^

>

IN

THE

21st

CENTURY

(\

X >r

UNEP WCMC

BRIAN GROOMBRIDGE and MARTIN

D.

JENKINS

World Atlas of Biodiversity addresses the remarkible

growth

in

concern at

all

levels for living things

and the environment and the increased appreciation '

the links between the state of ecosystems and

the state of humankind. Building on a wealth of search and analysis by the conservation

worldwide,

this

book provides

a

community

comprehensive

and accessible view of key global sity. It

re-

issues in biodiver-

outlines some of the broad ecological

relationships

iterial

between humans and the

rest of the

world and summarizes information on the

health of the planet.

Opening with an outline of

some fundamental aspects of material cycles and energy flow

in the biosphere, the

book goes on to

discuss the expansion of this diversity through geo-

logical time

and the pattern of

its

distribution over

the surface of the Earth, and analyzes trends in the

condition of the main ecosystem types and the species integral to them.

Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in

2010

witii

funding from

UNEP-WCIVIC, Cambridge

Iittp://www.arcliive.org/details/worldatlasofbiod02groo

World Atlas

of Biodiversity

Published

in

Ihe contents of

association witli

UNEP-WCMC

this

volume do not

necessarily reflect the views or policies of

by the University of

California Press

UNEP-WCfvIC, contributory organizations,

University of California Press

editors or publishers. The designations

Berl^:\. ' '.

5%-

i /: /"

biosphere:

i.e.

the land surface, the top few

of

The whole

of

and the upper waters

capable

of

lakes and the ocean through which sunlight

stitutes

therefore

millimeters of the

soil,

volume

can penetrate.

The biosphere

is

not

homogenous, be-

cause actively metabolizing

living

organisms

are sparse or absent where liquid water

absent, such as

poles and

in

is

the permanent ice at the

on the very highest mountain

peaks, but abundant where conditions are favorable.

Nor are

its

boundaries sharply

the

sea

biosphere

the

of

Depending on water

clarity,

virtually

everywhere, from polar icecaps

to

several tens of kilometers above the surface of the Earth

[approaching the upper

limit of

the stratosphere], and living microorganisms occur^ within rocks

deep

in

more than

the lithosphere.

3 kilometers

1.1|.

to a

marine

biosphere

is

in

depth,

extended

darkness, down

to

into

more than

but the

few

regions of total 10 000 meters

in

the ocean depths, by organisms that subsist

on the rain

of

organic debris falling from the

communities on the sea

disperse

[Figure

the sunlit (photic)

hundred meters

dormant forms

passively

and con-

zone may reach just a few centimeters

upper waters,

life

theoretically life

majority of the

the vast

defined, because bacterial spores and other of

is

supporting active

in

animal

addition, there are

floor

based on

microorganisms deriving their energy from hydrogen sulfide emitted from hydrothermal vents. Overall, however, the

material

in

most

of the

amount

of living

sea - that part

of the

open ocean below the upper hundred or so

meters

-

is

relatively low.

The biosphere

Figure

1.1

Hypsographic curve The horizontal baseline

in

this figure represents the

Earth's total surface area of

510 million km'.

The

figure

of this

shows

surface

is

that

71%

covered by

marine waters and 29% dry land.

The atmosphere plays the biosphere, not only of

essential gases,

in

but

conditions at ground

a

vital

role

in

providing a source

temperature and providing

amount

carbon-containing (organic! compounds com-

in

a shield

against

Many organ-

posed mainly

8

the atmosphere;

known the

air,

of their lives

however, no organism

that passes

and

living

suspended

its

complete

biomass per

above the Earth's solid or

life

unit

cycle

849

of the four

nitrogen

carbon,

also

is

shows the

mean land elevation and mean ocean depth, and the

an aqueous medium.

weight; the remainder consists very largely of

isms, from microscopic bacteria to bats and

spend part

in

about 70 percent water by

buffering

in

excessive ultraviolet radiation.

birds,

cell is

by regulating

also

level,

molecules dispersed

The average

It

of Earth's surface,

percentage terms,

standing at any given

elements hydrogen,

and oxygen. These com-

elevation or depth.

m

in is

in

volume

:

average elevation 840

liquid surface is

m

extremely low.

^""^^^

average depth 3 800

m

Photosynthesis and the biosphere Life

on Earth

is

based essentially on the

chemistry of water and carbon. Indeed,

biochemical terms,

living

simply elaborate systems

of

6

~

in

organisms are organic macro-

29%

71%

10 11

035

m

5

i

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

pounds include four major types

large

of

organic molecule - proteins, carbohydrates, lipids

-

and nucleic acids

and about 100

different small organic molecules. of

other elements are

smaller, though

magnesium.

the biosphere

in

a

be

fully elucidated.

carbohydrate found Energy

and

iron

variety

forms,

of

both

which are yet

of

Except for

to

some micro-

molecules within cells

which

by

All

this

energy from the sun.

Chapter

dioxide

ICO2I

with

a

reduce carbon

to

source

of

electrons

live in

need

method. Virtually

eukaryotes (see

all

have evolved a more complex

2)

additional pathway that requires oxygen but yields

much more

energy. This latter pathway

- aerobic respiration - essentially reverses the

basic photosynthetic reaction

The major cycling process

hydrogen)

to

by-product from the hydrogen donor. bacteria the hydrogen donor in

others

is

it

is

In

hydrogen gas,

hydrogen sulfide;

but,

cyanobacteria, algae and plants, water

donor

hydrogen oxygen

IO2I

is

and

some

gaseous

in

the

is

elemental

the by-product. This

over-

is

Many

for oxygen.

produce

invariably

do

to

aerobic conditions use only

carbohydrates, water IH2OI and, generally, a

(almost

energy

obtain

cells

all

these

of

mechanism

the

is

is

down

organisms can break down sugars very

synthesis - the capture by living tissues of

energy from sunlight

and tubers.

the chemical bonds

useful work.

bacteria that

photo-

roots

The controlled breakdown

again.

the organic part of this turnover

is

in

make

key storage

the bonds are broken

directly without the

Photosynthesis essentially involves the use

shown above. of the

biosphere,

therefore, consists of the photosynthetic fixing

carbon dioxide with water

of

organic compounds,

and oxygen;

produce

to

which energy

is

stored,

this is followed by respiration of

these compounds, is

in

in

which the stored energy

released and carbon dioxide and water are

whelmingly the predominant and most impor-

produced. Photosynthesis therefore

tant form of photosynthesis on the planet,

responsible for the vast majority of organic

is

and

free

2nH20

+

nC02

+ light -^

nHjO

+

nCH20

+

2nO

responsible for the vast

oxygen

in

initial

products

of

not only

photosynthesis

in

the atmosphere, without which

aerobic organisms

majority of

great

(the

organisms,

eukaryotic

The

is

production, but also for the maintenance of

described by the following equation:

Energy from the sun

production.

when

released

inorganic chemicals, the engine that drives

of

majority of organic

to

a

within these organic molecules, and energy

organisms that use energy derived from

drives photosynthesis,

needed

is

walls and

cell

and starch,

tissues,

much

sulfur,

many

plant

woody

of

These

organic and inorganic, following complex and interlinked pathways

include cellulose, the

main component

in

these elements cycle through

All

made from glucose

quantities.

required

still vital,

phosphorus,

include

A number

Larger carbohydrate molecules

(041-1,2041.

humans)

including

could not survive.

plants are simple sugars such as glucose

Although photosynthesis engine of the biosphere, injects

energy

into the

the primary

is

the sense that

in

it

system and creates

basic organic molecules, production of the full

range

of

organic molecules on which

life

depends requires additional elements. Of the four key elements, nitrogen in

limited supply, but

ponent

of

nucleic

it

is

one

often the

an essential com-

is

acids

and

proteins.

Although the atmosphere consists

of

percent nitrogen, this inert gaseous form the element cannot be used by plants or

other organisms until combined other elements.

