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No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, or transmitted or World. Atlas of Coral ......
UNEP WCMC
World Atlas Mark
The most
D. Spalding.
definitive
overview yet of a living w/orld." --
BBC
Wildlife
Reefs
Corinna Ravilious. and Ednnund
and comprehensive
vital part of
of Coral
our
P.
Green
®iral reefs
are the most biologically
diverse marine habitats
the world, host to an
in
extraordinary variety of plants and animals. They are
also one of the world's
most
fragile
and endangered
ecosystems. The growth of tourism, combined with
the
boom
in
popularity of scuba diving, has brought
these spectacular ecosystems to public attention
around the planet.
Coral reefs provide essential fish habitat, support
endangered and threatened species, and harbor
protected marine
mammals and
turtles.
significant source of food, provide
They are a
income and employ-
countless other benefits to humans, including supply-
ing
compounds
Yet coral reefs
for
pharmaceutical development.
around the world are rapidly being
degraded by human
activities
such as overfishing.
coastal development, and the introduction of sewage.
fertilizer,
and sediment. And because corals are highly
sensitive to
changes
in
water temperature, they are
particularly vulnerable to climate change.
The World Atlas of Coral Reefs provides the
detailed
and
definitive
first
account of the state of our
planet's coral reefs. With
its
wealth of authoritative and
up-to-date information, the finest
maps
available,
and
nn^
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in
2010 with funding from
UNEP-WCIVIC, Cambridge
Iittp://www.archive.org/details/worldatlasofcora01spal
World Atlas
of Coral
Reefs
The publisher gratefully acknowledges the
generous contribution to this book provided by the Moore Family Foundation.
Published in association with
The contents of this volume do not necessarily reflect the views
UNEP-WCMC
or policies of
by The University
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Citation: Spalding M.D., Ravilious C. and Green E.P. (2001). World
Fax:
Atlas of Coral Reefs. Prepared at the
UNEP World Conservation
Monitoring Centre. University of California Press, Berkeley, USA.
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^S
T
UNEP WCMC
ICLARM
THE WORLD FtSM CGNTER
World Atlas Mark
D. Spalding,
Corinna Ravilious, and
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley
Los Angeles
London
of Coral
Reefs
Edmund
P.
Green
World Atlas Prepared
The
of
Coral Reefs
at
UNEP
World Conservation
Monitoring Centre
219 Huntingdon Road
UNEP WCMC
Cambridge CB3 DDL. UK Website; www.unep-wcmc.org Director:
Mark
The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring
Collins
Centre provides objective, scientifically rigorous
Authors
products and
services
that
D.
Spalding
include ecosystem assessments, support
Connna
Ravilious
for
Mark
Edmund
implementation
of
environmental
agreements, regional and global bio-
Green
P.
diversity information, research
on threats
Research assistants
and impacts, and development
Sarah Carpenter
scenarios for the living world.
The Centre became the biodiversity
Rachel Donnelly
arm
information and assessment
Space Shuttle photographic research Julie A,
Robinson
United Nations Environment in
June 2000.
lUCN and
Marco Noordeloos
in
Edmund R Green and Mark unless otherwise stated
Cartography Corinna Ravilious
Layout
John Dunne
Color separations
Swaingrove
China
A Banson Production 27 Devonshire Road
Cambridge, CBl 2BH.
UK
bansonlBou rplanet.com
D.
Spalding
organizations
years
is
was founded
lUCN,
financial support
Photographs
in
It
in
of the
Programme in
1979 by
1988 was transformed
joint activity of
Printed
of future
WWF and
into a
UNEP. The
and guidance
of
these
the Centre's formative
gratefully acknowledged.
Supporting institutions
Supporting institutions The United Nations Environnnent Programme environment.
Its
role
is
to
is
the principal United Nations body
the field of the
in
be the leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental
agenda, that promotes the coherent implementation
the environmental dimension
of
environment.
Its
objectives include analysis of the state of the global environment and
and regional environmental trends, provision threats,
and
to catalyze
sustainable
of
development within the United Nations system and that serves as an authoritative advocate
for the global
assessment
of global
and early warning information on environmental
of policy advice
and promote international cooperation and
action,
based on the best
scientific
and
technical capabilities available. Website; w/ww.unep.org
ICLARM-The World
Fish Center
an international, non-profit research center working
is
and promote food security through the sustainable development and use environmentally sound management. The focus of ICLARM's work are one of the key resources systems studied.
Database on Coral Reefs. ReefBase aims
ICLARM
shallow tropical habitats, activities
order
in
to
A major coral
of
to alleviate poverty
resources based on
developing countries and coral reefs
ICLARM
reef project led by
ReefBase: A Global
is
provide data and information on coral reefs and associated
to facilitate better
and the status and dynamics
is in
of aquatic
understanding
of the relationship
between human
these environments. Over 110 institutions and individuals have
contributed information and expert advice to ReefBase, Websites: www.iclarm.org and wiwwreefbase.org
Scientists
l^w
in
the Earth Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center
with astronaut crews and facilitate public
studies.
access
manage
in
is
located at http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov
Strasbourg, France,
was formed
in
2000. The Aventis Foundation promotes
projects at the interface of culture, science, business and society. The Foundation
Aventisroundation
are international, interdisciplinary, and looking towards the future.
people
who
will
shape tomorrow and
activities in science, politics
and
PAOI (Professional Association
enable them
to
society.
Website:
to contribute to
One
of its
aims
to select projects that
prime aims
is to
identify the
sustainable development through their
www, aventis-foundation.org
of Diving Instructors) Project
and non-diving communities' environmental awareness,
humans and
closely
imagery, with an emphasis on using astronaut photographs for scientific
to the
The cataloged data and imagery
The Aventis Foundation, based
work
the Earth photography by astronauts on space missions. They also
to
AWARE
seeks
to
increase both the diving
encourage responsible interactions between
the aquatic environment and to emphasize the diver's role
in
preserving the aquatic realm.
Aquatic World Awareness, Responsibility and Education at www.projectaware.org
The non-profit fvlarme Aquarium Council organizations, the
Marine
Aquarium Council
and others
MAC
IS
to
aquarium
industry,
ensure quality and sustainability
an international network that brings together environment
in
(hobbyists), public
the collection, culture and
aquariums, government agencies
commerce
of
marine ornamentals.
doing this by developing an international system of certification and labeling that
will:
establish
standards for quality products and practices; document compliance with these standards and label the results;
and create consumer demand and confidence Paul Holthus, Executive Director, 923 Fax:
(1
Nuuanu
for labeled
"products" from certified industry operators.
Ave, Honolulu, Hawaii 96817, USA. Tel:
(1
8081 550 8217;
808) 550 8317; E-mail: pauLholthusHaquanumcounciLorg; Website: wAvw.aquariumcouncil.org
The International Coral Reef
ICRI
is
aquarium keepers
Initiative
is
a voluntary partnership that allows representatives of over
80 countries with coral reefs to work with major donor countries and development banks, international
environmental and development agencies,
scientific associations, the private sector
and NGOs
to
decide on
LvrERjNATlUNAI-
CORALREtl
the best strategies to conserve the world's coral reef resources. ICRI
is
not a
permanent structure or
INITUTIVE
organization, but an informal network linked by a global Secretariat. Website: http://icriforum.org/
Dulverton Trust
The Dulverton Trust
was founded
is
a
UK grant-making
by Lord Dulverton
in
1949.
charitable trust, with an interest
in
the field of conservation.
It
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Acknowledgments would
authors
The
support
like
thank
to
have lent
organizations that
the
many
for the Earth Sciences
and Image Analysis Laboratory
other
Johnson Space Center
to contribute to this book.
or
financial
various stages in the preparation of this
at
These include the United Nations Environment
work.
Programme Division of Early Warning and Assessment, Dulverton Trust, the
ICLARM, NASA,
the
the Aventis Foundation,
Marine Aquarium Coimcil and PADI.
We
would also
our gratitude to the Moore Foundation for
like to express
providing support for the production costs of this book.
excellent support as research assistants during the prepara-
The information behind these maps has
been compiled over seven years and many thanks are due all
those
who have
Jonathan
Blyth,
to
Map Room
UNEP we
the
to
for
all
of the
staff
help over
their
are also very grateful
Dan
to
Claasen. Salif Diop, Agneta Nilsson and Arthur Dahl for
Colin Watkins has been an incredible support on this not only with fund-raising but also
with his
and optimism; thank you Colin. Thanks
persistence, vision
also to Heather Cross, In
Mary Cordiner and
Rogowski
Will
Mania
evenings and weekends.
the
at
Spalding and Stephen Grady have shown great patience and tolerance of the crazy hours
- many thanks indeed
We
to
we
put in to prepare this book
both of them.
part
of the
text
photographs, but also provided his newly prepared coral distribution data
species
lists.
and thoroughly reviewed our resulting
Thanks
to Clive
Wilkinson, Bernard Salvat
and Lauretta Burke for supplying data and general encouragement.
Thanks
International Coral
Jerry
Kemp, Doug
Reef
the
to
many
others
Initiative for their
some valuable
in
the
kind support.
Giotto Castelli
Perrine,
Fairhurst also provided
and Colin
A
images
Thanks must also go
that
appear
in the
book.
Lonely Planet/Pisces Books
to
number of copies of
a
In addition, considerable thanks are
their
Diving and
owed
to the
who have checked
reviewers, listed below, text.
the high-
copies of film products that were the
digital
starting point for the
of the
Johnson
at
making
These have greatly improved the
final quality
which remain
the texts. However, any errors responsibility of the authors. Part
In
Chapter
Stephen Grady, Lucy Conway and Sarah
I:
and
1)
David Woodruff (primarily
1-3),
Paul
Holthus
(aquarium
Marco Noordeloos spent countless hours
sorting
showing coral
reefs. In addition to this,
of Kamlesh P LuUa
it
without the
many
would not have been possible
and
trade
certification). In Part
II:
Jeremy Woodley (Chapters 4 and
Reyes BoniUa (Mexico), Juan Manuel Diaz Hector
Guzman (Honduras,
Hector
5),
(Colombia),
Nicaragua, Costa Rica and
Panama), Sheila Marques Pauls (Venezuela) and Clive Petrovic (British Virgin Islands). Part
David Obura (East Africa), Nyawira
III:
Muthiga (Kenya), Chris
Horrill,
Richmond and Jason Reubens
Quod
Martin Guard, Matthew Jean Pascal
(Tanzania),
(Eastern Africa), Arjan Rajasuriya (South Asia),
Charles Anderson (Maldives), Charles Sheppard (Chagos Archipelago), Alain de Grissac (northern
DeVantier (Middle Eastern
reefs),
southern Arabia),
Ormond
Rupert
Hansa Chansang (Thailand),
Red
Jeremy
HM
Sea),
Kemp
(northern
Lyndon
(Red Sea,
Red
Part
IV:
JEN Veron
Guinea), Duncan Vaughan Islands), Darrin
(Australia),
(Fiji),
Drumm (Cook
Sea),
Ibrahim (Malaysia),
Laura David (Philippines), Vo Si Tuan (Vietnam),
In
an earlier
of
are solely the
CF
(Melanesia and Polynesia), Aaron Jenkins (Papua
at
many
over large parts
Robinson has worked long and hard on the
through thousands of images to select those clearly
efforts
quality
to
(Taiwan) and Andre Jon Uychiaoco (Southeast Asia).
images from Space Shuttle and Mir, while, stage,
Imaging Laboratory
Digital
to the
checking the
in
additions to the
photographs. Julie
The
Space Center gave special attention
In
who not and supplied some
are extremely grateful to Charlie Veron,
reviewed
only
and those who helped
staff
Carpenter (Chapters
their constant support.
UNEP-WCMC.
support
Snorkelling Guides.
in
to all the
photography of Earth. Particular thanks are due
who provided
Hagen. Also
and
orbit,
members of the Earth Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory who have over the years supported astronaut
Mary Edwards, Simon
University Library
project,
astronauts for their continuing efforts
"placement students"
the
Cambridge, many thanks are owed
In
NASA
to
helped, including
Joanna Hugues and Chantal
the years.
due
photograph coral reef areas from
Rhind and
Annabel Lee, Ivor Wheeldon, Alastair Grenfell, Susannah Hirsh,
to
annotations.
Both Sarah Carpenter and Rachel Donnelly provided
tion of this work.
are
at
Thanks
Dai
Robin South
New
John Gourley (Mariana
Islands) and Flinn Curren
(American Samoa).
Thanks are also due appraisal of the text.
to
James Nybakken
for his overall
Contents
Contents PART
Introduction
II
The Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Essential information
92
12
Chapter 4
Northern Caribbean
US
Gulf of Mexico
95
97
PARTI
Florida and the
Understanding Coral Reefs
Bermuda
101
Bahamas
103
Turks and Caicos Islands
106
Chapter
13
1
The World
of
Coral Reefs
U
Defining coral reefs
15
Chapter 5
Patterns
of diversity
19
Western Caribbean
110
Quantifying diversity
27
Mexico
113
Organisms
29
Belize
117
of the coral reef
Honduras. Nicaragua, Guatemala
and
Chapter 2 Signs of Change The importance Threats
of reefs
to reefs
Responses
El
121
Salvador
Panama
125
Ab
Costa Rica and
47
Colombia and Ecuador
130
56
Cuba
135
66
Jamaica
139
Cayman
U1
Islands
Chapter 3
Reef Mapping
78
Chapter 6
Reef mapping techniques
81
Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic
Global reef mapping
89
Haiti,
U7
the Dominican Republic and
1^'
Navassa Island Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands
The Lesser
Antilles,
Trinidad and Tobago
Venezuela and Aruba, Bonaire and Curacao Brazil
and West Africa
153 1
58
168 1
73
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
PART
PART
III
The Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia
IV
178
The
Western Indian Ocean
180
Australia
302
Kenya and southern Somalia
183
West Australia
305
Tanzania
186
North Australia
309
191
Torres Strait and the Great Barrier Reef
310
194
The Coral Sea
319
197
High latitude reefs
320
Chapter 7
Ocean
300
Chapter 11
Mozambique and South
Africa
Madagascar Mayotte,
Pacific
Comoros and
outlying islands
Seychelles
200
Mauritius and Reunion
205
Chapter 12
Melanesia
Central Indian Ocean India. Sri
325
Solomon Islands
330
215
New
334
219
Vanuatu
338
221
Fiji
342
212
Pakistan and Bangladesh
Lanka
Maldives British Indian
Ocean Territory
323
Papua New Guinea
Chapter 8
Caledonia
226
Chapter 13 Chapter 9
Micronesia
Middle Eastern Seas
233
Northern Red Sea: Egypt,
Israel,
Jordan
235
Saudi Arabia
2/10
Central Red Sea: Sudan
2-13
Southern Red Sea: Eritrea and Yemen
lUk
Southern Arabian Region: Yemen, northern Somalia and
Djibouti,
Oman
Northern Mariana
Guam
Micronesia
Marshall Islands
and Nauru
354 360 363
Chapter 14 251
Polynesia
369
Tuvalu and Wallls and Futuna
371
Tokelau,
Samoa and American Samoa
373
259
Tonga and Niue
377 381
Myanmar and Cambodia
261
Cook Islands
Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam
266
French Polynesia, the Pitcairn Islands
Indonesia
272
Philippines
281
Thailand,
351
247
Chapter 10
Southeast Asia
Islands and
of thi5
Palau and the Federa ted States of
Kiribati
Arabian Gulf: United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Iran
348
Commonwealth
and Cllppertor
385
Hawaii and the
392
Spratly Islands, Tung-Sha IDongsha
Qundaol Reefs and the Paracel Islands
287
Vietnam and China
289
Technical notes
401
Taiwan and Japan
293
Index
404
Introduction
Introduction
Coral reefs are one of the world's most spectacular
may
broad swathe around the globe. They are clearly
half and 2 million, perhaps more.
even from space, as patterns of dazzling colors
tracing the edges of coastlines and scattering
Up
into the oceans.
magic of coral
close, the
far
out
reefs
is
magnified. These ecosystems are packed with the highest densities of animals to be found
Thronging with
anywhere on the
planet.
they rival even the tropical rainforests
life,
From
a
human
perspective coral reefs are not only a
source of wonder and fascination. They also represent a resource for millions of people.
critical
For millennia
coastal peoples have relied on coral reefs as a source of
The wide
some ways
In
surprising.