In

pheric nitrogen

fixed by a

is

the

including cyanobacteria,

(fixed)

biosphere,

range

some

79 of

most with

atmos-

of bacteria,

free-living soil

The biosphere

bacteria,

and most importantly by specialized

bacteria that

nodules etc.) in

of

Some

symbiotically

live

The accumulated matter suite

the

in

Fixed nitrogen

also fixed by lightning

is

is

the

in

modern world,

production

made

of

fertilizer.

available to plant roots

through association with fungi ImychorrhizasI

as

From

referred to as net primary production

leguminous plants Ipeas, beans,

industrially

and

accumulated over time. This accumulation

nitrogen

storms and,

electric

the root

in

organisms decay.

nitrogen-fixing

plant

roots,

it

transported

is

to

of

humans, organic

organisms

compounds from an

organisms are referred

Organic products pass

through the food chain,

to

as autotrophs.

be immediately recycled or revert

as heterotrophs,

to

microorganisms that use other energy sources

steps are reversed, and the fixed nitrogen

may

inorganic base or

while photosynthesizers and the few l

70%

30 729

Tree canopy cover >

10%

Forest area Ikm'l

define

which areas they are dominant. A

variety of different definitions of forest have

been proposed by organizations that evaluate and monitor natural resources (Table

may

Estimates of forest area

Senegal

5.21.

vary widely

(includes dry woodland]

depending on the definition adopted. Of singular importance

is

'Closed' forest (canopy cover >

78 689

iO%]

3 934

the degree of canopy cover

used as the threshold for dividing forests from non-forests (Table

As

5.21.

consequence, the

a

precise definitions employed should be borne in

mind when comparing

forest cover data

provided by different institutions.

wide, but provides

Sample

of

the forms and types

Information

about this variation and the

distribution

of

vegetation

forest

types

is

crucial to understanding the different roles of forests

supporting biodiversity,

in

carbon

in

and hydrological cycles and other ecosystem processes, and

wood

in

supplying

wood and non-

However,

forest products.

satisfactory definition of forest arriving

forests

is

even more

A number

deriving a

if

problematic,

is

consensus on how

at

classify

to

into

five

broad categories, discussed further below.

Temperate and boreal needleleaf forests Distribution, types

systems

of global classification

UNESCO

gained universal acceptance. The

and characteristic taxa

Temperate and boreal needleleaf forests cover a

larger area of the world than other forest

types.

They mostly occupy the higher latitude

regions of the northern hemisphere, as well as high-altitude zones and ate

otherwise unfavorable

species

some warm temper-

especially on

areas,

composed

difficult.

have been proposed, but as yet none has

(United

soils.

nutrient-poor or

These forests are

entirely, or nearly so, of coniferous

IConiferophyta).

In

the

northern

hemisphere, pines Pinus, spruces Picea, larches Larix, silver

firs

Abies, Douglas firs

Nations Educational, Scientific and

Pseudotsuga and hemlocl types, as do the current trends

ctiange

in

in

Region

Total forest area

forest cover

In

The temperate forests have

diminished

Much 7

by

western Europe

of

more than

far

of this deforestation

and

000

5

human

as

Between

forests.

650

-5 262

-0.78

Asia

548

-364

-0.07

1039

881

0.08

549

-570

-0.10 -0.18

North and Central America

of

demand

times and the Middle

for fuel during classical

Ages put further pressure on

Africa

Europe

Neolithic

The expansion

populations and increasing

Oceania

198

-365

South America

886

-3 711

-0.41

38&9

-9391

-0.22

World

European

total

Neolithic times and the late

In what is now the Kingdom decreased by 80 percent.

11th century, forest cover

use

United

ization

As European forests dwindled they became an

European colon-

of fire In Australia, but

greatly increased the

rate of forest

conversion. Over 230 000 km' of forest and

Increasingly valuable resource that

was more

120 000 km-

managed. Forest cover

stabilized

estimated

carefully

woodland

of

in

Estimated annual change in

forest cover 1990-2000

Oceania are

have been converted to cropland

to

Table 5.8

Note: Figures refer forests

during the 19th century

Europe

response

In

in

much

fuels

to the

and changes

in

of

western

both improved

to

agement and reduced demand products lowing

for

between 1860 and 1980".

manforest

increasing use of fossil

construction materials).

Since the early 20th century, forest cover

In

European colonial

agriculture

was

1

forest

tropical developing countries

eastern and central Europe and

in

the

16th

and 17th centuries as sedentary

agriculture

expanded. One estimate" sug-

gests that around

been cleared 1980.

Timber

million

1

km'

of forest

had

the former Soviet Union up to

In

exploitation continues to drive

forest clearance

the coniferous forests of

In

Siberia and parts of eastern Europe. In

at least

12 000

a similar

amount

cropland between 1860 and

of this

Asia,

was

conversion

where

from 1880

in

of

woodland

1980'''.

forest area declined by 39 percent

proportion

of

Its

original

minimum around with

1860,

reached

but then increased

westward movement

the

Its

of

the agri-

area

of

the four major types of closed forest, nearly

70 percent. About 60 percent of the original of

temperate

broadleaf

and

mixed

Table 5.9 Global protection of forests within protected

forests has disappeared, and tropical moist

areas

and temperate needleleaf forests have

l-VI

original area, respectively.

America

The bulk

to 1980.

about 45 percent and 30 percent

North

in

south and Southeast

place after European settlement. Forest cover

eastern

Is

were converted

years ago, but most forest clearance took

In

It

million km-' of

Globally, tropical dry forest has lost the

greatest

area

North America, Indigenous groups had

impacts on the forests from

to

Including

and timber exploitation.

Europe has expanded, often through the

Russia, forest clearance accelerated during

precipitated

activities.

estimated that more than

and

of

lost

in

lUCN categories

their

Note: Forest areas and protection as assessed

Current trends

which are shown

in

in

change

Table

5.8,

in

forest cover,

and Industrialization. Forests west

impacts

In

suffered

the

late

centuries, but are

demand In

for

the

reveal that the

rates of deforestation continue to be high

In

Source:

UNEP-WCMc".

of

the

under pressure from

timber and pulp.

Oceania, just as

in

North America,

Indigenous groups had significant Impacts on the forests before the arrival of Europeans.

This

was

especially true

Forest type

Global protection

severe

Ikm^l

i%i

and early 20th

19th

still

most

of

the aboriginal

Temperate and boreal needleleaf

675 470

Temperate broadleaf and mixed

457 535

7.0

382 004

12.2

Tropical dry

413 524

11.2

Sparse trees and parldand

274 401

5.8

3 202 934

8.3

Tropical moist

Total

in

1999.

cultural frontier and subsequent urbanization

Appalachians

natural

and Latin America,

large-scale deforestation

by

to

and plantation forests

combined.

tropical Asia, Africa

In

establishment of conifer plantations. In

of

change l%|

the

occurred between

years ago

000

expanded'-.

agriculture

Annual rate

[thousand ha|

percent estimated for forests globally.

50

Forest cover change 1990-2000

Annual change

2000 ImlUlon ha|

1

5.4

m ^^

98

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

the developing countries of the tropics,

absolute and proportional terms.

In

in

both

contrast,

and irreversible population and

extensive genetic

Furthermore, rare species

losses.

temperate countries are losing forests

at

that are indistinguishable

lower rates, or indeed showing an increase

in

their

danger

forest area".

the field from

In

commercially important relatives are of extinction

in

through overexploitation.

This particular problem exists, for example,

among

Pressures on forest biodiversity

The principal pressures on forests and

their

biodiversity are conversion to other landuses,

forms

principally

cause largely

use

of agriculture,

and logging.

of forest to agriculture is the

Conversion

main

tropical moist forest loss. This

of

due

is

and

an intensity that

A tew hundred species may be

traded under these names, and a significant proportion of these are geographically and

and so

restricted

ecologically

at

high

risl<

of extinction.

Furthermore, logging operations create

expanding populations and the

to

of shifting cultivation at

the dipterocarp groups meranti, balau

l^eruing.

access

may otherwise

forest areas that

to

does not permit adequate fallow periods.

have remained Isolated. This improved access

Government resettlement programs

facilitates

numbers

Fuelwood and charcoal

moved

consumption more than

increased the rate

large

doubled between 1961

clearance

and 1991.

America.

In

of

that have

poor farmers have

of

land colonization and

parts of Southeast Asia and Latin

In

some

land

areas,

has been

hunting and other activities that

may

exert pressure on forest biodiversity, and

ultimately lead to colonization and conversion of the land to agricultural use.

There

also

is

strong evidence that logging can increase the probability of wildfire

and even

in

In

temperate forests

tropical moist forests not usually

subject to burning". Particularly tropics,

drier

the

in

areas

of

the

fuelwood extraction can have serious

impacts on forests and open woodlands.

Fuelwood and charcoal consumption more than doubled between 1961 and 1991, and

is

projected to rise by another 30 percent to 2

395 million m= by 2010". About 90 percent

the consumption

is

In

of

developing countries,

but wood fuel may play an Increasing role In some developed countries. Increasing demand for wood still further". In

sion

converted to ranching principally as a of in

gaining

land

poverty

among

title In

values.

and

means

forests.

land

growth,

tenure

are

both tropical and temperate

Global consumption of industrial 1

521 million m'

1998" and, on current trends, rise.

fragments are ests

in

distinct

Although

large

from continuous

for-

both ecology and composition". There

is

in

projected to

some timber

with

fragment edges, and forest structure

undergoes radical change near the edges as result of the impacts of

tree

mortality.

Some animal

native species of plants

suffered

fully

species are

abundance

In

become more

non-forest and even non-

abundant.

can help ensure their survival from com-

many have

in

forest fragments, while others

Some

a

wind and increased

'edge-avolders' and decline

species are naturally abundant, a factor that

mercial exploitation,

of

are physical and biotic gradients associated

to agriculture.

to

the

areas of continuous forest. Tropical forest

roundwood was more than continue

In

These can include fragmentation

population

inequitable

in

changes

Thus,

Timber extraction puts great pressure on biodiversity

to

condition or quality of the remaining forest.

order to permit speculation

the causes underlying deforestation by

conversion

addition to loss of area, forest conver-

and logging lead

and animals success-

invade forest fragments but not con-

Terrestrial biodiversity

99

"^'ik

tinuous forest.

addition to directly affecting

In

canopy composition, removal

may

trees

also affect the availability of seed

may

and

regeneration

for

timber

of large

animal

affect

species that depend on the timber species.

include acid

climate change. So

far.

acid precipitation, which

Is

for similar

but

may

these

be distinguished

as

polar

tundra' and 'alpine tundra', respectively.

northern tree

which

line,

In

determined by a

Is

number

of

of the effects of

summer

position of arctic air

caused by indus-

have been documented

trial air pollutants,

sometimes used

is

and global

rain

most

same term

the Arctic, polar tundra occurs north of the

Other factors that affect forests and their biodiversity

the

vegetation at high elevation at lower latitudes,

climatic

Including

factors

the

masses" and

the depth of permafrost (permanently frozen

in

temperate needleleaf forests and associated vi/aterways

The

likely

Europe and North America.

of

impacts

on forests are

seems

to

still

of global

climate change

being debated, but there

be general consensus that the

boreal coniferous forests are

vulnerable

to

Increasing

fire

particularly

range restrictions and

both

frequency".

Another forest type that has been shown be vulnerable to climate change

montane cloud

forest,

clouds to supply

It

to

tropical

is

which depends upon

with atmospheric moisture.

Research has shown that the mean cloud base

moving upwards on tropical moun-

is

tains as a result of climatic shifts.

species

are

not

able

comparable rate and. will

In

to

The

forest

migrate

at

a

any case, range shifts

be limited by the land area existing

higher elevations. Local extinctions

at

cloud

in

forest amphibians, including the golden toad

pengtenes

Bufo

assessed

as

critically

endangered, have been attributed

to climatic

fluctuations that

may be

linked to long-term

subsurface

climatic

the

mountains, and

complex fashion with

maximum

oceanic climate, and the

tundra environments differ

of the

The characteristics

Earth that are too cold, too by

fire

and/or

In

a

elevation

polar and

of

temperatures are low

many

In

tundra

polar

high-latitude

in

massif™.

NON-FOREST ECOSYSTEMS of the

on

line

varies

latitude, continental or

and overall size

dry or too severely affected

tree

elevation

Its

global climate change".

The parts

alpine tundra

Similarly,

soil].

above

occurs

for

much

alpine

respects.

systems,

of the year,

grazing do not support forest or woodland

while permafrost limits both drainage and

ecosystems. However, as can be seen from

root extension,

Map

5.1,

growth.

many

of

active plant

Natural non-forest ecosystems

tundra

clude

them do support

(both

and

arctic

in-

montanel,

last for

as

at

Less productive, but with unique elements

At

IMap

and semi-deserts

is

per year, and

Is

described as polar desert.

elevation

In

temperate

regions

temperatures may be similarly low. although

in

the

Is

rare.

tropics,

However,

although

at high altitudes

low temperatures

occur every night, high Insolation causes

Tundra Tundra

high

permafrost

5.4).

weeks. Rainfall

mm

extreme latitudes may be so low that the

environment

biodiversity, are the deserts

six to ten

low. usually less than 200

grasslands and savannahs, and shrublands. of

and the growing season may as

little

Is

the

vegetation

found

at

high

latitudes beyond the limits of forest growth;

warming during the day so temperatures

for active

that

adequate

plant growth occur

In

polar tundra systems,

temperatures are low

much

of the

year

for

100

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

T\ >;iv#>

\

t^ -^

Biodiversity

maintenance and

conser-

vation of inland w/ater capture fisheries lother

than Sonne lucrative sports fisheries! have not

ranked highly among these competing

interests, so that

it

measures

has been

difficult to

regulations

catchment-vifide

or

for their benefit. This

exacerbated by the

fact that

to pinpoint a distant

it

is

impose

remedial

problem

is

source of a problem or

place are having an adverse effect

in

to

one

somewhere

else (e.g. to convince farmers that application of large

doses

of

nitrogenous

stream agricultural land

is

fertilizer

on up-

causing deleter-

ious eutrophication of estuarine wetlands!.

Although they cannot solve catchment-wide problems, inland water protected areas play a valuable role

in

may

safeguarding particular

sites or populations of species

from immediate

are

sites

may be most

relatively

manageable, and have

effective

small and thus

a relatively low level of

allochthonous inputs. Wetlands, with their often

abundant and highly conspicuous

fauna, have

in

avi-

general received most attention

regard.

in this

Notable wetland protected areas include

often difficult

unequivocally demonstrate that actions

Protection

threats.

where

the

Moremi game reserve

delta (Botswana!,

the Okavango

national reserve

Keoladeo (Bharatpur! national park

(France!, (India),

in

Camargue

Dohana national park

Everglades

park

national

(Spain!

(United

Inland water ecosystems are unusual

an

international

specifically

Wetlands ially

as

to

convention

them:

the

of International

Waterfowl

in

that

dedicated

Convention

on

Importance espec-

Habitat

Convention, see belowl.

is

and

States!.

(the

Ramsar

to

change

205

206

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

Map

8.^

Endemic

areas

bird

More than one quarter 12

5611 of

ttie

world's bird

species, including

than

70%

birds,

of the

more

threatened

have a range

restricted to less than

50 000 km'. Virtually

all

occur within the 218

endemic

bird

areas lEBAsI

defined by BirdLife International'-.

The world's EBAs are

shown on

this

categorized

1.

map 2 or 3

according to increasing biodiversity

importance

(based on the

number

of

restricted range species,

whether shared between EBAs, taxonomic uniqueness and EBA

sizel

Category

Source: Data provided by BirdLife International,

and see Stattersfield

.

BSBJUS

Transboundary inland waters

large

Waters that delineate or cross international

supplies from both sources). Use of exogen-

boundaries

ous water carries an increasing risk because

present

management living

special

a

class

of

Such waters and the

issue.

resources they contain are shared by

exogenous volumes (others have small

dependence on

of

sufficient

supply from

upstream countries.

one or more countries, and require positive

There are well over 200 major inter-

international collaboration for effective use

national rivers and a host of smaller ones''.

and management.

As demands on

Available water

any given country within

in

an international basin unit within a

basin

lor other administrative

more

divided into endogenous,

runoff available

in

generaltyl can be

i.e.

generated

locally

national

remotely generated runoff imported

Some

countries

(e.g.

and Norway! have an abundance from endogenous sources; others

and

Iraqi

have

a

water resources

they undoubtedly

will,

management

of

these

and the biological resources they contain also grow ever

will

more challenging.

aquifers and

surface water systems, and exogenous,

from upstream.

inland

continue to grow through the 21st century, as

in

i.e.

flow

Canada

of

(e.g.

Management of marine ecosystems Management of the terrestrial environment typically carried out alongside

more or

is

less

water

severe anthropogenic disturbance. Although

Egypt

the particular nature of the marine biosphere

small endogenous supply but

has

to

some

extent

buffered

it

from the

Global biodiversity: responding

/

impacts

humans,

of

set of difficulties

management. is

it

also imposes

and constraints

Firstly,

because almost

generally out of sight,

its

own

for rational all of

it

impacts are not

immediately apparent, so that extreme deterioration

aware

may

take

of the fact.

place

before anyone

is

before

possible

as

Thirdly, the ability of

amounts ials,

to

extremely

of

marine habitat

difficult to

zone

of

(such

as

communal

property

resources on reefs and other inshore areas parts

of

the South

Pacific],

living

in

marine

resources have been widely considered open-

access resources, particularly those outside territorial

waters (usually up

miles (nml from shore]. There

to is

to exploit a

the

Law

United

of the

resources

an area up to 200

in

nm

Sea

offshore, a

far greater proportion of the world's

come

seas now

within the control of individual nations.

At present 99 percent of world fisheries catch is

taken within EEZs. Although this should

theoretically

thus, quite

ment

resource as fast and as intensively

(EEZ)

lUNCLOS], which allows nations control over

12 nautical

simply, an incentive for any given individual

it

exclusive

the

under

Nations Convention on the

exceptions

that

limited areas

in isolation.