Many
strips
of coral reefs lining their shores
of knowledge
lack
num-
be anything between
is
not
reefs are remote and, as they are far
from
this
regular shipping traffic, efforts to
map
these areas have
good charts other navigators
not been prioritized. Without
remain cautious about sailing
such areas. From an
in
ecological perspective our knowledge has been further
hampered by the
terms of diversity.
food.
coral reefs, but the total
ber inhabiting the world's reefs
visible,
in
named and described from
ecosystems. They straddle the tropics and cut a
humans
fact that
are terrestrial, air-
breathing creatures. Early scientists could only peer
down
with fascination through the intervening waters which separated them from the reefs, or haul up dead or dying
samples for inspection. Only diving
become
a popular
in
1950s did scuba-
the
and relatively safe
activity,
and
have also provided protection from the worst onslaughts
our scientific knowledge of the ecology of reefs has
of tropical storms. Over the centuries, these same reefs
almost entirely been amassed over the
last
50 years.
have actually provided the sand for the beaches and even
which make up the islands on which so many
the rocks
people
live. In
more recent times
coral reefs have
the treasured destination for millions
peace and
rest
some of
into
reef These same travelers are for
most impoverished nations. Into the
This atlas presents a unique It
provides a
of Coral Reefs compendium of information.
summary of what we know about
graphic distribution and status of coral reefs the
millennium. Unfortunately, even as
third
begun
to gather this
the geo-
at the start
information, the reefs themselves
have been changing. The atlas also provides information
most notably with
on the changes which have already occurred, and on the
development of new pharmaceuticals.
human impacts on This
atlas
is
the coral reefs in every country.
primarily
an
information resource.
Putting such information together at the global level
How
we know
little
possible, even today, to pick
It is
more than
up the best navigational
charts for certain areas and find quite shocking gaps in
a
new
entirely
The
first
perspective. three chapters provide a global review of the
coral reefs,
information about the location and dimensions of coral
perspective, then a
the
1
was gathered by Captain James Cook and others 8th century.
On some
of these "modern" charts there
remain dotted lines showing "possible" locations of or
notes
describing
in
reefs
"position
as
reefs,
unconfirmed".
While sea monsters no longer populate our maps, many of the gaps
where they once
sat still
This lack of knowledge
knowing where the
largely
restricted
As many
to
as
are
may have been
mapping
coral reefs.
The
then focussed towards a region-
is
The most important resource themselves. The
work
100 000 species
perspective, and finally looking
by-region review of coral reefs.
Centre
wild extrapolations and educated
taking an ecological and geological
human
main bulk of the book
remain.
found on reefs remain
firstly
specifically at the task of
not simply confined to
reefs are. Efforts to quantify the total
numbers of species which
guesses.
is
more
is
summary, however, and provides us with an
our knowledge. For some parts of the world, the best
reefs
of
we have
have the capability to provide new resources
for the world's burgeoning populations, the
sought
new source of income and employment
the world's
future, reefs
The World Atlas
become
on tropical shores, or adventure, diving
the world of the coral
providing a
who have
global
first
in
UNEP
in
any
atlas is the
maps
World Conservation Monitoring
commenced
its
global coral reef
mapping
1994 and has now developed the most detailed
maps of coral
reefs in existence.
These maps show
the distribution of the vast majority of the world's shallow coral reefs. Equally important with the
maps
in this atlas
has been to place the location of coral reefs in a wider
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
The maps
context.
also significant
human
factors, including settlements, dive
centers and marine protected areas.
The
texts
provided on the maps, including information which cannot
shown on
and
tries is
maps themselves. For
the
where there are
territories
all
coun-
reefs, basic information
provided describing the distribution of the reefs and
some
ecological features.
coral
reefs are
fiarther
Human
uses and impacts on
considered,
comparable information describing the countries,
and the human impacts on
their reefs,
of coral reefs around the world. Those traveling
regularly to coral reef areas, for leisure or for work, can use the World Alias
before they
of Coral Reefs
visit, to
to learn about
new
areas
get a basic grounding in the ecology of
coral reefs, and to consider the issues and challenges facing
from particular locations,
reefs in particular areas. Experts
illustrate
the
has provided the very
critical
currently being threatened by
human
Indonesia,
Philippines,
countries
all
heritage
which
activities.
The most
diverse region of the world for coral reefs the
is
centered on
is
New
Malaysia and Papua
Guinea, with between 500 and 600 species of coral
in
each
of these countries. Unfortunately these are also some of
most threatened coral
the
Reef tourism
reefs in the world.
now
is
a
major global industry. Visitors
Great Barrier Reef increased from
to the
1985 to over 10 million
in 1995.
numbers of scuba divers
million in
I.I
Scuba diving
most popular adventure sport
the
these.
Users of this book can learn about the location and status
JEN Veron
information on coral biodiversity around the world.
and clearly
list
the protected areas with coral reefs, but also provide
directly
latest
including efforts to
control such impacts or protect coral reefs. Data tables all
Corals of the World,
National statistics have been calculated for
and tables provide information which
enables a more detailed interpretation of the information
directly be
Using information from the new taxonomic work
book thus show major natural
in this
features (forests, rivers, topography and bathymetry), but
world and
in the
visit coral reefs
new database has been gathered which
probably
is
vast
every year.
A
gives the location
of dive centers around the world. This contains infor-
mation on over 2 000 dive centers, marked on the maps throughout tourism
and
is
this
now
work. They show, quite clearly, that diving ubiquitous, and
is
located
in
91 countries
states.
or in particular subjects, can learn about other areas, and
Marine protected areas are becoming a
gain useful information about different parts of the world.
A
considerable amount of information held within the
pages of
this atlas
has never been published before.
widely used, not only for conservation, but also fish catches,
The work includes mated
a new, revised global estimate of the
of coral reefs worldwide. In Chapter
total area
1
it is
shallow coral reefs worldwide occupy
that
284 300 square kilometers, an area about half the Madagascar. This
less than
is
1.2
critical tool for
They
the protection of coral reefs worldwide.
esti-
some
size of
percent of the world's
are being to
enhance
by protecting small stocks of fish which are
now some 660
able to resupply adjacent areas. There are
marine protected areas worldwide which incorporate coral reefs.
These include two of the world's
areas, Australia's Great Barrier
largest protected
Reef and the northwestern
Hawaiian Islands, covering entire large ecosystems.
continental shelf area, and only 0.09 percent of the total
area of the world's oceans. Coral reefs are a scarce, but
Unfortunately,
many
protected areas exist on paper
only - they are poorly managed and have
important resource.
critically
port or enforcement. Equally worrying
An
assessment of the area of coral reefs
countries
provides
in individual
an important perspective on the
ownership and responsibilities associated with heritage. Indonesia
is
this critical
the largest coral reef country in the
world, followed by Australia and the Philippines. Also
high up the area:
Papua
Islands,
are
list
New
Solomon
The same
many
Guinea, Islands,
small nations in terms of land Fiji,
the Maldives, the Marshall
Bahamas and Cuba.
statistics also point
to
or no sup-
that in
almost
every single case, protected areas are aimed solely controlling the direct impacts of
Fishing and tourist activities
and sedimentation
humans on
may be
more remote sources of threats
at
coral reefs.
controlled, but the
to reefs, notably pollution
from the adjacent
land,
continue
unabated. Without a more concerted effort to control
all
of
impacts of humans on coral reefs even the best
the
managed marine
the important role
little
is
protected areas
There are other
stories,
may be managed
however,
in vain.
which provide
which a number of the world's very wealthy nations could
valuable examples of success. Fisheries reserves in a few
play
areas are
now
nomies of
local villages, while tourist
in
protecting
France, the
UK,
the
the
world's
USA
coral
and even
reefs.
New
Australia,
Zealand hold
jurisdiction or significant influence over coral reefs in their
own
territories
waters and in the waters of their overseas
and associated
states.
one quarter of the world's coral
for the It is
revitalizing the food supplies
income
and ecois
paying
wise management of a number of important areas.
vital that the
messages from these
Together these cover over
swiftly as possible to
reefs.
depend on coral
reefs.
all
sites are carried as
countries and communities
who
Introduction
Aside from such clear
statistics, the
pages of
this atlas
reveal a startling, recurring tale of degradation and loss.
urban development and intensive
deforestation,
reefs,
now producing
agriculture are
vast quantities of sediments
and pollutants which are pouring Corals
extremely
are
sensitive
increases
to
known
temperature, exhibiting a stress response
in
considerably in recent years, and in 1998 a global mass
bleaching event occurred, with devastating mass mortalities
of corals
in
many
Recovery
areas.
now underway,
is
but there are very real concerns about the recurrence of
We
reefs
the
disease
damage from
Caribbean apparently natural
and hurricanes has been exacerbated by the
human
impacts of
and
activities,
cover and diversity
reefs have
lost
almost every country, even
in
in
is
who
and income. In many
we
are unable to
the existence of reefs before they are degraded.
much
has already gone.
further specter overshadowing the world of coral
of global climate change.
that
accepted that the global climate
human
erated rate as a result of
threats already mentioned,
it
an accelit
rising sea surface temperatures.
the
universally
at
to
many
among
now
most vulnerable ecosystems
would appear,
are
It is
changing
is
Coral reefs,
coral
apparently remote and protected locations.
shores.
millions of coastal peoples
for sustenance
have no idea how
A
many
activities affect not only the
areas these changes are so rapid that
document
such events with global climate change.
In
many
reefs, but also the
depend upon them
and rapidly
into the sea
proximity to
in close
The impacts of these
as coral
Records of such bleaching have increased
bleaching.
degrading coral reefs
activities.
Coming on
top of the other
seems highly probable
that the
predicted rises in sea surface temperatures over the next In Southeast Asia burgeoning populations
coral reefs, and
and rising
placmg untenable pressures on the
living standards are
many
century
may
well cause the total demise of at least
some of
these critical, valuable and beautiful ecosystems.
are succumbing, no longer able to
provide the fish and other resources which have supported
Faint glimmers of hope As our knowledge and our concern about coral
coastal populations for generations.
Even
the
In the past,
more remote remote
testing nuclear
reefs
worldwide are not secure.
atolls in the Pacific
weapons and
today a number are
for
have been used for
dumping waste, and even
used for military target practice.
still
More widespread has been the impact of many places traditional management and
fisheries. restraint
In
has
enabled sustainable use of fish resources, but such traditional
systems are breaking
down
in
some
areas,
so
increasing,
Overfishing
are
efforts
By
problem.
most dam-
setting aside small areas as "no-take" zones,
communities are finding
local
benefits. Fish stocks build
fi-om the
complete disappearance, even
is
of successful management efforts which can remedy the
some
remote locations.
its
reefs
problems.
the
now cropping up around the globe
Thankfully, examples are
into the surrounding area
target species towards
redress
on the fishing communities themselves.
is
while better transport and high prices are driving stocks of
in quite
to
worldwide problem, and
a
is
aging impact
the
wider area
is
up
that
in these
there
are
zones and
enormous spill
over
such that the overall yield of fish
increased. Everyone benefits.
Tourism has caused considerable damage, through the unplanned coastal development and pollution which are so often linked to
The problems facing the world's reefs Natural changes are a part of any ecosystem, and at
still
the
early
dynamics of coral the
are
However, the 20th century saw
reefs.
near exponential
we
of understanding the natural
stages
growth of human populations,
combined with even more rapid increases
it.
The sewage systems of many
directly into the waters
damage
to reefs
however,
major
is
hotels
empty
where the guests swim, and the
can be considerable. Increasing awareness,
leading to better controls on development and
efforts
to
improve sewage treatment. As such
measures develop, tourism can become
a force for good,
consumer
giving an added value to reefs in the eyes of the local
demands being placed on
the planet's limited resources,
communities, and often providing a direct income, through
and such trends are
to
century.
Humans
set
in
continue through the 21st
are thus bringing
new
pressures to bear
park fees, for the management of marine protected areas.
Most
importantly,
on the worlds coral reefs and driving more profound
the interactions
changes, more rapidly, than any natural impact has ever
terrestrial activities
done. Overfishing has
become
are few, if any, reefs in the world
This,
is
shifting the patterns
reef ecosystems.
of damaging activities
their
and between
reefs,
downstream impacts
coastal zone, are allowing for the development
which are not threatened.
planning.
We
solutions.
The challenge
as blast
and balances of
From onshore is
and
so widespread that there
combined with such destructive practices
fishing,
many
our increasing understanding of
between humans and
a
much
life
in
greater suite
taking place. Often remote from
are aware of the problems, is
to apply them.
in the
of integrated
and have the
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Essential information Key
to all
maps
in
Chapters A
to
U,
labeled a-j
Coral reef
National marine protected area
Mangrove
National marine protected area (boundary unknown!
Dive center
International protected area
Population center
International protected area [boundary
International boundary
River
Bathymetry
Water body
0-200 meters
Land
200-2 000 meters
Forest
>
2
000 meters
Space Shuttle photographs
^^^m^^^^^HQ I
— ^ ^
I
7
km
Approximate scale
NASA
ISTS062-84-70. 19941
Throughout
Approximate North arrow
this publication the
relevant information
is
archive
number
use of na indicates that no
available.
For technical notes regarding the
text,
maps and
data tables, see page A01
.
unknown!