With the introduction

ecosystems where such deterioration has

impact on people. Secondly, with some

means

manage

economic

direct

does.

dissolved and suspended mater-

of

incentive to take action than with terrestrial a

else

transport large

including living organisms,

is

There may also be less

someone water

of

allow more

rational

marine resources, and more

enforcement progress

in

of

management

both has

in

manageeffective

measures,

practice been limited

to

change

207

208

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

Map

8.5

Marine protected areas The map shows the location of

protected areas

categories

l-VI

in

lUCN

that are

entirely or in part marine,

with

map symbols graded

according

to

protected area

size (including any land

present!.

Note; For presentation

purposes that

map

in

it

has been

use symbols most cases at this

necessary

to

scale greatly exceed the

size of the protected area

represented, giving the

impression that of the

much more

world's coastal waters

are protected than is in

fact the case.

Source:

UNEP-WCMC

database Idala

mamtained lUCN World

extracted March 20021. collaboration with

m

Commission on Protected Areas.

to

evidenced

as

date,

by

the

increasing

proportion of world's fisheries that are overexploited. This

because fisheries manage-

fisheries technology or fishing effort! create

responses that may be far from

intuitively

predictable.

Recognizing that the

under-

ment regimes are frequently subject to political pressure, so that in many countries

standing

such

responses

require

quotas are habitually set higher than those

ecosystem processes,

recommended

marine ecosystem (LMEl units have been

is

by fisheries

biologists,

and

also because the active enforcement of regu-

of

modeling and management

identified-,

of

will

large-scale

number

a

of

large

based on the world's coastal and

Many

continental shelf waters, which are regarded

countries lack the resources or the political

as central to such analysis. Over 95 percent of

lations

will,

is

difficult

or both,

to

and

expensive.

enforce

such regulations

It

is

the

usable annual global biomass yield of

fishes and other living marine resources

adequately. also increasingly apparent that individ-

produced within 64

ual marine resources cannot be effectively

of

managed

to the

in

isolation

from

each

other

Complex interactions between populations different

organisms, when combined with

perturbations ations

in

of

in

the environment and vari-

human impact

le.g.

changes

in

which

lie

identified

LMEs, nearly

is

all

within and immediately adjacent

boundaries

of

Many LMEs include more than one state.

EEZs the In

of coastal nations.

coastal waters

these cases,

it

will

of

be

effectively impossible for individual nations to

assess whether their use

of

marine resources

Global biodiversity: responding

t'i^^

-rJ ¥'^-^_^-

.vj; A

'-.-TC-v

XW^'

"'^^

w

f^'

;^

i.

\K^--''

is

sustainable

itoring

from neighboring

isolation

in

nations. Coordination

between states

and resource management

become

in

will

monthus

increasingly necessary as the press-

need

critical

in

monitoring

marine

the development of consistent

ecosystems

is

long-term

databases

understanding

for

of

will

need

to take

these kinds

species dominance shifts into account

in

the development of strategies for long-term,

economic sustainability

of

the fisheries".

Monitoring the changing states of

ures placed on these areas increase.

A

marine fisheries

LMEs has

received considerable attention, with several

now being assessed and managed from more holistic ecosystem perspective*- '.

a

between-year changes and multi-year trends in

biomass

alterations

yields.

during the late 19605 fishing within the

shelf

when

flounders!

finfish

species

declined

percent, and this

marked

there

was intense

US

continental

northeast

LME. The biomass

important

in

For example,

abundances were observed

in fish

by

of

economically

le.g.

cod, haddock,

approximately

50

was followed by increases

the biomass of lower-valued small elasmo-

branchs Idogfish and skates). Management

of

Marine protected areas The long-term management

of

complex and there

urgent

smaller-scale

and

is

an

more

LMEs

is

highly

need

immediate

for

app-

roaches. As with terrestrial ecosystems, the

establishment

of

protected areas

in

ecosystems has been viewed as

a

marine

major

contribution to maintenance of biodiversity.

1995 review' identified just over protected areas

in

1

A

300 marine

existence at that time.

to

change

209

210

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

Map

^^'

8.6

International protected

area agreements

The map shows the location of protected

managed

areas

under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands,

under the World Heritage Convention or as a

^-.

biosphere reserve within the

UNESCO Man

and the

Biosphere Programme. Source:

UNEP-WCMC

database Idata

extracted March 20021. maintained collaboration with

in

lUCN World

Commission on Protected Areas,

World protected areas

Ramsar

site

World Heritage

MAB

ranging

size

in

site

biosphere reserve

from

hectare to

1

2UM

million

hectares Ithe Great Barrier Reef Marine Park)

IMap

8.5). Effective

management and

marine protected areas ularly

if,

as

intensive

is

is

problematic, partic-

often the case, they are

and potentially

control of

in

areas

of

resource

conflicting

use.

As noted above, marine ecosystems are

also

in

general more

terrestrial

difficult to

protect than

ones from allochthonous inputs

(i.e.

Reversing change: restoration and reintroduction Increasing recognition of widespread environ-

mental degradation has interest of

in

both

led to a

ecological restoration. The

such restoration characteristics

is

to

an

of

growth

science and

the

main aim

reestablish

of

practice

the

of

key

ecosystem, such as

composition, structure and function, which

those originating elsewhere). Although a no-

were present before degradation took

catch regime can be effective

has been suggested that ecological restor-

reserves,

in

general

it

small marine

in

has been found that

large, carefully zoned, multiple-use

more

practical

and

effective

areas are

than small re-

serves. Sanctuaries or strict reserves

be required for

critical habitat

may

still

areas such as

ation

complement

to the

estab-

protected areas for safeguarding

and

it

is

widely expected that

become a central activity in environmental management in the future. Such

ment

".

of

It

restoration will

nesting sites of threatened species or to

protect breeding stocks of important fishes"

a crucial

biodiversity'',

nutrient sources, areas of high biological diversity,

IS

lishment

place.

efforts are being supported by developof

national and international policies.

For example, the

UN

Convention on Biological

Global biodiversity: responding

'Jp-

•

-^

w^f J"

Diversity, Article 8f, states ttiat parties

and

'rehabilitate

should

degraded

restore

systems and promote the recovery

eco-

of threat-

ened species, through the development and implementation

ment

A have the

of

plans or other manage-

number

now been

of

restoration

projects

ecosystem types, including grasslands, wetlands and forests. Although a national governments are active restoration,

(notably

in

sometimes on

a

number in

of

ecological

very large scale

North America], most projects are

being undertaken by NGOs, often as grassroots

or

community-based

Forests for Life

the

WWF/IUCN

is

For

initiatives.

example, together with a variety partners,

in

areas such as the Lower Mekong,

Caledonia, the Mediterranean, India and

WWF/IUCN

the Carpathians.

recognizing

the

critical

implementing

of

local

program

of

restoration

is

increasingly

importance

of

de-

veloping plans for restoration at the land-

to local

to provide benefits

communities as well as

Experience

initiated in different parts of

focusing on a variety of different

Vi^orld,

New

scape scale, and the need

strategies'.

large

programs

has highlighted how rehabilitation

difficult

can be

in

causes

of

Although

display an ability

through natural processes degradation are removed,

areas the extent

of

in

if

the

many

degradation has been so

management

severe that greater is

date

such ecological

practice.

many degraded ecosystems to recover

to biodiversity

of restoration projects to

intervention

required for restoration to be effective. For

example,

severely

deforested

require large-scale tree planting forest

ecosystems

to reestablish

areas in

may

order for

on a partic-

to

change

212

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

ular site. Restoration projects

manage

difficult to

fiard

with

define

to

may

or monitor, as

also be is

it

often

what the

precision

restoration

projects,

how

illustrate

positive

action can contribute to reversing the trends of biodiversity loss.

structure, composition or function of a given

ecosystem was prior ularly

long

in

to

degradation, partic-

areas where degradation occurred a

time ago. Another key challenge

to

THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION National boundaries do not enclose

the

all

world's biological diversity: the high seas, the

deep seabed and Antarctica

some

resources,

al

of

contain natur-

all

great

such areas can, by

diversity in

means

be achieved by ures.

bio-

definition, only

of international

may

particular interest

boundaries, and

measures

of

meas-

areas or communities

Similarly,

cooperation

or

interest

economic importance. (Management

such cases international

in

conservation

essential for

is

of

be crossed by national

be planned and implemented

to

effectively.