Unde rstanding Coral Reefs
Parti Understanding Coral Reefs
13
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Chapter
1
The World
reefs are
Coral complex
of all
among
of
Coral Reefs
the most diverse and
ecosystems;
tfiey
are
among
changes that are now occurring on coral responding
the most heavily utilized and economically
In
among
of their distribution,
most beautiful and fascinating.
It
Is
reefs are,
Important
how
to
lies
behind such acco-
appreciate exactly what coral
they are formed and where they are
found. Building on such a foundation
it
is
able to develop a basic understanding of
organisms that make up the complexity
also valu-
some
of the
and
for
This chapter offers a simple definition and description of coral reefs.
the
reefs,
such changes.
valuable to humankind; and they are also
order to understand what
lades
to
them
up.
It
goes on
and
of the
to
orovlde an overview
organisms that make
considers the elements determining these
It
distribution patterns, from factors of geological history to
present day limiting processes and the very impor-
tant role of briefly into
ocean currents. The chapter also looks
some
of the
patterns
of biodiversity
which
on coral
are observed at finer resolutions, patterns which are
reefs, and what role they play In maintaining these ecosystems. Such knowledge provides the basis for a wider understanding of the Interactions of humans
observed between neighboring reefs, and zonation
and
make up
reefs.
Above,
left:
It
Is
of
life
also critical for understanding the
Midway
Islands ISTS055-82-63.
Barrier Reef Below,
left:
19931.
Shallow waters of an
patterns across individual reefs. Finally, the chapter provides an overview of the main organisms which the patterns of
Above, right: The edge of the atoll lagoon.
reef, with
life
on coral reefs.
spur and groove formations. Great
Below, right: The intricate branches of an Acropora coral.
The World
of
Coral Reefs
Defining coral reefs who have seen
those
all
For
relatively simple to describe.
one, a coral reef
From
reefs are usually clearly visible,
air,
complex patterning of bright turquoises and
colors.
marked by
a
These arrays of blues,
greens delimit a diverse and complex
physical structure
coming close
white of breaking surf and
dry land during the lowest is still
more
ocean surface. The
to the
shallowest points are frequently
complexity
is
land or from the
shown by
the brilliant
may even briefly become tides. From underwater the
clearly
shown -
reefs are typified
by the presence of large stony corals growing
profusion
in
corals are eroded by countless organisms.
a reef patterns or
or chemically dissolve the coral rock,
destroying
structure.
its
apparently destructive activities often the reef while certain algae
fill
together with
more calcium carbonate
to
In this
the
way
a coral reef
is built.
growth of individual corals
Only
a tiny fraction
converted into upwards
a reef structure,
and so their formation
The most rapid
of reef "growth" have shown upwards accu-
mulation of reef structures reaching 9-15 meters years in
of
is
periods
scientific definition
form a yet more
solid structure.
and water movements. such descriptions incorporate
the interstices of
bind or overgrow such loose materials, cementing them
takes place over geological time scales.
more thorough
weakening and
and other corals may then
development of
simplistic,
some
areas, but
much
in
1
000
lower figures are probably
of a coral reef Coral reefs are shallow marine habitats, defined both by a physical structure and by the organisms
found on them. Corals themselves are very simple organisms. They are
found
in all the
worlds oceans,
described in more detail later
at all
depths. Although
in this chapter, typically
have a very small cylindrical body, topped with
which are used
tentacles
rounding waters.
A
large
to capture
number of
Among
these are
many
of
food from the sur-
corals have developed
the ability to live in colonies and to build skeleton.
they
a ring
up a communal
species which lay
down
a
stony skeleton of calcium carbonate. These corals are
known
hermatypic or reef-building corals. They are
as
almost entirely confined to areas of warm, shallow water,
and
it
their skeletons,
is
which are
Even
critical to the
as large
essentially built of limestone,
formation of coral reefs.
in ideal conditions, these
slow growing.
Some massive
dome-shaped
corals,
structures,
which typically grow build up a skeleton
at rates
of just a few millimeters per year. The faster
growing
tips
of branching corals
may extend
at rates
-
of
^:^
150 millimeters per year or more.
Over centuries or millennia
r-i
hermatypic corals are
may
"i
the active growth of these
corals (alongside other organisms such as coralline algae,
which also
lay
the building is
down calcium carbonate
skeletons) leads to
up of vast carbonate structures. The process
not simple, and numerous additional factors
play.
come
into
Storms frequent many areas of tropical coastlines
and the waves they produce can, quite
literally,
pound
a
reef to rubble in a few hours. Over longer time scales,
V.
^^s^^l
Above: Individual polyps of the great star coral Montastrea cavernosa, clearly showing the cylindrical body, with a ring of tentacles. Below: The
a
Sand and rubble from these
organisms, depending on factors such as depth, shelter
Although
is
great diversity of bio-eroding organisms that burrow into
zones become apparent, each dominated by different
the key elements of a
fish bite
algae on their surface. Unseen but equally important
and by an often bewildering array of species growing or
moving among them. Moving across
Some
chunks out of them, digesting the coral tissues and
large
growth of numerous corals builds up the massive physical structure of an Indian Ocean
reef.
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
more normal.
Types
In fact the majority of reef structures that
exist today are not the result
of continuous growth, but of
Corals can only grow
of reef
warm, well
in
lit
waters and require
pulses of growth interspersed with quiescent periods, or
a solid surface
even periods of erosion, when the reefs might be defined
initial
as fossil or non-living reefs. Sea levels in the oceans have
substrates
varied dramatically, particularly during the recent
skeletons provide a solid substrate for the appearance and
ages,
and many
reefs have intermittently
become dry
ice
land,
on which
to settle.
These factors
appearance of hermatypic corals
settlement
in
the
As
tropics.
corals
restrict the
shallow rocky
to
proliferate,
their
of more corals and other organisms. The
or have been flooded by waters too deep to allow corals to
upward growth of a physical reef structure can also allow
grow. Between these extremes, however, some of these
corals to continue to
fossil structures
become recolonized by
corals and reef
development recommences.
Over shorter time actively
No
reef
is
grow
in
shallow well
Fringing reefs are perhaps the simplest structures to understand. These develop from the simple upward growth
in a
constant state of growth.
of a calcium carbonate platform from a shelving coastline.
all
is,
reefs
in
undergo
Over years or decades,
the extent
Because growth
most rapid and prolific
is
a
shallow platform which
is
usually around the level of the
lowest tides. Further offshore growth
Recently observed events, including coral disease, coral
typical
bleaching, outbreaks of the coral-feeding crown-of-thorns
of important grazers such as the
long-spined sea urchin (see page 61), have
all
some
considerable losses of live coral cover to
Recovery from such events points
produced
structure of a mature
beyond which there
dropping down
Barrier reefs are usually older structures rising up
from
a
deeper base
at
some
distance from the shore, with
from only one particular moment
their origins as fringing reefs
Takmg such
points into consideration, a coral reef can
more rigorously defined
which has been
built
up,
as a physical structure
and continues
to
grow over
decadal time scales, as a result of the accumulation of
lagoon separating them from the coast.
Some have
on shelving coastlines, but
develop when the coastline on which they are growing subsides or
is
flooded by rising sea levels. Under these
conditions the fringing reef continues to
grow upwards,
but deeper waters
fill
corals and
and the coastline.
In other cases barrier reefs
in
which such structures
simply developed
in
to the recognition
of a number of types of
calcium carbonate other organisms.
develop has led
steeply shelving reef front
is a
a
time will be limited.
slower, but the
to the sea floor.
but also shows that any understanding of a "reef" measured in
is
fringing reef includes a
shallow platform out to a sharply defined edge, the reef crest,
reefs.
to a natural resilience,
laid
down by hermatypic
The manner
while there are also
many
shallow
in
water the corals quickly grow to the surface and produce
of actively growing coral cover also varies considerably.
thus be
waters, even
many
fossil reef
losses in coral cover and often considerable erosion of
starfish, or the die-off
lit
on which they are growing subsides or sea
between an
the division
During major tropical storm events,
their physical structure.
the basement
levels rise.
scales,
growing coral reef and a
areas, unclear
if
in a
lagoon between
this structure
offshore locations, but
may have
still
remain
separated from the coast by a lagoon.
other communities which,
Atolls are unique reef formations, broadly circular,
while not as obviously covered by these definitions, are
and enclosing a wide lagoon. They are typically found
reef,
clearly related
and equally important.
in
oceanic locations, away from the continental shelf
Figure 1.1: The main types of coral reef structure
Barrier
Bank or platform
reel
reef
The World
Darwin was the
They
around isolated
reefs
usually volcanic, islands. Such islands then subside, but the reefs continue to grow, first forming a barrier around the sinking
but
island,
Coral Reefs
correctly understand their origin.
first to
form as fringing
initially
of
then,
as
island
the
disappears
Figure
1 .2:
The development
an
of
atoll,
based on
Darwin's original theory
A
volcanic island
is
colonized by corals and
surrounded by a fringing
becomes
reef.
beneath the surface, forming a single ring of coral. The depths of coral limestone which structures
may
accrue on these
considerable - drilling in the Marshall
are
Islands has revealed reef deposits up to 1.4 kilometers in
depth, dating back over 50 million years.
Bank
or platform reefs are simple physical structures
with a variety of origins. They are essentially reefs with
no obvious
link to a coastline, but without the clear struc-
ture of a barrier reef or atoll. In
similar origins to either of the
some
latter,
cases they
may have simply
or encircle a lagoon, in other cases they
grown up over slightly
may have
but do not hold back
natural rises in the coastal shelf Larger or
submerged reef structures of
sometimes referred
The island
and
itself subsides, the corals
a barrier reef
is
continue
to
grow
formed.
this type are also
to as shoals.
Other types of reef and coral communities These reef types can be clearly However, the
illustrated (Figure
reality often reveals
which do not conform quite so
many
1.1).
other structures
easily to strict definitions.
Near-atolls are described in a few areas where there
remnant of the original high island
tiny
atoll ring.
There are also
platform reefs which
like
a considerable
may
is
a
center of an
in the
number of
atoll-
not have the true geological
The island
but coral maintains upward
is lost,
growth and a ring-shaped
formed.
atoll is
origin of an atoll (around a subsiding volcanic island), but
where the surface structure atoll.
is
almost exactly that of an
There are also a number of structures which
lie
offshore in the location of a true barrier reef, but which
may
not quite
conform
to the definition or geological
Bank
origin of a barrier reef
barriers
are
commonly
described in parts of the Caribbean where small banks at
some distance offshore and sometimes do not
Table
1.1:
lie
rise all
Estimates of global reef area calculated from the reef maps Area (km^)
Region Atlantic and Caribbean
Caribbean
% of world total
Figures are
rounded
7.6
20 000
7.0
600
0.6
261 200
91.9
llAOO
6.1
/,200
1.5
32 000
11.3
total of
91 700
32.3
this
115 900
40.8
1
Indo-Pacific
Red Sea and Gulf
of
Aden
nearest
the
100 square
place. National level statistics are provided in the
regional accounts later
Atlantic
to
kilometers, and percentage figures to one decimal
600
21
book.
in this
In
order to avoid
maps prepared such calculations are made by
the problems associated with using at
multiple scales,
first
simplifying the global coverage dov^^n to a
1
kilometer grid, each grid cell being simply marked as
Arabian Gulf and Arabian Sea Indian
Ocean
Southeast Asia Pacific
reef or non-reef. Reef area 1
method exaggerates the
actually
shown on the maps,
the grounds that the
Eastern Pacific Total
1
600
ZBi 300
0.6
then calculated as the
is
square kilometer cells with
maps
this
only
reef.
total area
can be
show
Although
from that justified
on
reef flat to reef
crest areas, while the true reefs extend beyond these
areas Isee also Chapter
31.
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
the
way
to the sea surface.
The long offshore reef tracts of
Cuba and elsewhere
Florida,
many
rival
true barrier reefs
regarded as true barrier
in length, but are frequently not
from the mainland
reefs because they are only separated
on the area of coral reefs
overall perspective
and
in
in the world,
allowing for regional comparisons. There are an
estimated
284 300 square kilometers of coral reefs
worldwide'. This figure represents only 0.089 percent of
by a very shallow lagoon, or because they are not located
the world's oceans
on the edge of the continental
shelf.
continental shelf area. Thus, at the global scale, coral reefs
structures, often lying within the
wider formation of
Small physical a
barrier or atoll lagoon, are often referred to as patch reefs.
Perhaps more importantly, there are significant areas
and
less than 1.2 percent
are a rare habitat. Further analysis clearly
of the world's
shows
that the
great majority of coral reefs are found in the region as the Indo-Pacific,
which stretches from
the
known
Red Sea
to
around the world where there are coral communities
the Central Pacific. Less than 8 percent of the world's
which perform the same ecological function as coral
reefs are
reefs,
formations where there
may be
a thin veneer of live coral,
or they
may
visible.
For clarity such structures are frequently referred to
be physical reefs, but not yet mature or clearly
as coral communities,
submerged
reefs, or sub-surface reefs.
found
Zooming
but lack a clear physical structure. These include recent
in the
Caribbean and Atlantic.
in to these
maps, new patterns emerge
at
finer resolutions. Reefs are often limited in their develop-
ment
nearshore waters of large continental land
in the
masses, although barrier structures are widespread places.
They
in
such
are poorly developed close to large river
mouths. In contrast, they are particularly well developed
around islands and along the coastlines of drier con-
Global distribution Charles Darwin was probably the
map of
a global
described
in
His and other efforts are
coral reefs.
Chapter
3.
Coral reefs are restricted to a
broad swathe, roughly confined
most of far
the globe
from evenly
(Map
tinental areas.
person to prepare
first
I.I).
to the tropics,
Within
this
range they are
distributed, with large areas
remote island regions and offshore areas
and circling
far
confmed
to
order
In
distribution
make up
it
to is
understand
these
necessary to look
the coral reef ecosystem.
patterns
at the
The
of reef
organisms which
factors impinging
on their evolution, dispersion, and survival are the same factors
which have created the patterns
distribution that
we
in
coral
reef
see today.
from major
land masses. Further investigation shows that coral reefs are largely absent
from the Central Atlantic and the shores
of West Africa, they are highly restricted along the western (Pacific) shores of the Americas, and are also restricted
along the coastline of South Asia
from Pakistan
to
The reef area figures used tfiroughout this work are based on a new and replace the early estimate provided by Spalding and Grenfell It is likely, as mapping work continues, that such figures will continue to be refined and improved. This may lead to further upwards adjustment of the global total, although in some areas 1,
Bangladesh.
calculation,
Using the maps shown
in
this
publication
it
is
possible to estimate the total area of coral reefs in the
world.