More generally, policy

and planning

national efforts

is

it

important to develop

at the global level to place

in

broader context.

a

In

a

hypothetical example, an individual country

might

more

devote

effort

conserving

to

species that are rare or peripheral at national level,

widespread elsewhere, than

but

more common, Restoration projects have

restoration projects

been

for

initiated in different

is

example, a plan

the high cost involved: to

restore the Florida

parts of the world, focusing

Everglades has recently been launched,

on a variety of ecosystem

total cost of

types, including grasslands,

wetlands and forests.

US$7.8

at a

Efforts at restoring

Although the former may be regarded as

degraded ecosystems

important

to global biodiversity.

priorities,

between

on the reintroduction or reestablishment

of

exposure

for diverse opinions

within a

tunity for

NGOs and

extinct

particular area. For such reintroductions to be

on

conservation

policy,

and

an international forum

develop

become

Regardless

national

can be complemented by programs focusing

species that have

may be more

national priorities, the latter

differences

billion^'.

to

endemic species.

nationally

and

to

needed

is

science,

to

of

global to

provide

and an oppor-

comment

other bodies to

formalize agreements that

successful, thorough knowledge of a species

can guide the way individual countries manage

and

their environments.

its

habitat requirements are needed,

addition original

to

clear understanding

a

causes

of extinction. In

of

some

in

the

cases,

Such opportunities are

offered by the international

agreements that

have recently been developed.

such as large vertebrate predators, there may be considerable public antipathy

to

reintro-

International

agreements

duction being attempted. However, there have

A

been some notable examples

successful

agreement concluded between three or more

such as the Arabian oryx

states and governed by international law (see

reintroductions,

[Oryx leucoryx]

to

eagle [Haliaeetus

Oman", albicilla]

of

the white-tailed to Scotland,

and

the tvlexican gray wolf ICan/s /upusfaa/(ey/l and California

condor [Gymnogyps californianus]

to parts of the

provide

United States. Such examples

important

lessons for successful

reintroductions and,

together with

habitat

multilateral

Box

8.AI.

have evolved this,

duplications of

is

in

in

international

part with biological diversity

an uncoordinated manner.

and the consequent gaps and in

overall coverage,

such treaties whose

during

an

Existing international treaties that

deal entirely or

Despite

treaty

the

text

1970s have come

a

handful

was agreed to

exert

a

Global biodiversity: responding

powerful influence on the conservation and

management of elements Among the most notable Convention

Wetlands

on

of

biodiversity.

the

are

1971

International

of

Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat iRamsarl; the 1972 Convention Concerning

Those with

a

informally termed

are

diverslty-related

on

bio-

CMS, Ramsar, World

diversity (CBD, CITES,

Heritage)

focus

particular

bio-

'the

They each

conventions'.

Impose more or less rigorous reporting requirements on parties

to

them, and also

Cultural and

generate a significant demand for information

Natural Heritage (World Heritage); the 1973

from their parties and others. Meeting these

Convention

demands can

Protection

the

the World

of

on

Trade

International

Endangered Species

Wild Fauna and Flora

of

and the 1979 Convention on the

(CITES);

Conservation of Migratory Species

UN

Animals ICMS). The 1982

Law

the

in

1994,

In

Convention on

has strong potential for

enhancing marine and coastal conservation.

The names

these major treaties indicate

of

their sectoral focus and, even

many

the

if

Important regional and species-related treaties are also considered,

total obligations

short of the

fall

it

explicit

in

demands

place a substantial burden on

governments, particularly those with limited

and

resources,

work

proceeding

is

on

harmonizing information management among the treaties.

Sea (UNCLOS). which entered

of the

into force

Wild

of

change

to

In

addition to the Rio conventions, the Rio

Declaration

(a

and

set of guiding principles),

comprehensive plan

a

21 -

Agenda

of action -

were also agreed and adopted by more than

governments

178

Agenda

21

Is

Summit.

Earth

the

at

designed

support sustainable

to

clear that the

is

existing treaties of

an adequately

Box 8.i Negotiating

a multilateral treaty

comprehensive system. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), agreed at the 1992

Earth

Summit

In Rio.

attempted

these demands.

of

planned

was

It

to

the

meet many first

treaty

concentrate specifically on the

to

conservation and use of global biodiversity.

Its

and use

of

text establishes the conservation

biological resources as a matter of Interest to

all.

It

has as

Its

common

objectives the con-

servation of biological diversity, the sustain-

use

able

biological

of

resources and the

Text Negotiation of

tfie text of tfie

concluded by the adoption

many years and numerous meetings.

treaty can require

of the text, typically

agreement over the wording. Adoption

when

of a treaty

all

does not by

Consent

A

treaty

does not come

The expression

of

accession or by other frequent

means

two or more states consent

into force until

such consent

is

to be

bound by

it.

usually by signature, notification, acceptance, approval or

means where so agreed. Signature

of expressing consent.

Signature refers

followed by ratification

to the

is

the

negotiating the treaty and

the need for approval of the treaty by the head of state or the legislature. Accession

careful balance

these

biological resources are to be used

If

wisely.

It

states

resources, but sibility for

it

over their

biological

also states their respon-

protecting

them and using them

sustalnably.

on Climate Change lUNFCCCl

agreed

at the

biodiversity

UNFCCC and to

Combat

that states

synonymous with the adoption

which did not participate

and has the same

effect as signature

and

In

of the treaty. Ratification is

the negotiations

ratification

become

is

the

parties to the

combined.

Entry into force This final stage usually occurs to

Desertification

Summit

but

(UNCCD) (which

was

not agreed

sometimes termed the

when

be bound by the treaty; the date to its

requirements.

a large multilateral treaty

it

all

the negotiating states have expressed their consent

may be

When

delayed to provide time for parties

a large

number

'Rio

human development and stewardship environment, and to be implemented

range

of

scales - globally,

of the at

a

nationally and

locally -

by organizations within the United

Nations

system,

major groups.

governments and other

to

adapt

of states participate In the drafting of

often enters into force once a specified

also

the United Nations Convention

199i) are

conventions'.

was

Earth Summit and Is relevant to management. The CBD, the

arose from the until

treaty

themselves

The United Nations Framework Convention

normal way

often

not only acknowledges the control

individual

of

must be maintained between

Is

most

signature of the diplomats

use

genetic resources, recognizing that a

Is

create any obligations.

itself

equitable sharing of benefits arising from the of

It

the participating states reach

number have

ratified.

2U

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

Table 8.1

Major global conventions

^^^^^^^^^^^F

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H

Scope

relevant to biodiversity

maintenance Notes: Conventions are listed in

force.

Vi/hicfi

All

Parties are required to

order of entry into

Year'

is

is

(Convention on Wetlands or

year

aspects

of

list

Ramsar Convention!

one w/etland

at least

international importance for special

date of

agreement, Entry'

wetland conservation and wise use.

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat

of

management and

protection.

in

agreement entered

Year

Entry

Parties

1971

1975

131

into force, 'Parties' is

number

of party states

indicated at eacti

website

in

as

agreement

Marcti 2002.

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World

To define and conserve the world's fieritage, by dravKing

Cultural and Natural Heritage

up a

Sites

Year

Entry

Parties

1972

1975

167

Species

of

humanity, and to ensure their pro-

all

among

tection through a closer cooperation

(World Heritage Convention!

Convention on International Trade

whose outstanding values should be

of sites

list

preserved for

in

Endangered

Wild Fauna and Flora

may be

natural heritage or both.

Aims

to

extinction

prevent

species

because

being

threatened

list

endangered species (Appendix-l

of

and by regulating and monitoring trade

in

listed species! in

others that

Entry

Parties

might become endangered or whose trade needs

1973

1975

154

regulated

ensure control over trade

by

an agreed

Year

to

with

of international trade. Parties act

banning commercial international trade [CITES!

nations.

importance as cultural heritage or

of

in

to

be

Appendix-l

species |Appendix-ll listed species!.

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild

Animals

Aims

to protect

Parties

migratory species and their habitats.

cooperate

research relating to migratory

in

species and provide immediate protection for species

ICMS

or

Bonn Convention!

listed in

Appendix

listed in

Appendix

Year

Entry

Parties

conclude

1979

1983

79

servation and

of the

1

11,

range

convention. For those species

parties are required to endeavor to

agreements on

state'

management,

a

number

of

their

con-

which have

been concluded.

Convention on Biological Diversity

The major international agreement on

CBD ICBD!

sets

out

undertal

k

291

292

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

^^^^m^^^ ^^^^^^

^^^H

Place

Haplochromis cassius

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haptochromis cinctus

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis cnester

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

Haplochromis decticostoma

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis dentex group

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis diplotaenia

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis estor

Lake

Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

Haplochromis

llavipinnis

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

Haplochromis

gilberti

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C '

Haplochromis gowersi

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis heusinkveldi

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis hiatus

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis ins

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis longirostris

Lake

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis macrognathus

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis maculipinna

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C '

Haplochromis mandibularis

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis martini

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis megalops

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis michaeli

Lake

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis microdon

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis mylergates

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis nanoserranus

Lake Victoria

Mid/tale 20th C ?