Although there are clear limitations
to
such
estimates, these figures are clearly valuable for getting an
Map
1.1:
The coral reefs
of the
119971 of 255 000 square kilometers.
there
Thus
is It
also likely to be
seems
some
unlikely that a
reduction of figures as final" figure
maps
are improved.
would exceed 300 000 square
kilometers.
world
30
20
W:-^ ,."..-»?;;%
.
-^>^
r-l^i'
10
— 10
20
30
Distribution of scleractlnian corals
The World
Patterns of
Observations
At the global
in the distribution
level,
Coral Reefs
of diversity
on coral reefs reveal
life
of striking patterns
of
Patterns at the global scale
number
a
of species.
few species are ubiquitous.
Corals are clearly the most important organisms it
comes
understanding the
to
factors
that
when
drive
the
The majority of reef-building
Some may be widespread across one or even two ocean basins, but many others are restricted to certain oceans or
distribution of coral reefs.
particular seas.
have been the subject of continuing studies by biologists
As a larger picture is built up through many species, certain patterns emerge. Some
looking
at
regions are
highly distinctive with large numbers of endemic species,
found nowhere
else.
The
total diversity
of species
also
is
uneven, with centers of particularly high diversity, and with clear gradients
mirroring environmental
in diversity
When
looking
resolutions,
finer
at
emerge. Certain species appear
to
new
patterns
predominate
in
near
continental reefs, while others are found on oceanic reefs.
and the position on the continental
still,
in
shelf, or
wind or currents, appears
that relative to the prevailing
hold sway
to
determining the species composition. At the
scale of tens or hundreds of meters, patterns of zonation are observed across individual reefs, with species adapted to different depths,
exposure, water circulation and so on.
of individual points or quadrats,
Finally, at the scale
the pattern of
disappear
in
a
which species are found where seems
random
noise.
factors driving the settlement
may be
far
Even
to
here, however, the
and survival of individuals
immediate sense and over the
life
and taxonomists for many years, and a considerable
amount the
is
now known about
factors
their distribution
which influence
Some 794
it.
sclcractinian coral are considered to be reef builders, and
Map
1.2
shows
a plot
of their distribution, highlighting
the patterns of varying diversity.
A
number of
fairly rapidly
latitudes, with diversity
diminishing
along latitudinal clines.
There are two distinctive regions of coral distribution,
one centered around the Wider Caribbean (the Atlantic), the other reaching
from East Africa and the Red Sea
to the
Central Pacific (the Indo-Pacific). Diversity
is
far lower in the Atlantic than in the Indo-
Pacific.
Coral
diversity
is
at
its
highest
around
insular
Southeast Asia. Coral diversity and reef development are very restricted along the western shores of the Americas and West Africa.
Although only relating
Patterns of diversity
in
to
corals,
these
reef-building scleractinian corals
^^S:
* ""'^^^^^^^^^^^^^B 50
points can
Corals, like the reefs they build, are restricted to a
narrow band of low
-^-
Caroni Swamp
_yENEZUELA ;la
k
3
km
)
Mome I'Enfer WS
9 km 6V20'
12'
Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic
Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda, together with the tmy uninhabited island of Redonda, are an independent Caribbean nation.
Coral reefs are relatively widespread
Antigua has some fringing
in the coastal waters.
reefs, but also
more
extensive,
though intermittent, bank barrier reef structures offshore.
Barbuda has extensive fringing
reefs, particularly
along
its
eastern coastline, topped by a well developed algal ridge.
The
reefs, particularly in nearshore areas, are reported to
have been degraded
in recent years,
possibly due to in-
creasing sedimentation and nutrient enrichment associated
with coastal development. Offshore reefs and those to the north of Barbuda generally have higher coral cover and
Hurricanes Luis and Marilyn caused
species richness.
damage when they
further
struck the islands in 1995.
Netherlands Antilles (Windward Group)
A number of islands
region
in the
make up
the
dependency
of the Netherlands Antilles. These include two islands close to
Venezuela (Bonaire and Curasao) and the islands of
Saba.
St.
Eustatius and the southern half of
northern part of
Maarten
St.
French Antilles). Saba and with steep
cliffs
and
little
St.
(St.
Martin)
is
Maarten a part
structural reef development, but St.
Eustatius Marine
1998 to protect four areas,
in
Offshore from Saba, there are again extensive coral
(the
of the
Eustatius are both volcanoes,
important coral communities. The
Park was established
St.
communities
All benthic
some
user fee
rapidly,
from
3
000
Visitor
costs. in
1997 to 8
300
numbers
are
growing
sales for
in 1999.
Anguilla
5
000
The precipitous
areas.
in the
to a depth
very
are minimal.
of 60 meters
1997. and the park
1998) together with souvenir
in
and yacht fees generated the majority of the income
management of the
park.
Ant igua and
Neth erlands
St. Kitts
Barbuda
A ntilles*
and Nevis
General Data Population Ithousands)
12
66
210
39
GDPImiUion US$1
64
450
1813
171
Land area Ikm^l
86
462
810
275
Marine area (thousand km^l
90
110
79
10
consumption
na
37
22
37
100
100
100
100
Per capita
fish
Ikg/yearl
Status and Threats Reefs
at risk 1%)
Recorded coral diseases
1
10
Biodiversity
Reef area (km^l Coral diversity
WL
0.71
5
13
11
No, of mangrove species
na
na
2
No. of seagrass species
na
na
na
Mangrove area (km^l
*
Including Bonaire and Curacao
Small gobies Gobiosoma
sp.
in
Saba Marine Park. There were
visitors to the island in
(US$3 per dive
coastline
this is a
human impacts
communities down
Saba are protected
including coral reefs and wrecks along the coast. Visitors to
management
many
development and, although
popular diving destination,
the park are required to pay a small user fee which helps to offset
in
limits coastal
on a boulder star coral Montastrea annularis.
^
na na
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
About
7 kilometers
west of Saba
platform, the Saba Bank, which
may be
Although only recently studied coral cover in places, and
is
is
a
a large shallow
submerged
atoll.
appears to have high
it
St.
growth and
reefs of the south
a
Barthelemy
Earths) and
(St.
calcareous.
dramatic expansion of tourism. The
and west coasts are seriously threatened
by sewage pollution and
St.
Maarten has shown rapid
coastal development in recent years, paralleling fast population
administers the island of
the northern half of St. Martin (see above). Basse Terre is
of
entire island
proper, together with the nearby
des Saintes and Marie-Galante. The territory also
lies
important for lobster and
snapper fisheries.
The
make up Guadeloupe
siltation.
while there
recreational boating and anchor damage.
To
is
also
date,
much
no pro-
high and volcanic, while Grande Terre
communities but no major reef
structures.
and
flat
is
The western coast of Basse Terre has
coral
There are some
fringing and bank barrier reef structures, particularly on
Grande
the southern coastline of
and eastern coast of ridges.
The
this island
Terre, while the northern
have well developed algal
best developed reefs are in the
Grand Cul-de-
Sac Marin, a shallow embayment fringed with extensive
tected areas have been created.
mangrove areas and dominated by seagrasses. There several patch reefs within this bay, while
St. Kitts
and Nevis
bounded by
its
are
outer edge
is
and groove formations
a barrier reef with spur
This small independent state consists of two volcanic
and a reef slope with coral growth down
islands with steep mountainous slopes. There are fringing
meters. Discontinuous fringing reefs are found in a few
reefs along
much of the
submerged reef
mation about these
and a number of deeper
coastline,
structures. reefs.
There
Tourism
is little
is
published infor-
an important industry
and there are now a number of dive operators.
parts of the other islands, notably on the southern shores of
Marie-Galante.
in
at
Barthelemy and
UK
-
is
forest cover. Since
Martin have limited
is
an important activity
with a further
1
000
2
in
Guadeloupe, and
also thought to be fishing regularly.
These have a considerable impact on the nearshore
1995 however, the Soufriere Hills volcano has been active
communities,
most of which are considered
overexploited.
The annual catch was about
Small scattered reefs and coral communities were
originally described along
seems
likely that they
much of
the coastline, but
it
have been severely impacted by the
massive inputs of sediment, and possibly chemical influences, associated with volcanic activity. island's
people have
Plymouth was
itself
Most of
now been evacuated and
the
the capital
in
000 professional fishermen,
almost continuously, with major pyroclastic flows into the sea.
in
September when water temperatures reach 29°C.
1998 there were more than
This small island - an overseas territory of the
St.
Mass bleaching was reported
Guadeloupe, but some bleaching occurs every year
Fishing
mountainous and includes considerable
St.
coral reef development.
1998
Montserrat
depth of 55
to a
from these islands the islands,
is
in
to
be
500 tons
2000. Tourism, a major activity for
further driving the problems caused by
coastal development and pollution. Diving activity.
8
The Pigeon
are a popular dive
Islets (to the
site,
but there
is
a popular
west of Grande Terre) is
evidence of damage
being caused by an estimated 80 000 divers per year.
destroyed in 1997.
Donninica
Guadeloupe and dependencies Guadeloupe
is
an overseas territory of France, consisting
of the twin islands of Grande Terre and Basse Terre which
Left:
The Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin
communities ISTS092-316-U.
sponges
in
the
in
is
an independent
state.
There
is
only limited reef deve-
lopment on the narrow coastal shelves, although there
Guadeloupe has important mangrove, seagrass and patch and barrier reef
20001. Right:
Saba Marine Park.
Dominica, a high volcanic island with steep topography,
A school
of yellow goatfish MuUoidichthys martmicus,
among
corals
and
Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic
although south of Presqu'ile de
la
Caravelle a barrier reef
continues along the shore for about 25 kilometers. The
lagoon behind this reef is up to 30 meters deep
and
in places
there are extensive seagrass communities. Fringing reefs
have developed along the coast behind the barrier reef Algae, including Sargassum, Turbinaria and Dictyota. have proliferated on the reefs of Martinique since the die-off.
from the
Eutrophication
may be combining
city
Diadema
of Fort-de-France
with the lack of grazing organisms in
maintaining this situation. Overfishing about 900 registered fishers in
is
a problem, with
1997, but
many
others
000 wire-mesh
operating. There were an estimated 50
fish
traps around the island in 2000.
several
are
important
communities, particularly
coral
of whale and dolphin are found
Dominica, which
is
fast
the
in
waters around
Lucia
St.
on the south, west and northwest coasts. Several species Lucia
St.
is
another high volcanic island. Coral reefs are
positioning itself as the leading
generally poorly developed, often only forming a thin
The small
veneer over the underlying volcanic substrates. The best
whale-watching destination
in
region.
the
mean that impacted by human
south and east, although the
population and minimal coastal development
developed reefs are
the corals have not been severely
best studied and most heavily utilized coral
activities,
and Dominica has been spared from a direct
communities
occur along the west coast. Certain reefs around Soufriere
showed up
hurricane since Hurricane David in 1979.
in the
to
50 percent
live coral cover, but these sites
were strongly impacted by Hurricane Lenny
Martinique Martinique, like Guadeloupe,
is
France. Reefs are absent on the leeward northern, northwest is
narrow and there
is
a
high sediment load from the erosion of Mount Pelee. There
however, some coral communities along this coastline.
are,
1999, coast.
Fishing
an overseas territory of
and west coasts, because the shelf
in
which brought strong wave action on the leeward
Similarly, there are
no true reefs along the northeast coast.
IV
fll
is
is
around the island Concerted efforts
problem.
a
have recently been undertaken to manage the nearshore fisheries,
a
and
in the
Soufriere Marine
number of no-take
reserves
Management Area
have been established,
shown
interspersed with other use zones. Studies have
huge increases
Guadeloupe*
Montserrat
a very important activity
and overexploitation
in
fish
biomass
Dominica
in
the reserves,
while
Martinique
General Data Population (thousands)
GDP
(million
US$1
Land area (km^l
fish
426
72
2 085
191
consumption
2
415^ 65^1
735
732
101^1
7
90
29
4^H
na
28
35
na
100
100
105
Marine area (thousand km^l Per capita
6
40
1
(kg/year)
2^ fl
Status and Threats Reefs at risk (%)
Recorded coral diseases
1
locH
V
Biodiversity J
250
0.02
40
2
na
na
na
^ 'm naS
na
na
na
na
Reef area (km?)
1.
Coral diversity
1
Mangrove area (km?)
f
No. of mangrove species
No. of seagrass species
^
*
na
/
240
34/57fl
Including St. Martin and St. Barthel.emy
A view
of
Simpson Bay Lagoon, from
development on
this island.
f/ie
French
St.
Martin
to f/ie Dutcli St.
Maarten, showing the significant coastal
163
164
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
fishermen have reported significant increases
Vincent
St.
shown a
north.
of fish biomass in the marine reserves,
tripling
while fishermen have reported significant increases in
from adjacent
their catches
in the islands, sites in the
and diving
is
areas.
Tourism
best
is
now
example
a relatively
young volcanic
island.
To the
Soufriere most recently erupted in 1979.
young
new
together with
coastline,
The
volcanic
sediments, have prevented the development of extensive
also popular
reefs.
There are no reef developments around the north
and east coasts, and only
a
few coral communities are
management
found on rocky headlands along the west coast. Small
self-financing. This provides perhaps the
areas of fringing reefs occur on the south and southeast
the
in
multiple uses with
full
community
on the same
that the
of reef management
region
marine management area further north
is
Mount
relatively
marine management area. Fees from divers,
and anchor fees from yachts, mean authority
is
increasingly focussed towards
Vincent and the Grenadines
St.
their
in
catches from adjacent fishing priority areas. Studies have
is
participation.
coasts.
for
A new
now under development
IH^^^^^HP
^^^^^m^ ^B
St.
Lucia
St.
the
main island
is
the chain of
where there are considerable areas of reef
Large bank barrier reef complexes have developed on the
"
coast.
Running south from
the Grenadines,
windward
side of
some
islands.
Among the best developed
^^^ Grenada
Barbados
Vincent and the
Grenadines
General Data Population (thousands)
156
115
GDPImiUionUS$)
i78
237
Land area Ikm^l
1
27A
89
768
223
605
390
AAO
367
Marine area (thousand km^l
15
38
186
25
Per capita
22
20
40
28
100
96
100
100
2
2
fish
consumption
(kg/yearl
Status and Threats Reefs at risk (%l
Recorded coral diseases
1
Biodiversity
160
UO
0./15
>0.07
2
na
na
na
na
Reef area (km^l Coral diversity
Mangrove area
(knn^l
No. of mangrove species No. of seagrass species
Left:
A banded
Barbados
butterftyfish
t)ave declined
ISTS05 1-72-95.
19931.
1
na
^^
Chaetodon striatus amidst gorgonians and
over
many decades
although there are
still
1
1
soft corals. Right: Fringing reefs
submerged
reefs off the west
-
around
and southeast coasts
Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic
reefs are those around the small islands of the
Tobago
in
coral cover and diversity have been reported on offshore
Cays. Each island has a fringing reef, the larger Horseshoe
reefs
Reef encircles them
urbanization and tourism developments.
the larger World's
to the east, while
End Reef The
beyond
this there
reefs of St. Vincent,
is
since
the
1980s,
linked
to
from
eutrophication
and
particularly the Grenadines, support important fishing and
Grenada
tourism, while large numbers of yachts visit these waters.
The Tobago Cays
are particularly
important, but their
Grenada
is
the most southerly of the Lesser Antilles,
and
of storm
the country also governs the southernmost islands of the
damage, white band disease, physical damage from fishing
Grenadines. There are some fringing and patch reefs
gear and boat anchors, and pollution from visiting yachts.
around
condition
has deteriorated recently because
all
the coasts of
Grenada
itself,
although the total
^^^^^1 Barbados Barbados
is,
in
many ways, an anomaly.
main Lesser Antilles chain
It
lies east
is
a small fringing
on the leeward west coast. There
are also sub-surface reefs along this coast,
where a gently
sloping shelf extends about 300 meters seaward to a depth
of 10 meters. At the edge of the shelf, the sea floor drops evenly to a depth of about 20 meters. Seaward from this there are further
submerged patch reef structures, together
with two larger bank barrier reefs, 12-20 meters deep and
up are
to
Trinidad an d Tobago
^^^1
of the
Ocean. Fringing
in the Atlantic
reefs are largely absent, although there
structure near Folkestone
P^f
-
General Data Population (thousands)
1
176
GDP
5
499
ImiUion US$1
Land area (km^l Marine area Ithousand km^ Per capita
fish
5 152
lU
1
U
consumption Ikg/yearl
Status and Threats Reefs at risk (%l
100
Recorded coral diseases
5
100 meters wide. Offshore, submerged bank barriers
also
Atlantic,
found off the southeast coast. The eastern, coast
is
subject to
throughout the year, and
very high wave energies
much of
this
coastline
is
a
Biodiversity
^^M
bare carbonate platform extending out to deep water.
Mangrove area (km^l
Nearshore reefs
No. of nnangrove species
•m
No. of seagrass species
2
Reef
flat
in
Barbados have suffered considerably.
corals disappeared over 100 years ago with the
intensification of agriculture, while considerable declines
French grunts Haemulon flavolineatum against a Caribbean such scenes are
now rare
thiriving
colony of Acropora cervicornis. Over wide areas of
as a result of overfishing and coral disease.
thie
16S
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
of reef
area
Carriacou
not
is
and
great.
Off the eastern coasts of
Martinique relatively large bank
Petit
to
south and discharges huge volumes of sediment
into the sea, creating turbid conditions
which predominate
of the shallow reefs
along the south and east coastlines of the island. The
have become overgrown with algae
western coastline faces the Gulf of Paria which, along
barrier reefs have been formed.
were reported
lies to the
Many
during the 1980s, probably linked to the
Diadema
die-off,
with
high
levels
of sediments,
near
has
estuarine
but possibly exacerbated by sewage and agrochemical
conditions arising from the high freshwater inputs and
pollution and increased sedimentation.
semi-enclosed nature of this gulf There are small, low diversity coral
Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago
lies
communities
places on the north shore.
in
close to the edge of the continental shelf, and
here reef development
is
much
better,
with a number of
lie
fringing reefs, particularly on the north shore and in the
well south of the chain of the Lesser Antilles, on the
southwest. Tobago has a considerable tourism industry,
The
large island of Trinidad and the nearby
Tobago
continental shelf of South America.
Reef development
and the impacts of tourism have undoubtedly led
around Trinidad
The Orinoco River
degradation of some coastal reefs.
is
severely restricted.
to the
Protected areas with coral reefs Site
L^
name
Designation
Abbreviation
lUCN
cat.
Size
ikmi|
Year
Anguilla
FNR
na
na
na
Marine Park
MP
na
na
na
Marine Park
MP
na
na
na
Marine Park
MP
na
na
na
Green Island Reefs
Park Reserve
PRes
IV
na
na
Northeast Archipelago
Park Reserve
PRes
IV
na
na
Palaster Reef
Marine National Park
MNP
II
5.00
1973
Marine National Park
20.00
1973
na
1999
Little
Fish Nursery Reserve
Bay
Sandy Island Seal Island and Prickly Pear
Cay East
Shoal Bay
Antigua and Barbuda
MNP
II
Marine Reserve
MR
ETC
Marine Reserve
MR
II
2.30
1980
National Park
NP
II
5.31
1986
Marine Reserve
MR
V
na
na
Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin
Nature Reserve
NR
IV
37.36
1987
Petite-Terre
Nature Reserve
NR
IV
9.90
1998 1996
Salt Fish Tail Reef
(Diamond Reetl
Cades Bay
Barbados Barbados Dominica Cabrits
Soufriere/Scotfs Head
Guadeloupe
St.
Barthelemy
Nature Reserve
NR
IV
12.00
St.
Martin
Nature Reserve
NR
IV
30.60
1998
Ramsar Site
200.00
1993
UNESCO
697.00
1992
Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin DE la Guadeloupe
Archipel de la Guadeloupe
Biosphere Reserve
Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic
Protected areas with coral reefs [site
namc^^^^^^^^^^^fc
Designation
Abbreviation
lUCN
cat.
Sizeiiim'i
Year
Martinique Caravelle
Littoral
Conservation Area
LtCA
IV
2.57
1988
Caravelle
Nature Reserve
NR
IV
4.22
1976
Grand Macabou
Littoral
Conservation Area
LtCA
Unassigned
1.13
1982
Pointe Rouge
Littoral
Conservation Area
LtCA
Unassigned
0.54
1985
Marine Park
MP
na
na
1998
Marine Park
MP
na
8.20
1987
National Park
NP
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
1990
Netherlands Antilles (Windward) Eustatius
St.
Saba St. Kitts
and Nevis
Southeast Peninsula
26.10
St. Lucia
Anse Chastanet Reefs
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
1990
Anse Galet - Anse Cocfion Reefs
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
1990
Anse L'lvrogne Reef
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
1986
Anse Mamin Reef
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
1986
Anse Pointe Sable Man Kote Mangroves
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
1986
Caesar Point - Mathurin Point Reefs
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
1990
Maria Islands
Nature Reserve
NR
IV
0.12
1982
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
1990
Other Area
ETC
III
0.20
1978
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
1986
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
1986
IV
na
1986
1986
Anse Cochon
Artificial
Reef
Artificial
Reef
Pigeon Island Pitons
Reef at Malgretoute jute Reef between Grand and Rachette Point
Caille
Marine Reserve
MR
Rodney Bay
Reefs
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
Marine Reserve
MR
na
na
na
Marine Reserve
MR
IV
na
1990
WR WR WR WR WR
IV
na
1987
IV
na
1987
IV
na
1987
IV
38.85
1987
IV
na
1987
Artificial
Soufriere Vigie St.
Beach
Artificial
Reef
Vincent
Frigate Isle
Rock
de Quatre
Wildlife
Reserve
Wildlife
Reserve
Prune (Palm] Island
Wildlife
Reserve
Tobago Cays
Wildlife
Reserve
West Cay
Wildlife
Reserve
Trinidad and Tobago
Buccoo Reef Little
y
Tobago
Nature Reserve
NR
la
6.50
1973
Game
GS
IV
1.01
1928
Sanctuary
167
168
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Venezuela and Aruba, Bonaire and Curacao
V6n6ZU6l3 north-facing
a large country with a long,
is
coastline delimiting the southeastern
edge of the Caribbean Sea. In the east line
is
this coast-
dominated by the vast delta of the Orinoco River,
which carries considerable quantities of freshwater
into
the Western Atlantic, just south of the island of Trinidad.
Further west, the coastline generally has higher there are is
numerous smaller
rivers.
relief,
and
Coral reef development
thus highly limited by freshwater and sediment runoff,
and nearshore coral reefs are scarce. Small reef systems exist at
Morrocoy and
coral
Between these two locations
communities
in
Mochima.
there are a few other small
MAP6e
Montaslrea cavernosa, M. annularis and several species of
soft coral (Pseiidoplerogorgia spp.,
Eunicea
spp.). Further reefs are located
coastline around the diversity
is
Mochima
Plexaura spp. and
on the continental
National Park, although
lower here, with only about 25 scleractinian
coral species recorded.
1996 there was mass coral mortality
In January
Morrocoy, which
left less
All corals except Porites poriles. Sideraslrea siderea
Millepora alcicornis killed.
In
addition
recorded amongst
at the
to fish,
main monitoring
corals,
station
mass mortalities were
derms and sponges. The ultimate cause of
Bay and Cienaga de Ocumare Bay. The
remains unclear. The more protected
Nacional Morrocoy occur along the seaward margins of small cays
at the
mouth of the Golfete de Guare (Borracho
and Cayo Sombrero) and This
wave
is
to the south
of Punta Tucacas.
a generally low energy area with
activity,
and hurricanes are very
moderate rare.
to
low
Mangroves,
mainly Rhizophora mangle, grow on the leeward side of these islands, which are separated from the mainland by
extensive seagrass beds.
The reef platforms
imately 50 meters wide and typically slope
are approx-
down
to a
depth of 12 meters. Until recently, they were dominated by
The reefs of Los Roques
in
coral cays and
and
were
crustaceans, molluscs, echino-
reef developments, for example in San Esteban, Turiamo reefs in the Parque
at
than 5 percent live coral cover
this
event
reefs, in the lee
away from open water, appeared
to
of
show
greater levels of survival. Given the proximity of these reefs to an oil refinery, petrochemical plant
other industries,
it
and various
has been suggested that an unreported
anthropogenic impact such as a chemical
spill
may have
been responsible. Venezuela also holds jurisdiction over a number of offshore islands, most lying in oceanic water
at
some
distance from the continental shelf These include Las
Aves, Los Roques, Isla
la
Orchilla and La Blanquilla,
Venezuela, a large marine protected area where coral cover remains high ISTS077-719-
105, 19961.
MAP6e
170
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
2000, but reaching 60 percent in some
of 5
1
whole archipelago was declared park
1972 and
in
parks
localities.
A
total
hermatypic coral species have been recorded. The
in the
is
a
Venezuelan national
one of the largest marine national
Caribbean.
Water moves through these offshore islands
in
a
westerly direction, the current being a branch of the
Caribbean Current. This probably protects the offshore reefs
from most of the
terrestrial
mainland. The principal threat particularly
not intensively developed.
is
many of
fishermen
runoff from the intensive
fishing,
on the fringing reefs of Los Roques. Reef-
based tourism control
is
The military
the smaller islands and the exclusion of
and tourists may be the most effective
protection for reefs in the country.
More remote from and extremely remote
these
islet in
is
the Isla de Aves. a small
200
the Caribbean Sea. over
kilometers west of Dominica in the Lesser Antilles, and
about 550 kilometers north of mainland Venezuela. There is
very
little
information describing the marine com-
munities around this island.
Aruba, Bonaire and Curacao Politically
Bonaire
and
Curasao
are
part
of
the
Netherlands Antilles, and are sometimes referred to as the
which
a chain parallel to the coast.
lie in
a high species diversity, including coral reef fish.
Los Roques
islands, including
remains high
1
species of
an archipelago of 40 small
one rocky island and 39 coral cays
atoll-like formation.
south but nearly
is
These reefs have
some 270
The continental shelf is narrow
in
the
Kingdom of the
still
oceanic islands surrounded by deep water, but Aruba located on the South
of
is
American continental shelf only 27
^^H
^^^^MH
^1
^^^^^^^^
Aruba
^^^1
General Data 23
GDP
56 0/12
US$1
5/13
916 560
Land area (km^l
522
Marine area (thousand km^l fish
a part
create markedly different physical regimes between the
Venezuela
(million
forms
Netherlands. Bonaire and Curasao are
kilometers north of Venezuela. The easterly trade winds
Population (thousands)
consumption (kg/year)
20
Population (thousands)
GDP
(million
US$1
Land area (km^l Marine area (thousand km^l Per capita
fish
consumption (kg/year)
at risk (%l
Ai.
Recorded coral diseases
1
na 183 6 9
Reefs at risk (%l
94
Recorded coral diseases Biodiversity
Biodiversity
480
(knn^l
23/57
Coral diversity
Mangrove area (km^l
2
500
Reef area (km^l Coral diversity
Mangrove area (km^l
No. of mangrove species
7
No. of mangrove species
No. of seagrass species
4
No. of seagrass species
A coney Cephalopholis
70
Status and Threats
Status and Threats
Reef area
of the Netherlands Antilles. Aruba
averaging 27 percent in 1999/
General Data
Reefs
islands
maintains a separate constitution, but
kilometer wide to the north. Coral cover
at this site,
HP^V ^m^^^^^
Per capita
an
to the
leeward
fulva with
sponges behind.
i
Netherlands Antilles (Leeward) Bonaire
Marine
Curacao
Underwater
Klein Bonaire Isund and adjacent sea
Ramsar
MP
Parl<
1979^
26.00
UP
Parl<
na
Site
10.36
1983
6.00
1980
Venezuela Archipielago Los Roques
National Parl<
NP
II
211.20
1972
Mochima
National Park
NP
II
949.35
1973
Morrocoy
National Parl<
NP
II
320.90
1974
San Esteban
National Parl<
NP
II
A35.00
1987
Archipielago Los Roques
Ramsar Site
2 132.20
1996
CUARE
Ramsar
99.68
1988
Site
leeward and windward sides of these islands. The reef
and Curasao
profile of Bonaire
is
generally similar: a
development. This pressure arrived in 1994 (25
000 of
is
70 000
in
offshore, and ending in a drop-off at a depth of 8-12
damage
to the coral
meters which slopes steeply to 50-60 meters. There
3 percent of colonies affected.
at
80-100 meters ending
growth occurs across
Prolific coral
sandy
in a
this terrace
is
a
increasing: 57
whom
submarine terrace extending between 50 and 100 meters
second drop-off
2
by divers remains low, with
plain.
and on
feature of the Bonaire reef slope, especially along the
northwestern shore. Along the eastern windward shore is little
in depth.
coral growth in any water less than 12 meters
Shallower waters harbor an abundance of crus-
tose coralline algae and dense
though
Sargassum platycarpum
grow down
in places these also
to a depth
meters. Being located on the continental shelf
of 40
Aruba does
not have sharply sloping underwater relief
Coral cover
at
depths of 10-20 meters
at
four sites on
Curagao and Bonaire decreased from 50-55 percent
to
25-30 percent between 1973 and 1992, but was mostly
unchanged as
at a
30-40 meter depth. Bonaire
is
widely cited
one of the regions best examples of a self-financing
marine park. Divers are charged a fee of to dive
on the
reefs, contributing
US$10
per year
about 60 percent of the
running costs of the park, with a significant proportion of the remainder being generated from the sale of souvenirs.