Haplochromis nigrescens

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis nyanzae

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C '

Haplochromis obtusidens

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis pachycephalus

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis paraguiarti

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis paraplagiostoma

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

Haplochromis parorthostoma

Lake Victoria

Ivlid/late

Haplochromis percoides

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C '

Haplochromis pharyngomylus

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haptochromis prognathus

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis pseudopellegrini

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

Haplochromis pyrrhopteryx

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis spekii

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis teegelaari

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis thuragnathus

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis tridens

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis victorianus

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis xenostoma

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

Haplochromis

'bartoni-like'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

Haplochromis

'bicolor'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

guiarti

Victoria

Victoria

C

''

?

">

?

?

''

''

''

C?

20th C

C

''

•>

?

''

'^

?

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis 'black cryptodon'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis 'back pectoral'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis

big teeth'

APPENDIX

HHHI^^H^Hi^l^HH Haplochromis 'chlorocephalus

Lake

Haplochromis

'citrus'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis

'coop'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

Haplochromis 'elongate rockpicker'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

Haplochromis 'fiiamentus

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C '

Haplochromis

Lake Victoria

Mid/lale 20th C

Haplochromis 'gray pseudo-nigricans'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

Haplochromis

'large eye guiarti'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis

'lividus-frels'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C '

Haplochromis 'longurius'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

''

Haplochromis 'macrops

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

'

Haplochromis 'micro-obesus'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

?

Haplochromis 'morsei'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

->

Haplochromis 'orange cinereus'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

?

Haplochromis 'orange macula'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C '

Haplochromis 'orange yellow

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C '

'fleshy lips'

like'

big teeth'

Haplochromis 'orange yellow small

Haplochromis

'paropius-like'

Haplochromis

'pink

teeth'

paedophage'

-

Victoria

Mid/late 20th

C

C

C

? > ' '>

? '>

>

?

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C '

Haplochromis 'purple head'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis 'purple

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

'purple rocker'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis 'pseudo-morsei'

miller'

Haplochromis

11]

Haplochromis

'red

empodisma'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis

'red eye scraper'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haptochromis

'reginus'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ^

Haplochromis 'regius

Lake

Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis 'small blue zebra'

Lake Victoria

Mid/lale 20th C ?

Haplochromis 'small empodisma'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis 'smoke'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis

"soft gray'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis 'stripmac'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis 'supramacrops'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis

'theliodon-like'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis

'tigrus'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C

Haplochromis

'too small'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis

'twenty'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis 'wyber'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Haplochromis 'xenognathus-like'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

Haplochromis

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C i

'short

Haplochromis 'two

supramacrops'

stripe white

lip'

'yellow'

C

C

?

?

Haplochromis 'yellow-blue'

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th

Hoplotilapia retrodens

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

Psammochromis cryplogramma group

Lake Victoria

Mid/late 20th C ?

?

4

293

294

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

REFERENCES 1

BirdLlfe International 2000. Threatened birds of the world. Lynx Edicions International, Barcelona and

2

and BirdLife

Cambridge.

CREO. Connmittee on Recently

Extinct

Organisms ICREO] website: http://creo.amnh.org/

(accessed January 20021. 3

Hilton-Taylor. C. (compiler! 2000.

Cambridge. Online

2000 lUCN Red

at http://www.redlist.org/

List of

threatened species. lUCN, Gland and

(accessed April 2002).

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

5:

BIODIVERSITY AT COUNTRY LEVEL number

This table includes estimates of the

mammals, breeding each country of the

birds

of

The threat status

these endemic to each country. of

mammals and

comprehensively assessed, and

number and percentage

the

species present

in

these classes

of globally

threatened

non-marine species

to native

but the threatened species counts for

countries include marine species

(a

the

In

number

the total

of

been

birds has

for

each country are given.

mammals, most estimates present relate

only,

new

surveys. The columns headed Dl and

respectively, contain the diversity indices,

details!.

shown

and the diversity indices adjusted

methodology notes below

for area [see

The index

is

for

based on data for the groups

here, plus reptiles and amphibians, not

included here. The Al column

Map

Al,

unweighted national

is

the basis for

5.4.

many

number

of

non-marine

mammals

number

of

threatened

species - the percentage figure

is

omitted

but a higher

change with new taxonomic treatments and

few island

countries have a small

casesl.

in

together with estimates

of the world,

number

be taken as provisional; they are subject to

of

and vascular plants

Source:

WCMC

database; data derived from a large

regional checklists in

such

The richness and endemism data should

number

of

published and unpublished sources, including country reports and

Numbers

from the online version

of

threatened species retrieved

2000 tUCN Red

of the

List of threatened

species, at http;//www.redlist.org/ [accessed f^larch 20021.

Methodology notes parameter This transforms the data

to within

the

Numerical indices representing national biodiversity

that

have been derived from available estimates of species

range 0-1, with the most important country having the

total

and species endemism. Taxonomic groups covered

mammals,

are:

birds, reptiles,

amphibians and vascular

plants Iferns to flowering plants!. For birds alone, the

database includes estimates recorded

li.e.

of botfi the total

accidental visitors! and the

number

species; the latter has been used

countries

number

including non-breeding migrants and

belovi/ 5

000 km^

in

of

in

breeding bird

the analysis. All

area have been excluded

value

Nmax/Nmax-

richness

fV/?i

Four arbitrary assumptions are made: the four

and the least important having

mean

vertebrate

and mean vertebrate endemism IVEIare

derived by averaging the figures for

estimates for combined richness

endemism /flare

all

classes, and

fWand combined

derived for each country by

averaging figures for vertebrates and plants. Inspection of the data

shows

closely, while

from the analysis, leaving 169 countries.

1,

the value closest to zero. Estimates for

that

Pf tends

where estimates

of

PR and to

W

correlate quite

be approximately half VE;

PPand Pf are

missing the

vertebrate classes included are of equal importance;

appropriate vertebrate-based value has been inserted

plants are of equal importance to the vertebrates

before calculating

combined; richness and endemism are reasonably vtfell

correlated at country level across the taxonomic

groups covered; vertebrates plus plants provide a valid surrogate for biodiversity

Because

in

in

each column are

first

normalized. Each estimate N/ for each country /is divided by

Nmax where Nmax is

country as the

Rand £

diversity index IDII

mean

of

R and

the highest value for

£

is

calculated for each

This treats richness

and endemism equally and so makes fewest

assumptions about their

general.

interest lies in relative biodiversity rather

than absolute values, data

An overall

relative significance in

terms

of

overall biodiversity, but the 0/ could be weighted to give

greater importance to either. Because species richness

tends to increase with area, and with proximity to the

humid

tropics, 0/

is

strongly affected by country area

5

295

296

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

and geographical position, but levels of

it

also takes account of

endemism, which are shaped

by several

relative levels of biodiversity per unit area,

much more

or less rich

may

in

species

is

i.e.

how

any given area

factors, including topography, geographic isolation

lor country). This

and tectonic

equation describing the species-area relationship

history.

Because area

is

an important determinant

species number, there

is

much

interest

in

of

evaluating

Hog S = g + z log

A

= area, z

is

A],

be addressed by the Arrhenius

where S

number

=

of species,

the slope of the line, and g another

^flW^^^^5!^^^^!P^^mSnfWS^ km'

total

.

652 225

0.063

-0.296

119

Albania

28 750

0.035

-0.019

68

Algeria

2 381 7^5

0.045

- 1.003

92

Afghanistan

American Samoa

197

3

Andorra

465

44

Angola

1

246 700

Anguilla

0.176

0.544

91

Argentina

2

13

2

13

3

3 1

7

18

7

2 777 815

0.196

0.423

320

49

32

29 800

0.042

0.153

84

3

7

206

63

Armenia Aruba

193

Australia

no. theatened

3

M2

Antigua and Barbuda

276

endemic

7

682 300

1

0.608

1.268

252

-0.293

83

9

0.027

99

13

- 0.503

12

Austria

83 855

D.036

Azerbaiian

86 600

0.05

Bahamas

13 865

0.017

Bahrain

661

laooo

Bangladesh

Barbados

3

5

17

1

21

0.059

0.058

125

0.029

-0.771

74

5

430

6 i

Belarus

207 600

Belgium

30 520

0.023

- 0.441

58

11

Belize

22 965

0.056

0.526

125

4

Benin

112 620

0.08

0.437

188

7

3

2

Bermuda

54

Bhutan Bolivia

1

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Botswana

46 620

0.058

0.366

160

098 575

0.239

0.882

316

51 129

0.034

-0.200

72

575 000

0.062

-0.287

164

1.436

394

8 511 965

Brazil

0.74

British Ind. Oc. Terr.