Studies have
shown
that the user fee is seen as a positive
thing by the majority of visitors, raising awareness of
conservation issues while giving them participation
or ownership.
cover around this
island
wide declines, perhaps
is
The
some sense of
deterioration
linked to the
in
coral
Caribbean-
slightly exacerbated by tourism
The waters around Bonaire are one of the best known marine parks
in ttie
visitors to
1999. Despite this pressure, direct physical
the shallower slope. Conspicuous spur and grooves are a
there
000
were divers), rising
Caribbean ISTS075-706-4I.
19961.
less than
MAP6f 42°
38°
34°
30°
Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo
Parcel Manoel Luis SMP and Parque Estadual Mannho / do Parcel Manoel Luis
Ramsar
Site
ATLANTIC OCEAN Manoel Luis Reefs
Reentrancias
Maranhenses
Ramsar Site Lengdis Maranhenses
^; >*i^t/a-
NP Jericoacoara
EPA
Pamaiba
Rosdrio
SEP
Lagoa da Maraponga
,.Atol
das Rocas BIR
Recife Joad Dias
Rio Coed
SEP
Recife do Tubarao
Balbino
MuEPA
* Aiacati
/
'^^J,
• Tereslna
-_
'
Recife Minhoto
.
Recife Conceicao
'
g
Manguezals da Foz do
Natal
Rio Igautu
Mamanguape AOEI
Rio Itapessoca
.
A
Vmbd SEPA Cniz SEPA Rio
Canal de Santa
Fernando de Noronha MNP
/
SEPA Megao SEPA
Rios Goiana e
...,
Rio Paratibe
SEPA<
Rio Capibanbe
'
"•
Rio Beberibe
SEPA
Rio Fomtoso
SEPA
—
•^ Recife
SEPA
RIos Serinha^m e
Maracaipe
;;
SEPA
rt:::
Rio
Juazeiro
Cam Quebrado SEPA*'^
SalUnhoBiR
Manguezals da Lagoa do Roteim SER
'Rio Una SEPA
BRAZIL Rios Jaboatao e Pirapama
Plagabugu EPA'
/
SEPA
Santa RJta '
Saco da Pedra
SEPA
SER
ES
Foz do Sao Francisco Santa Isabel BIR
39*00'
arso'
**
38*30'
Recifes da Coroa Alta
13°
* Recifes da Ponta da Coroa Vennellia
* Eunapoljs
"^ Porto Seguro
16'30'
'i
* Itabela
Recifes Sofia
Recifes de Pitiacu
^ Recifes Itacolomis * ttamaraju
'Prado 17°
S/^
\*|^Timbebas
Abrolhos
MNP
\mi ' Recifes de Guaiatibas I
Akscfttacaji
Reci&s das ^hocli
:.4 I^^V Paicel das ^^^Paredes
Sebas^^ttOomes Coroa Venneiha
H
10
20
San Baibaia Santa
j"^ {^,?eBxi dos
^.«' Siiiba ''t* Abrolbos Sueste-"'
'
Vigosa
W
Redonda
30
km
Recife California -
21* 34°
30°
Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic
West Africa
Brazil and
MAP6f
of both Brazil and West Africa are
having a low species diversity yet a high degree of
separated from the Caribbean reefs by vast barriers
endemism. Just 19 species of reef-building coral are
inimical to reef growth. For the Brazilian reefs these
recognized, of which at least six (including
waters
The
barriers include the
huge
mouths of
river
the
Amazon and
all
three
species of the genus Mussismilia). and possibly as
many
nowhere
Another interesting feature
Orinoco, as well as the intervening sediment-rich coastline
as ten, are found
of the Guyanas. The coastlines of West Africa (and the
of Brazilian coral communities
intervening Atlantic
islands)
are
from the
separated
Caribbean center of diversity by large expanses of open ocean. For these reasons there larval recruits
Africa.
Hence
is
virtually
from the Caribbean either
no supply of
to Brazil or
West
the coral reef organisms found in these two
else.
is
there
are
no
elsewhere in the world.
The westernmost reef systems,
proximity to
in closest
Manoel Luis
the Caribbean, are the recently described
Reefs, lying relatively close to the
These reefs are some 10 kilometers
areas are ecologically isolated.
that
acroporid corals, which are the major shallow water corals
Amazon
river
in length
mouth.
and consist
of numerous pinnacles rising from a depth of 25-30 meters up to the surface waters. Some 16 hermatypic corals have
Brazil Coral reef growth in Brazil
limited to the northeast and
poorly known, but their location, as the
still
closest reefs to the Caribbean,
may be
dominated by areas of massive riverine input, with
movements of species between
these regions.
Most of
freshwater and sediments dominating the continental shelf
over wide areas to the east of the Amazon. This coastline is
reefs are
the northern coastline of Brazil
eastern shores. is
is
been recorded, including 12 scleractinian species. These
also swept
by the west and northward flow of the
northern arm of the South Equatorial Current, and these factors result
Left:
combine of
to isolate Brazil
from the Caribbean.
this is that Brazil's coral
Mussismilia
harttii,
fauna
is
notable for
one of several species endemic
Atlantic species, found in the Caribbean, Brazil
JEN
Veronl.
A
and West
There are Brazil.
a
few oceanic islands
important for any
to the northeast
structures, but not true reefs,
on the islands of Fernando
de Noronha. The nearby Atol das Rocas
some
of
form dense
Coral communities of 12 species
a true atoll
is
3.7 kilometers across, encircling a shallow lagoon.
The carbonate
to Brazil (photo:
JEN
Africa. In Brazil
it
deposits,
Veronl. Right:
typically
forms
which are some
Madracis decactis tall
grey columns
10 meters
;s
a truly
Iphoto:
173
174
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Narrow
formed by pinnacles oi Siderastrea
reefs,
stellata
and Millepora alcicornis, are found along the coast north of Natal. Further south there are to the coast.
many
to the
reefs parallel
These are characterized by an emergent reef two species of coral (Favia gravida and
crest with only
Siderastrea stellata) and an algal ridge of Melobesiacea
and Dendropoma spp. There are typically three zones on
dominated respectively by Millepora
the seaward slope
alcicornis, Mussismilia harttii and, at depth, Montastrea
cavernosa. Gorgonian corals are particularly abundant
on these
reefs.
In the State
of Bahia, the continental shelf widens
considerably, extending from 5 to 65 kilometers offshore,
and reaching 200 kilometers Abrolhos Archipelago. This
in the far south
is
around the
the largest and richest area
of coral reefs in the South Atlantic. Sixteen species of stony
coral
20 percent
are
recorded,
some
in
and coral cover approaches
areas of shallow reef Reefs include
fringing reefs and offshore banks. is
the development of
A common growth form
mushroom shaped
pinnacles called
chapeiroes, highly characteristic of Brazilian reefs. 15
km are
are
thick,
deposits.
predominantly the result of coralline algal
Only eight coral species have been recorded of
which Siderastrea 1
slellala is
dominant
000 kilometers northeast of
Paulo
is a
in all areas.
Brazil,
group of some 15 rocks and
Nearly
Sao Pedro e Sao islets.
They
lie in
the westward flowing South Equatorial Current and hence
there
is little
or no migration of coral larvae to these rocks.
Only two species of hermatypic coral (Scolymia
wellsi
and
The
eastern continental shelf of Brazil
^^^^B
il
is
in
of irregular
most places.
"m
General Data
GDP
(million
8 507 Q80
Marine area (thousand km^l fish
172 860
503 484
US$)
Land area (km^j
Per capita
vertically to a height of
in
diameter,
between
1
3 661
consumption (kg/year)
7
and 25 meters. The
tops of chapeiroes close to shore frequently fuse together
with open spaces beneath the coalesced surface. Channels
between individual chapeiroes sometimes
fill
up with
sediment. The tops of some of these inshore reefs are often
completely exposed
at
low
Further out to sea the
tides.
chapeiroes do not fuse together and the reefs consist of
very large individual chapeiroes
water about 15-20
in
most extensive
reefs,
and also includes some small islands
and sand cays, with some areas of mangrove. Coral bleaching was reported from northern Bahia and the
Abrolhos reefs
Many of
in 1998, but levels
of mortality were low.
the coastal reefs of Brazil exhibit signs of
degradation, particularly close to
human
settlement.
expansion
in
Reefs at risk (%l
The the
tourism, increased sedimentation from inland
deforestation for agriculture and rapid coastal development.
The number of
visitors
to
increased fourfold between
the Abrolhos
Marine Park
1988 and 1993. Associated
problems such as anchor damage,
litter,
collection of
84
Recorded coral diseases
West Africa
Biodiversity
True reefs do not occur along the West African coast or the
Reef area [km2|
1
200
Cape Verde and Gulf of Guinea archipelagos, although
Coral diversity
na/17
mature coral communities are found
Mangrove area (km^l
13 400
In all
No. of mangrove species No. of seagrass species
some
at
various locations.
15 species of hermatypic
and ahermatypic
7
corals have been recorded.
1
drains through several major rivers, principally the Niger,
jBHHEE...
mi--^i^-:;'\
of the islands
is
souvenirs and reef walking are of considerable concern.
Status and Threats
Some
They
and extend
major concern for the coral reefs of Abrolhos
Population Ithousands) j
meters
meters deep. The Abrolhos Archipelago incorporates the
Madracis decactis) have been recorded.
and limited width (about 50 kilometers)
2-50
typically
The
region's heavy rainfall
and creates a large freshwater input
to the
and reefs of the Abrolhos Archipelago. Additional structures, including the marine
offshore lSTS05i-86-l
19931.
Gulf of Guinea.
parif, lie
further
Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic
Protected areas with coral reefs
I
Site
name^^^^^^^^^^_
lUCN
Abbreviation
Designation
cat.
Size
Yeai
ikm^i
Brazil
Abrolhos
Marine National Park
Atol das Rocas
Biological Reserve
MNP
II
913.00
1983
BiR
la
362.49
1979
Fernando de Noronha
Marine National Parl<
MNP
II
112.70
1988
Parcel Manoel Luis
State Marine Parl<
SMP
II
452.37
1991
Recite de Fora
State Marine Park
SMP
IV
Parque Estadual Marinho DO Parcel Manoel Luis
Ramsar
17.00
A52.37
Site
2000
k This warm, low salinity water the Grain Coast feature of the
is
a
permanent feature of
and the Bight of Biafra. and a seasonal
whole coast from Mauritania
to
Angola.
Outside this region the marine waters are generally colder, the result
graphic
of currents or upwellings. These oceano-
factors
growth
to
number of
much
combine
to
restrict
shallow protected bays,
significant
outside
coral
which the
species and size of coral colonies rapidly
tinian
coral
(Phyllangia americana,
Tubastrea
Dendroplnilia dilaiala). This type of community
mainly
in
brackish
the
though
islands,
coastal
it
also
sp. is
and
found
occurs in more
The second community type
waters.
consists of colonies of the monospecifc genus Schizoculina
which
is
endemic
Gulf of Guinea. Various theories
to the
exist as to the evolutionary origin
coral communities.
It
of the West African
has been proposed that they have
decrease. In open water, hermatypic corals are generally
developed either as a result of long distance dispersion
temperature limited to depths shallower than 20 meters
from the Caribbean via Bermuda and the Azores, or from
with some exceptions
Brazil, or even that they could include
Two
in the
offshore archipelagos.
different types of coral
described.
community have been
The more common one comprises Millepoia
some
relict species
from the ancient Mediterranean-Tethys Sea. Very
known about
sub-tidal
little is
benthic communities over wide
alciconiis and three species of Forties, two species of
areas of West Africa, and
Sideraslrea, Favia and Madracis. as well as Monlastrea
important and diverse coral communities in a number of
cavernosa, with three species of ahermatypic sclerac-
areas which are yet to be documented.
The great barracuda, Sphyraena barracuda, can grow its
Atlantic range.
to
nearly 2 meters
in length.
it
Brazil
is
is
quite possible that there are
the southernmost portion of
176
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
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HAITI,
THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC AND NAVASSA ISLAND
In:
Kjerfve B led).
Reef, Seagrass
CARICOMP
and Mangrove
Sites.
TW et al 119931.
Luczkovich JJ. Wagner
Caribbean Coral
-
UNESCO, Pans,
France.
Discrimination of coral
seagrass meadows, and sand bottom types from
reefs,
space - a Dominican Republic case-study. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 59131: 385-389. UNDP 11995). Creation of Les Arcadins Ivlarine Park and
UNDP
Document. UNESCO 119971. Coasts of Haiti - Resource Assessment and Ivlanagement Needs. Results of a Seminar and Related Field Activities. Coastal Region and Small Island Papers 2. Fisfieries Project.
Project
UNESCO, Pans, France, Kimmel Williams EH Jr. Ctavijo I,
JJ, Colin PL, Diaz
RH, Garcia JR 119831. A checklist
Boulon
marine plants and
of
south coast of the Dominican Republic. Carib
animals
of the
JSa
39-53.
19:
Carela C. L.
Sheppard CRC. Matheson 119951. Habitat mapping
Puerto Rico. Coral Reefs
M
Bythell JC, Bythell
119971.
Outbreak
of coral
in
PJ 119911. Extent and effect of black band disease on
Caribbean
reef.
the Caribbean for
D.
ViUamizar
A.
Penchaszadeh
Parque Nacional Morrocoy, Venezuela.
CARICOMP - Caribbean UNESCO, Pans,
Sites.
De Meyer K
Myers
Blake B
C.
management and 277-298.
5:
P. Klein
In:
CARICOMP
Mangrove
Sites.
E (19981.
Kjerfve
B
ledl.
Coral Reef, Seagrass and Mangrove
France.
119981. Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles.
In:
Kjerfve
B
Caribbean Coral Reef, Seagrass and
-
UNESCO, Pans,
France.
Leendert PJ, Pors J, Nagelkerken lA 11998). Curacao, Netherlands Antilles. In: Kjerfve B ledl. CARICOMP Caribbean Coral Reef, Seagrass and Mangrove Sites. France. R.
Willemsen
RMW (1991).
and Bonaire coral
P.
Pennartz
R,
Sub-rubble communities Reefs
reefs. Coral
BRAZIL AND
et al 119931. Initial results of a long-
171-183.
a
in
10:
Roebers G. of Curacao
189-197.
16141: 260.
term coral reef monitoring program - impact of Hurricane Hugo at Buck Island Reef National Monument, St-Croix, United States Virgin Islands. J Exp fJlar Biol Ecol 172(1-21:
Edmunds
K. Bythell JC. Blair
VENEZUELA AND ARUBA, BONAIRE AND CURACAO BoneD, Perez
van Soest disease
Ecol Prog
Ivlar
Conservation: fvtarine and Freshwater Ecosystems
UNESCO, Pans,
Bruckner AW, Bruckner RJ
Barbados.
conservation: use and assessment of aerial photography Aguatic
Meesters EH, Knijn
PUERTO RICO AND THE VIRGIN ISLANDS
in
Serl31:97-113,
ledl,
Bardales AT. Armstrong RA. Bunkley-Williams
marine reserve on the
119961. Effect of a
distribution of coral reef fishes
Geraldes FX 119981. Parque Nacional del Este, Dominican Republic.
Kramer DL
Rakitin A.
Coral Reefs 10131: 161-165.
Amaral FD
WEST AFRICA
119941. Morphological variation in the reef coral
Montastrea cavernosa
in
Brazil.
Coral Reefs
Amaral FD. Hudson MM, Coura MF
113-117.
13:
Levantamento preliminar dos corais e hidrocorais do Parque Estadual Mannho do Parcel do Manuel Luiz IMAl, Resumos do XIII Simposio de Biologia Marinha. Sao Sebastio, Cebimar-USP. 13. (19981.
Fong P 119971. Patterns of damage to the branching coral Acropora patmata following Hurricane Andrew:
Laborel J 119741. West African corals: an hypothesis on their
damage and
Leao ZMAN, Tellas MD, Sforza
Lirman
D,
recruits.
Macintyre
survivorship of hurricane-generated asexual
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13111: 67-72.
Raymond
history of a fringing
reef,
Island, Puerto Rico. Atoll
Rogers CS. McLain LN
Stuckenrath R 119831.
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Bahia Salina del Sur, Vieques
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John. USVI. f^ar Ecol Prog Ser
78121: 189-199.
Y,
Louis M. Bouchon C (19971. Trends
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in
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Departements and
in
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Humphrey JD
(19971. Geology and hydrogeology of Barbados.
Developments in Sedimentology, 54: Geology and Hydrology of Carbonate Islands. Elsevier Science BV. Amsterdam, Netherlands. NowLis JS, Roberts CM. Smith AH, Siirila E 119971. Humanenhanced impacts of a tropical storm on nearshore coral Vacher HL. Quinn T
of the Colloguium
RKP
RN
Ginsburg
(edj.
of
Proceedings
on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health,
History,
1993.
University of
Miami,
Miami,
Flonda, USA. 255-260,
Leao ZMAN, Ginsburg RN (1997). Living reefs surrounded by
Sazima
sediments: the Abrolhos coastal reefs, Bahia,
Proc 8th
I
(1
R,
999).
Int
Coral Reef
Symp
2.
1767-1772.
Martins Rodrigues MC. Francini-Filho RB,
Unexpected nchness
of reef
corals near the
Amazon river mouth. Coral Reefs 18: 170. Maida M, Ferreira BP (1997). Coral reefs of Brazil: an overview. 263-274. Proc 8th Int Coral Reef Symp Testa V (1996). Calcareous algae and corals in the inner shelf of Rio Grande do Norte. NE Brazil. Proc 8th Int Coral Reef southern
1
[edsl.
Werner TB,
:
CM
Ivlar
in
Dutra GF, Pereira PG do P (2000).
coastal
biodiversity
Management
into
the
next
century.
Coastal
2S: 99-108.
Map sources biomass and value of two small Caribbean marine
(1993). Greater
coral-reef fishes
reserves.
Pinto LP.
Abrolhos 2000: conserving the Southern Atlantic's richest
reefs. 4mfa/o 26/8: 515-521.
Polunin NVC, Roberts target
452-443.
:
Symp: 737-742.
France.
In:
1
Bulhoes HA, Kikuchi
In:
Leao de Moura
the West Indies. Proc 8th int Coral
Symp
R,
the Abrolhos area, Brazil.
Brazil.
Bouchon-Navaro
Coral Reef
development on the coral reefs
siliciclastics
THE LESSER ANTILLES, TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
Int
(1994). Impact of tourism
Hazards and
-6.
et al 119911. Effects of
119891 on a coral reef
Recent
origin.
Ecol Prog Ser ^00: 167-176.
Map 6a For the
Dominican Republic coral reefs are taken from
Hydrographic Office 11970. 1985. 1986. 1990. 19911. Most
of
Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic
this
information
19805, although
derived from data gathered during the
is
some surveys were conducted
For Haiti coral reef data
some
with
(19901*.
UNEP/IUCN
in
added
areas
reef
from
Mapie For Curacao and Bonaire, coral reefs have been taken from
Hydrographic Office 119701. Eastern Part of Haiti to Puerto Rico including Mona Passage, British Admiralty Chart No. 3689.
1:6U 000. Taunton, UK. Hydrographic Office (19851. West Indies Plans on the North Coast of the Dominican Republic. Punta Mangle to Pointe
Samana and Approaches.
Bahia de
British
UNEP/IUCN
British
Haina.
Admiralty Chart No.
A67.
been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants SA additional reef areas for Morrocoy, Isla la
reef data have (19901*, with
some
OrchiUa and La Blanquilla added from
ChartNo.
Map
702. 1:100 000.
Hydrographic Office 11990). West Indies Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico. Mona Passage. British Admiralty Chart No. 472. 1:200 000, Taunton, UK. Hydrographic Office (19911. West Indies Dominican Republic -
South Coast. Cabo Caucedo to Isla Alto Velo. British Admiralty Chart No. 471. \ :200 000. Taunton. UK.
if
approximate scale
of 1:10
and 1:100 000 respectively. For the are based on
DOS
DOS
British
(1982).
Luis reefs based on sketch
and in
Leaoet
maps
al
Leao de Moura 1:1
el al 119991
000 000 sketch
map
R. Martins Rodrigues MC. Francini-Filho RB and Sazima (1999), Unexpected richness of reef corals near the southern Amazon River mouth. Coral Reefs 18: 170.
Leao de Moura I
British Virgin Islands reefs
Directorate of
1:63 360.
Islands.
Virgin
following
countries:
Barbados
at
Antilles at
1
UNEP/IUCN
1:90 000;
Dominica
:300 000; St. Lucia at
1
1:150 000;
at
Netherlands
1:90 000;
at :1
(1988a)* for the
Barbuda
Antigua and
50 000 (and below).
For Guadeloupe coral reefs are derived from IGN 11988). For
Martinique coral reefs are derived from Hydrographic Office 11991a. 1991b), which are based on French
Government charts
1988 with later corrections. For Montserrat, coral
to
reefs are derived from Hydrographic Office (19861. For Saba,
were
digitized
from a sketch
map
at
c.
1
:30
000 prepared
by K Buchan (Park manager. Saba Marine Parkl. For
and Nevis reefs are derived from DOS 1:25 000
DOS maps prepared from
1
1
979),
1968
air
which
is
St. Kitts
based on
photography and
surveys to 1972. Additional coral reef data for
taken from Hydrographic Office 11995a). For
St.
St.
Lucia are
Vincent reefs
are taken from Hydrographic Office 11995a. 1995b), which
is
mostly based on admiralty surveys from 1858-89 and 1933-35.
of
for parts of
Leao ZfvlAN. Araujo TMF, Nolasco MC (19881. The coral reefs off the coast of eastern Brazil. Proc 6th Int Coral Reef Symp:
(19821.
Coral reef data were taken from
DOS
(1988al* at an
000 000
(19881
Maps 6c and 6d
field
in
Abrolhos region based on a
for the
Overseas Surveys, UK.
reefs
1:2
339-347.
US Virgin Islands coral reefs have been taken from UNEP/IUCN |1988al*. at scales of 1:700 000 For Puerto Rico and for the
198A
UNEP/IUCN
000 000 (and
northeast Brazill. Further detail has been added for the Manoel
Map 6b
of
Il988al.
August 1987. Taunton. UK.
Coral reefs are largely taken from
1:200 000. Taunton, UK.
UNEP/IUCN
Hydrographic Office (19871. Aruba and Curacao. British Admiralty
1
to
(1988al' at 1:550 000. For Aruba, coral reefs are
taken from Hydrographic Office 119871. For Venezuela, coral
Admiralty Chart No. 463. :200 000. Taunton. UK. Hydrographic Office (19861. West Indies Dominican Republic. Bayajibe
Institut
Geographique National. Pans. France.
taken from Petroconsultants SA
is
additional
I1988al*.
Yaquezi and
IGN (19881. Guadeloupe. Carte 510, Editions. 1:100 000.
the 19A0s.
(1979), Saint Christopher
and
Nevis.
1
:50 000.
Department
Overseas Surveys, London, UK.
Hydrographic Office (1986). Montserrat and Barbuda. British Admiralty Chart No. 254.
1
:50 000. July 1986. Taunton.
UK.
Hydrographic Office 11991a). Northern Martinique: Pointe Caracoli to Fort-de-France. British Admiralty Chart No. 371. 1:75 000. April 1991. Taunton, UK.
Hydrographic Office (1991b). Northern Martinique: Fort-deFrance
to
Pointe Caracoli. British Admiralty Chart No. 494.
1:75 000. April 1991. Taunton, UK.
Hydrographic Office (1995a). West Indies: Southern Martinique to Saint Vincent. British
Admiralty Chart No. 596. 1:175 000.
January 1995. Taunton, UK. Hydrographic Office (1995b). West Indies: Saint Vincent
Grenada.
September
British
Admiralty Chart No. 597.
1995. Taunton, UK.
to
1:175 000. *
See Technical notes, page 401
178
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Part The Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia
The IS
Indian
Ocean
is
the third largest ocean.
It
closed to the north, and a large proportion
of Its
waters are tropical or near
Unlike the Atlantic
largely
is
it
Bay
of
Bengal
in
the northeast, which
riverine discharge
conditions
of
from a number
high
is
and the Arabian
development. To the
Gulf,
terrestrial runoff.
relatively dry.
of the
Red Sea
with very different tectonic
histories, but both occurring in highly little
massive
of rivers, leading to
northwest are the enclosed sea areas
The coast
of
Maldives
most recent end
lying at the
sediments and low, fluctuating
salinities - inimical to coral reef
the
active vulcanism on Reunion.
to this is the
fed by
India,
tropical.
receive particularly high inputs of freshwater or ter-
The great exception
in
bounded
by relatively arid countries and does not
restrial sedinnents.
Islands
and regions with
East Africa
is
also
Continental shelf areas are generally
narrow, although there are a few nearshore island
and
the
Chagos
Archipelago. Reunion and Mauritius are high islands
more complex group
of this volcanic trace,
with
The Seychelles form
of islands with varied
a
origins.
To the east there are fewer remote oceanic islands,
and the region blends
Southeast Asia
into the reefs of
with the island chains of the
Andaman and Nicobar
Islands,
and the Mentawai Islands
Sumatra
in
to
the west
of
Indonesia.
There are large areas
of coral reef right
across
making up nearly 20 percent of the world Fringing reefs predominate along much of the
this region, total.
Red Sea,
particularly
Further south
in
northern and central parts.
the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf coastal
sediments and high
salinities
restrict
fringing
reef
development, though there are extensive offshore
groups which are important for coral reef development.
patch reefs. Cool upwellings limit the development of
There are also several oceanic island groups, notably
true reefs along parts of southern Arabia and Pakistan.
in
the west and central parts of this ocean. The largest
Further south there are fringing communities on the
chain of islands follows the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge,
coasts of East Africa, and particularly along the shores
a volcanic trace
which has formed the Lakshadweep
of continental islands.
Some
of the best
developed reef
I
The Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia
structures occur
numerous
are
isolated oceanic locations. There
in
atolls
and platfornn structures
west and central regions
oceans,
the
of
the
in
and the
on reefs. Tourism too
economies
is
sporadic, but
is critical to
the
Kenya. Tanzania and the islands
of Egypt,
Ocean.
of the Indian
Maldives and Chagos Archipelago include the largest structures
atoll
the world. The continental coast-
in
and
lines of India
Sri
Southeast Asia
LanlJ A
Arcmpelag( To •
4
\
—
^
vv 1
/
Pungume
Channel
^V.
,
i
MR
Zanzibar
\
\
,^
a
12 tan
M'20'
"" 8°
MP
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
due
larger islands, probably
to the
very high wave energies
which impact these coasts. Misali
Pemba, has been singled out
for
Island, just
west of
with 40 genera of coral and 350 fish species.
Chumbe and
was noted
in Zanzibar.
The
having some of the
highest recorded coral cover, and high species diversity
Mnemba
variation in the degree of impact between reefs
population in Tanzania
coastal
is
very large,
mostly concentrated in Tanga, Zanzibar, Dar es Salaam and
Mtwara.
Rapid population growth along the coasts,
islands off Zanzibar have been similarly singled
combined with poverty and poor management and under-
out as offshore islands with diverse and well protected
standing of coastal resources, has led to the rapid and
reefs.
It is
possible that similar diversity
from other
may be recorded
many of which have
reefs,
detailed scientific attention.
reefs, particularly in the south,
good condition. Some 380
yet
to
receive
Mafia Island has extensive
many of which remain
fish
species and 45 coral
genera have been recorded from this area. Likewise there are
many important
reefs
around the Songo Songo
Archipelago, with the slightly deeper reefs, and those furthest
from the mainland, remaining
Finally,
Latham
Island
in
(Fungu Kisimkasi)
good condition. is
Tanzania
in
a tiny island
General Data 35 306
Population Ithousandsl
GDP
(million
na
US$i
9a
Land area (km^j Marine area (thousand km^j Per capita
fish
983 241
consumption (kg/year)
10
with an associated fringing reef system lying off the continental
shelf
Status and Threats
some 80-100 kilometers
east
of the Reefs at risk (%|
99
mainland south of Dar es Salaam. There are no detailed descriptions of the reefs but the island has
some very
important bird colonies.
Mangroves
Biodiversity
are well developed in
most
river
mouths,
and seagrass ecosystems are widespread, particularly the shallow waters around the
Archipelagos. The
in
Mafia and Songo Songo
1998 coral bleaching event had a
significant impact on
Recorded coral diseases
most
reefs,
although this was far
Reef area (km^j
3 580
Coral diversity*
na/3U
Ivlangrove area (km'l
1
No. of mangrove species
10
No. of seagrass species
from uniform. Around Mafia Island reefs dominated by
•
Acropora suffered 70-90 percent mortality, but those
and Tanzania combined
The higher coral
diversity figure
155
10 is
an estimate for
fvl
ozambique
with less Acropora were far less affected. Similar local
Left:
A hawksbili
turtle
the important areas of
Eretmochelys imbricata. Right: The
mangrove
forest ISTS026-42-87. 19881.
Rufiji Delta,
showing the large inputs of sediments, but also
Western Indian Ocean
Protected areas with coral reefs
P
Site
name
lUCN
Abbreviation
Designation
Size
»i.