Brunei

^^|||||||^

^^^^^

Bulgaria

Burkina Faso

20 16

23 10 '

119

79

-

5 765

0.071

1.145

157

'

110910

0.044

-0.167

81

15

274 122

0.068

0.011

147

'

27 835

0.072

0.723

107

5

Cambodia

181 000

0.059

0.001

123

Cameroon Canada

475 500

0.167

0.762

409

14

37

385

0.067

- 1.014

193

7

14

Burundi

Cape Verde

Cayman

Islands

Central African Republic

9 922

4 035

5

259

8

624 975

0.08

- 0.058

209

:

21

3

2

12

1

1 1

1 1 1 1

i

APPENDIX

constant. that Dl

IS

If

it

is

assumed, given

scaled

in

the

analysis of log Dl and log to

its

same way

area dependence,

as

5,

A allows the constants g and z

be calculated. The regression line establishes the

expected biodiversity value of each country for

and the distance

of

each country point from the

Hwa^R^^ % threatened

its

gives a

measure M//of how much more

l-vel diverse is a given

a regression

area,

attempts

assess diversity per

endemic

it

is

noticeable

that several smaller mainland countries and island

move up

in

rank order, as would be expected.

Hlant^^^^linl^^

^^ira^^ breeding total

unit area, rather than

overall biodiversity value per country, and

states

line

to

Itvel or less

country than expected. Al

no. threatened

% threatened

endemic

total

11

235

11

5

4 000

A

230

3

1

3 031

24

U

192

6

3

3 164

250

2

6

471

15

100

34

2

113

7

765

1

1

12

897

8

242

-

350

5 185

2

1

158

38

4

9

372

4

2

3 553

-

460

25

15 638

14 074

1

321 1

19

48

350

260

2

15

-

49 10

800

32

1

22 1

100

25

649

11

213

3

1

3 100

35

13

248

8

3

4 300

240

42

88

4

5

1

111

118

6

28

6

21

17

295

23

8

3

24

5

1

4

195 5

-

000

-

572

3 _

7

221

3

1

2 100

19

180

2

1

1

550

3

356

2

1

2

894

i

307

2

1

2 500

-

67

8

167

15

13

448 18

7

U

218

3

386

20

1

1

492

1

185

2

25

12

3

27

1

150

468

75

17 367

4 000

5

3

1

-

-

7

2

2 151

17

113

8

56 215 101

14

-

359

15

4

6 000

7

19

240

10

4

3 572

320

5

335

2

1

1

100

-

5

451

7

2

2

500

-

17

307

19

6

-

-

9

690

8

15

2

8 260

156

7

426

5

8

2

3

270

147

60

38

4

2

5

774

86

1

2

539

19

3

1

602

100

6

45 6

537

1

3

,

= zero:

-

= no data.

5

297

298

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

^^^^J^mmals ^nal

Area

Chad

°'jl

1 im^i

km'

;

1

Chile

2U

000

0.049

- 0.739

134

751 625

0.112

0.229

91

Mammals

Mammals

endemic

no. theatened

1

16

17 21

China

9

597 000

0.392

0.767

394

83

76

Colombia

1

138 915

0.538

1.685

359

34

36

Comoros Congo, Dem. Rep.

12

2

2

2

345i10

0.218

0.579

450

28

40

342 000

0.128

0.589

200

2

12

7

14

1

Congo. Republic

Cook Islands

860

233

Costa Rica

Cote d'lvoire Croatia

50 900

0.162

322 i65 56 538

1U525

Cuba

1

1.358

205

0.116

0.507

230

0.036

-0.169

76

0.829

31

0.12

1

17 9

12

n

250

0.017

- 0.429

21

Czech Republic

78 864

D.033

-0.356

81

Denmark

43 075

0.021

- 0.643

43

5

Djibouti

23 000

0.02

-0.528

61

^

Cyprus

9

Dominica

751

Dominican Republic

Ecuador Egypt El

1

Salvador

Equatorial Guinea Eritrea

Estonia Ethiopia

1

Falkland Islands

'

1 1

0.353

1.519

302

25

31

1

0.038

- 0.936

98

7

12

1

395

0.048

0.393

135

461 475

000 250

28 050

0.084

0.869

184

117 600

0.057

0.088

112

45 100

0.025

- 0.483

65

104 300

0.145

0.383

277

15 931

0.004

- 2.040

18 330

0.028

-0.100

4

0.023

- 1.145

60

France

543 965

0.051

- 0.473

93

91

000

0.079

0.483

150

3

940

French

S.

and Antarctic

Gambia Georgia

Te rr

7 241

0.001

-3.261

-

267 665

0.116

0.56

190

10 690

0.036

0.308

117

69 700

0.051

0.111

107

356 840

0.033

-0.770

76

238 305

0.114

0.571

222

Gibraltar

7

Greenland

Guam

131 985

0.062

0.129

95

0.007

-2.821

9

1

5 31

345

15

780

11

450

2

1

5 6

18 3

9

--

jl

jl

S fl H M H ;fl

3

fl S U H S 9 S fl ^1 S S fl S fl 15

3

2

12 1

13

3

14 7

4

5 2

108 890

0.142

1.014

250

3

Guinea

245 855

0.094

0.373

190

1

0.05

0.289

108

36 125

3^

3

Guatemala Guinea-Bissau

15 12

7

2 175 600

Grenada

Guadeloupe

1

3

Germany Ghana Greece

2

4

337 030

French Polynesia

1

J

'

-

French Guiana

1 1

12

Finland

Gabon

8

J

20

0.076

Faroe Islands Fiji

3

0.625

48 440

21

1

6

11

2

B

APPENDIX

= zero;

Birds

Birds

Birds

Birds

Plants

Plants

breeding total

endemic

no. threatened

% threatened

total

endemic _

13

370

1

1

600

23

296

16

15

5

5

284

2 698

7

32 200

18 000

51

220

15 000

5

19

1

100

70

73

10

1

695

67

77

5

17

50

14

9

18

9

929

24

28

3

6

449

3

1

136

721 11

007

1

100

6

000

1

200

100

27

6

7

26

284

3

7

600

6

13

2

12 119

950 62

7

535

2

12

2

3 660

12

224

Q

4

2

4 288

35

137

21

18

13

6 522

U

79

2

3

4

1

682

-

10

199

2

1

1

900

-

12

196

1

1

1450

7

126

5

4

8

52

25

136

10 12

1

388

1

2

37

153

1

251

8

273

11

8 12

626

28

64

4

3

3

6

15

11

60

4

7

5

1

228

5

657

70

2911

17

3 250

66

-

-

7

2

3

1

1

16

3

6 603

3

5

269

6

-

1

12

16

165

1

760

1

102

-

4 630

133

5

37

48

3

3

6

1

5

1

2

1

280

518

1

22

3

14

2

1

3

13

1

000

5

25

466

1

3

60

8

-

630

236

71

24

800

4 000

213

248

11 1

076

2

319

19

6

19 362

2

10

1

826

5

74

3 229

625

144

959

560

-

-

6 651

-

974

-

4 350

380

16

239

5

2

2 682

6

6

529

8

2

3 725

43

15

251

78

62

34

1

3

600

-

7

3

4 992

742

529

15

50

1

1

2

1

068

4

52

2

1

2

1

400

26

100

18

2

2

11

2

458

1

6

1

8 681

6

409

2

3

000

88

2

243

1

000

12

ib

10

330

69 1

171

J

-

= no data.

5

299

300

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

Countri^HH^^^I

Mammals '

Guyana Haiti

Honduras Hungary Iceland

total

Mammals

Mammals

endemic

no. theatened

2U970

0.133

0.758

27 750

0.071

0.71

112 085

0.094

0.597

173

93 030

0.031

- 0.457

83

102 820

0.006

- 2.080

11

830

0.326

0.896

390

44

86

193

1

20

9

4 2

9 9 6

India

3 166

Indonesia

1

919^5

0.731

1.844

515

222

140

Iran

1

648 000

0.091

-0.194

140

6

23

^^^^^^^^

438 445

0.041

-0.629

81

2

10

^^l^^^^^l ^^^|H^H ^^^^^B

68 895

0.013

- 1.248

25

20 770

0.043

0.285

116

4

14

301 245

0.065

-0.056

90

3

14

425

0.051

0.619

24

2

5

369 700

0.124

0.536

188

42

37

Iraq

Italy

•

Jamaica

11

Japan Jordan

Kazakhstan

2

Kenya

96 000

0.036

-0.310

71

717 300

0.071

-0.581

178

4

18

582 645

0.145

359

23

51

DPR

Kuwait Kyrgyzstan

PDR

8

-

0.025

-0.775

-

13

.

98 445

0.03

-0.518

49

13

1

122 310

Korea, Republic

Lao

0.56

684

Kiribati

Korea,

5

24 280

0.007

- 1.564

21

198 500

0.036

-0.537

83

1

1

7

236 725

0.081

0.229

172

27

Latvia

63 700

0.025

- 0.553

83

5

Lebanon

10 400

0.031

0.145

57

6

Lesotho

30 345

0.025

- 0.354

33

3

111 370

0.059

0.132

193

759 540

0.029

-1.343

76

Liberia

Libya

1

Liechtenstein

160

Lithuania

Madagascar Malawi Malaysia

55

6

0.077

78

11

594 180

0.298

1.277

141

94 080

0.079

0,473

195

332 965

0.254

1.28

300

0.053

- 0.658

137

240 140

Malta

316

Marshall Islands

181

Martinique Mauritania

1

1

Mauritius

Mexico Micronesia, Fed. States

1

-0.856

61

376

-

0.589

1.621

702 33 700

Monaco

2

36

47

'

13

;

1 1

1

1 fl M m I

9

0.041

4

Moldova

50

22

865

972 545

93

3

079

030 700 1

Mayotte

5

0.037

298 1

68

25 713

Maldives Mall

3

- 0.544

2 585

Macedonia, FYR

9

64 0.026

65 200

Luxembourg

16 5

0.025

- 0.396

1

10

1

3

491

140

6

3

68 -

69 6

3

M S ^ j 9

APPENDIX

Birds

Birds

Birds

Birds

breeding total

endemic

no. threatened

% threatened

678

5

2

= zero;

6

409

75

1

14

5

422

1

5

1

5 680

148

11

205

8

4

2214

38

55

88

22

923

58

70

519

408

27

19

5 242

1

377 8

18 664

623

1

5

000

113

7

29 375

17 500

16

323

1

13

4

8 000

-

12

172

1

11

6

-

-

20

U2

950

-

12

180

12

7

2317

-

16

234

5

2

5 599

712

21

113

26

12

11

3

308

923

20

250

21

32

13

5 565

11

U1

8

6

2

100

10

396

15

4

6

000

U

844

6

506

1

1

1

24

3

26

1

3

12

115

1

19

17

9

2

000 -

265

60

2

2

898

107

2

898

224

234

-

27

112

25

22

5

20

7

35

8

-

4

16

487

6

217

3

1

1

11

154

7

5

3 000

7

12

591

2

11

3

2 200

103

1

1

1

825

134

1

1

1

410

-

9

58

8

372

12

91

5

124

1

1

19

4

4 500

-

8 286

-

153

-

1

7

202

4

2

1

796

11

126

1

1

1

246

U

210

3

1

3 500

-

35

202

505

6 500

4

521

16

501

9

397

U

105

27

13

11

2

3 765

18

37

7

15 500

23

9

600

583

-

741

11

4

914

5

6

100

5

287

30

1

4

4

1

26

1

17

1

1

2

4

1

1

1

52

49 3

1

16

273

75

27

8

9

33

750

27

2

3

11

500

-

769

92

38

5

26 071

12 500

100

40

18

5

13

1

194

293

U

177

5

3

1

752

-

-

-

U

-

2

100

325

-

= no data.

5

301

302

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

Countr^^^^^^^H

Arefll

km'^" Mongolia

1

565 000

^^j 1 E 0.051

"

-0.767

104

Montserrat

- 0.304

458 730

Mozambique

lU

0.09

Myanmar

678 030

0.141

Namibia

824 295

0.102

0.116

0.057

no. theatened

133

12 1

4

0.005

179

2

15

0.493

300

6

36

250

3

14

2

27

16

-

U1

Nepal Netherlands

415

0.096

0.549

181

41 160

0.022

-0.599

55

Netherlands Antilles

Zealand

Nicaragua 1

Nigeria

11

-

800

Caledonia

Niger

Mammals

endemic

105

Nauru

New New

Mammals

total

7

Morocco

755

Mammals

3

19 105

0.078

0.904

11

3

6

265 150

0.065

-0.017

2

2

8

148 000

0.098

0.555

200

2

186 410

0.061

-0.512

131

923 850

0.107

0.131

274

Niue

259

Northern Marianas

477

6 11

4

25

1

-

2

54

10

386 325

0.024

- 1.107

Oman

271 950

0.03

-0.812

56

2

9

Pakistan

803 940

0.08

-0.121

188

4

18

1.236

218

16

20

Norway

492

Patau

Panama

2

3

78 515

0.162

Papua New Guinea

462 840

0.271

1,254

214

65

58

Paraguay

406 750

0.115

0.429

305

2

'

Peru

285 215

0.396

1.344

460

49

47

300 000

0.225

1.188

153

102

50

312 685

0.032

-0.761

84

92 390

0.045

- 0.088

63

8 960

0.033

0.259

16

435

0.005

- 1.770

11

2

3

237 500

0.039

- 0.490

84

17

17 075 400

0.179

-0.179

269

26 328

0.087

0.925

151

1

Philippines Pitcairn Islands

Poland Portugal

Puerto Rico

Qatar

11

2510

Reunion

Romania Russia

Rwanda San Marino Saudi Arabia

15 1

964 2

Senegal

8

22

Sierra Leone

B 1

4

3

0.04

- 1.129

77

7

196 720

0.057

-0.065

192

11

72 325

Singapore

42

400 900

404

Seychelles

17 2

13

Sao Tome and Principe

6

0.083

0.588

616

2

147

85

4 11

1

3

Slovakia

14 035

0.037

0.252

85

Slovenia

20 251

0.036

0.106

75

Solomon Islands

29 790

0.049

0.316

53

630 000

0.087

0.025

171

12

19

184 825

0.252

0.915

247

35

41

Somalia South Africa

1

J 1 1 1 1

9 9 21

21

, H 1

.^1

"9

m ^ '9 S

^1 ^1 ^1

H S

^1 |H ^H

H

APPENDIX

^^^nmals

^threatened

Birds

breeding total

9

426

U

37

15

210

Bird^^l endemic

1

^^^M

iliSiW^Shed

Birds

%

threatened

Plants

= zero;

Plants

endemic^H

total

823

16

4

2

5

671

2

9

4

3 675

625

2

229

8

498

16

3

5

692

12

867

4

35

4

7

000

6

469

3

9

2

3 174

1

2

22

50

26

4

6

973

315

4

2

1

221

-

9

15

611

20

191

2

77

219 1

071

687 1

-

-

3 250

3 200

1

1

55

107

22

9

8

150

74

49

33

3

482

5

1

7 590

8

299

3

1

1

460

-

9

681

2

9

1

4715

205

2

8

15

28

1

19

243

2

16

107

10

10

375

2

382

178

1

315

81

1

1

715

9

1

204

73

372

17

5

4 950

2

4

-

9

732

9

16

2

9915

27

644

94

32

5

3

556

26

5

7 851

33

40

7

10

1

942

29

45

10

1

11

1

-

1

222 -

544

-

356

538

112

71

5

17 144

196

186

67

34

8 931

3 500

19

5

8

42

76

14

4

2

2

450

3

3

5

050

150

2

493

235

5

18

227

27

207

2

7

13

105

12

8

8

6

26

355

-

4

5

28

546

165

8

3

3 400

41

13

38

6

11

400

-

9

2

2

288

26

23 18

20

247

16

628

5

513

8

-

38

63

25

-

-

134

9

14

895

10

2 028

9

155

15

6

384

4

2 086

26

67

38

11

10

26

250

182

7

466

1

10

2

2 090

74

/I

118

7

6

2 282

2

11

209

4

2

3 124

92

1

12

207

iO

163

43

11

422

11

10

2

17

596

8

20

3

1

23

14

3 200

22

3 172

30

028

500

23 420

-

3

-

= no data.

5

303

304

WORLD ATLAS OF BIODIVERSITY

Area

Country

Dl

Al

km'

Mammals

Mammals

Mammals

total

endemic

no. theatened

^

Spain

Lanka

Sri

St

504 880

0.067

-0.172

82

4

24

65 610

0.082

0.606

88

15

20

Helena and dep.

St Kittsand Nevis

411

2

261

7

1

St Lucia

619

9

St Vincent

389

8

1

2

Sudan

1

815

0.137

0.093

267

11

24

Suriname

163 820

0.092

0.471

180

2

11

Swaziland

17 365

0.044

0.353

47

4

440 940

0.026

-1.067

60

8

41 285

0.033

-0.173

75

185 680

0.046

- 0.265

63

2

4

36 960

0.058

0.418

63

11

13

Taj il