Year
ikin'i
Tanzania
Bongoyo Island
Marine Reserve
MR
II
na
1975
Chumbe
Marine Sanctuary
MS
II
0.30
1994
Marine Reserve
MR
II
na
1975
Marine Park
MP
VI
822.00
1995
Maziwi Island
Marine Reserve
MR
II
na
1981
Mbudya
Marine Reserve
MR
II
na
1975
Menai Bay
Conservation Area
CA
VI
470.00
1997
Misali Island
Conservation Area
CA
VI
21.58
1998
Mnazi Bay
Marine Park
MP
VI
650.00
2000
Mnemba
Conservation Area
CA
VI
0.15
1997
Pangavini
Marine Reserve
MR
II
na
1975
Fungu
Island Coral Park
Yasini
Mafia Island
number of areas. The Chumbe
extreme degradation of coral reefs and other coastal
tection measures in a
communities along large sectors of the
Coral Park provides the best example of "low impact"
critical activity,
coast. Fishing is a
providing a major protem source for
of the coastal population. Overfishing
is
a
much
problem on
most reefs, and has been exacerbated by destructive fishing
Most notable among these
practices.
fishing techniques in
which
a small
weighted foot rope
net with a
is
are various seine-net
mesh
(2-8 centimeters)
tourism
Zanzibar.
One
is
activity
that
has grown
commercial seaweed farming, now
practiced along the majority of the coastline of Zanzibar
Some
and increasing on Mafia, Pemba and the mainland coast. This activity
up
from the water Dynamite
was also once widespread, but
fishing
further coastal
rapidly since 1989
poles to frighten fish into the net and/or use of a very to haul fish
for an important
education program with schools and local communities in
techniques additionally involve beating the substrate with
mesh scoop
management, but also
dragged through the
benthos, either onto the beach or directly into a boat.
small
and tourism here provides support
in the region,
not only for reef
Island
its
at
the
is
low technology and hence
community and
is
being taken
individual family level and
may
be reducing pressure on fish resources.
Although a number of marine reserves were desig-
use has been
1975 none of these was
implemented.
reduced drastically throughout the country following a
nated
nationwide campaign in
Subsequent legislation under the Marine Parks and
1996-97. This involved major
community-driven action which included naming but also an amnesty for
dynamite and made Coral mining
is
all
those
who
culprits,
surrendered their
a public statement not to re-offend.
another highly destructive activity which
is
in
Reserves Act are
now
in
1994 has rectified
fully
this situation
and there
marine reserves and two marine parks
five
designated under this
The
act.
latter
are
large
areas,
incorporating reefs and other ecosystems, with zoning
was
systems and focussing towards sustainable use. Protected
500 tons of coral were being mined every
areas are declared under separate legislation in Zanzibar
year from the Mikindani Bay area in southern Tanzania
and Pemba. The Menai Bay Conservation Area off the
also widespread along the entire coast. In
estimated that
alone.
Some
1
2000
it
12 percent of Tanga's reefs are believed to be
totally destroyed, largely
through destructive fishing, and a
further 64 percent are in poor to moderate condition.
There
Town, and coast.
is
only primary sewage treatment in Zanzibar
little
Tourism
south coast of Zanzibar was established in 1997 and
is
one
of a number of new marine protected areas being operated at the local level,
involvement
in
with local government and community
park utilization and management.
or no treatment on any of the mainland
is
a
growing and important sector of the
economy, but there are few environmental controls and
1.
Officially this island is
known as Unguja, while the term Zanzibar
refers to the administrative state which includes both this island and
there
may be
tourism
is
increasing impacts on the reefs. Nonetheless,
also providing impetus for further reef pro-
Pemba. Despite
this,
the term Zanzibar
relation to the single island,
and
this
is
is
most commonly used
the usage applied here.
in
189
MAP7C 34°
TANZANIA
COMOROS
' I Tecoimjt
Palma •
/)
L Rongui
MaiflpaBay
^ Modmboa • da
^Tanbuzi
*.'•.
14"
;
^^s-,
%^
Praia
LMetundo
14°
5J
Quirimbass Xrchipelago
MOZAMBIQUE
jf-^
^^^
14*
\'^
Archipelago
^'
-
^'^
Mozambique Channel
* Antalaha
rSo!^"
Maroantsetra •
Masoala
)
Peninsula .
Mahaianga
^^^..
16°
Reserve de la biosphere du Mananara Nord flosp/iere Rese/ve
•?.
^
• Marovoay
^ »
,
4.
/T'-^#'*
;
-*
Pracel
•/
Juan de Nova
16^
Mananam
Marine
NP
i
\
Bancdu
.'/ Cap Masoala
Baie d'AntongU
Nosy Boiaha
Maevatanana
(FRANCE) • Fenerive
* Foulpointe 18'
18°
i lies
Barren
'^i
\
y
MADAGASCAR
•
ANTANANARiVO
< • Vatomandry
Mozambique Channel
•^V • Antsirabe
20°
20°
• Ambostoa Belo-Sur-Mer
/
V
"• Mananjary
ioky
^rN*"*'
Rive''
Cap SL Vincent
/ij
^
r^_.
*
?2'
22°
f Manakara
Bme des Assassins i i^ '
thosy
• Farafangana
INDIAN OCEAN
V
• Betroka
Grand RecifV^"*^
^/v^rO»//ohy
r 24°
w...
N
+ Androita
*
NosyMfflilsa
42°
;44°
It
Dauphin
50
• Lavanono "'''I'Etoile
46°
48°
100 50°
150
200
250
km 52°
196
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Protected areas wi th coral reefs name
Site
I
Designation
iUCN
Abbreviation
Year
Size (km'l
cal.
.1
Madagascar Mananara Marine
National Park
Reserve de la biosphere Du Mananara Nord
UNESCO
NP
10.00
1989
/iOO.OO
1990
II
Biosphere
1
Reserve "
lies
Barren and the Banc du Pracel, although these remain
poorly documented.
northeast,
the
In
fringing reefs re-
appear along the coast and the offshore islands, notably
Nosy Be and
their distribution
and bays.
Radama Archipelagos, although
the Mitsio and
On
is
discontinuous around the
many
rivers
the outer edge of the continental shelf in the
another series of raised banks, actually
far north, there is
forming a near continuous ridge which
may
of a large barrier reef system. Coral cover
be the remains
is
reported to be
provide
critical
foreign
with
at least
50 percent of arrivals visiting the coast.
One of
the greatest threats to Madagascar's reefs
systems and
erosion affects nearly 80 percent of the
soil
with massive sedimentation offshore. Urban and
island,
industrial
waste
poorly controlled and a problem near
is
formations of the sheet coral Pachvseris speciosa.
have greatly increased
and 700
coral
fish species
off Tulear, but
it
1
500
may be 200
whole country.
mangroves form a major
are widespread, often forming
the dominant communities in the channels behind fringing reefs.
It
would appear
that
significant
- fishing
and there
is
levels
evidence
of reduced yields. Despite the considerable potential for ecotourism most developments seem to have been poorly
fish species in the
community and seagrasses
may be
in recent years
planned and contribute to pollution, while also causing
have been recorded on the reefs
the western coastline,
Overfishing
species of scleractinian
little is
has been estimated that there
coral species and
Along
Some 130
cities.
known about
north and Tulear in the south, and very the intervening reef areas.
most reefs were
hit
conflicts with local fishing communities.
There
marine protected area with coral
Mananara Marine
reefs, the
is
only one
National Park on the northeast coast which incorporates three coral islets, including
rangers and there
is
management. There
Nosy Antafana. This
site
has two
some community involvement
in its
new
parks.
are a
number of proposals
for
by the 1998
bleaching event, although data on the impacts are only available for a
few
sites.
Some 30
at
Belo-sur-
General Data
Mer, but bleaching-related mortality was relatively low. For
its
size.
Madagascar
The majority of
is
relatively
sparsely
the coastal population
is
con-
centrated on the eastern coast, while the western coast
from the larger
less developed, aside
Mahajanga. the
It is
majority
this
is
1
is
of Tulear and
west coast, however, that also supports activities.
a critical activity, accounting for an
estimated 55 percent of estimated
cities
of fishing and tourism-based
Artisanal fishing
all
Madagascar
percent bleaching was
observed on the mid-west coast, for example
populated.
fishery production from an
Population (thousands)
GDP
(miUicn US$1
Land area Ikm^l Marine area (thousand km^l Per capita
fish
consunnption (kg/year)
3 26^
59^ 85^ 1
205 7
Status and Threats Reefs at risk (%|
87
Recorded coral diseases Biodiversity
species are heavily relied upon, accounting for 43 percent
Reef area Ikm^l
of
Coral diversity
It
remains a largely traditional fishery,
although there are increasing numbers of migrant fishers
Mangrove area (km^l
who do
No. of mangrove species
scale
15 506
250 fishing villages operating over 20 000 small
vessels (pirogues, mostly without engines). Reef-associated
total production.
is
Madagascar's land area has been converted from natural
major
in the
is
from inappropriate landuse practices. Most of
siltation
very high along the outer slopes, heavily dominated by
Most research has been centered around Nosy Be
exchange earnings. Tourism
another important and relatively rapidly developing activity,
not observe existing customs and taboos. Larger-
commercial and export fisheries make up the
remainder of the fishery and, together with aquaculture.
No. of seagrass species
2 230
135/315
3A03 9
10
Western Indian Ocean
MayottGp Comoros and outlying islands
13
There
number of small oceanic
are a
MAP 76
km
Mayotte
islands lying
between Mozambique and Madagascar The most
Mayotte "s reefs are
important of these are the four large
than 200 species of coral. They were adversely affected by
islands
volcanic
of the Comoros Archipelago situated
at
relatively well studied,
a bleaching event in 1982-83,
the
and harbor more
which apparently caused mor-
northern entrance to this channel. Mayotte, the eastern-
tality
and degradation on about 36 percent of the fringing
most of these islands
reefs.
Crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks since 1983 have
a collectivite territoriale under
is
French control, while the remaining islands form the
Mayotte
Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros. geologically the oldest and
is
which reaches 70 meters
in
some 3-15 kilometers
The remaining
is
still
this event is
volcanically
in 1998.
now
The 1998 bleaching event caused
some
few parts of the coastline. Mwali
3
being noted particularly on the inshore
and tourism are important
reefs. Fisheries
and barren shores and fringing reefs
are restricted to only a
000 collected
even more widespread mortality, with greater than 90 percent mortality recorded on the outer slopes. Recovery from
islands are
although Ngazidja (Grande
Comore), the youngest island which active, has very steep
8
depth before a barrier reef
reefs,
600 fishermen and 9 000
the late 1990s.
Two
activities,
protected areas have been established,
although these only cover some 2 percent of the
fringing reefs on
East of these islands lies the
of the lagoon.
7d), a horseshoe-shaped reef
lagoon was under development in
Banc du Geyser/Zelee (Map which
is
A
with
visitor arrivals per year in
(Moheli) has the most extensive reef systems, with all coasts.
in
fishermen collecting large numbers, with a peak of some
is
surrounded by a wide lagoon
offshore.
surrounded by fringing
been a major problem, although a bounty system resulted
total
area
comprehensive management plan for the late
2000.
probably part of the same volcanic system. This
reef breaks the surface during low tides, and lies between
Mayotte and the French of these reefs
lie
in the
Comoros
territory of lies Glorieuses. All
path of the westward flowing
The densely populated Comoros
is
one of the world's
Equatorial Counter Current, which coincides with the
poorest countries. Deforestation and conversion of land to
Mozambique Gyre.
agriculture are creating massive problems of soil erosion.
northern leg of the
Left:
Mayotte has a number of fringing reefs and
Right: Algae, including fleshy
is
almost completely encircled by
green varieties such as
massive coral mortalities of 1998.
this,
were quick
to colonize
its
barrier reef ISTS5W-41-3,
many of the
19851.
bare surfaces following the
197
MAP
76
s ?
J I
•
o Q fe;
f
i
i
.^-
t I
I ^
1
Western Indian Ocean
Protected areas with coral reefs '
Site
name
Designation
lUCN
Abbreviation
cat
Year
Sizeikm^i
Mayotte
Passe de Longogori
Strict Fishing
Saziley
Parl<
particularly in
Reserve
Nzwani (Anjouan) and Mwali. The sub-
may be
sequent heavy siltation
affecting large areas of
the reefs offshore. Fisheries are important, with over
4 500
SFiR
VI
P
II
and small fish Blast fishing
There
is
is
4.50
1990
41.80
1991
causing some degradation of reef
flats.
also reported to be a problem on Mwali.
is
little
or no information regarding overfishing
in the
Comoros, although
registered fishermen operating from traditional boats in
problems
nearshore waters. Reef walking by fishers gathering octopus
continue to rise this
may
as population densities
create significant problems.
r H^^^^l
Comoros
Mayotte
General Data
General Data 156
Population (thousands)
GDPImillion US$1
Land area
fish
consumption (kg/year)
US$1
Land area (km^l
1
Marine area (thousand km^l
na
Per capita
fish
consumption (kg/yearl
660 175
20
Status and Threats Reefs
100
at risk (%l
Recorded coral diseases
99
at risk (%]
Recorded coral diseases
Biodiversity
Biodiversity
Reef area (km^l
570
Reef area (km^l
na/313
Coral diversity
430
na/3U
Coral diversity
Mangrove area (km^l
10
Mangrove area (km'l
26
No. of mangrove species
na
No. of mangrove species
na
na
No. of seagrass species
No. of seagrass species
A
(million
lU
Status and Threats Reefs
578
235
375
(km-'l
Marine area (thousand km^l Per capita
Population (thousands!
GDP
na
^^^
' '-^
4
'"
bicolor cleaner wrasse Labroides bicolor follows a coral grouper Cephalopholis miniata. Cleaner fishes play a critical
role in
removing parasites and
otfier material
from
many reef fist).
199
200
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Seychelles MAPS
The
Seychelles
is
and
The low
a very large archipelagic nation in
The 115 named
the Western Indian Ocean. atolls together
islands
with their associated reef sys-
largest
and g
coralline islands to the south and west of the
Seychelles Bank
The
7f
is
fall into a
that
number of geographic groups.
of the Amirante Islands, which extend
tems can be clearly divided into two distinct regions: the
along a shallow north-south ridge, with the Alphonse group
high islands to the north and the low coralline islands
forming a
spread over wide areas to the south and southwest.
Further south are two small and more disparate island
The Seychelles Bank the
31
Mascarene Ridge and
of this chain.
northernmost point of
groups, those of Providence-Farquhar and the Aldabra
a large, shallow area (some
group. Finally, directly to the south of the Seychelles
lies at the is
slightly separate southern section
000 square kilometers) of water, mostly above
a depth
Bank
number of high
granitic
reefs in these outer island areas are highly varied,
of 100 meters. In
center are a
its
islands of continental origin. These have been described as a "micro-continenf
,
having been
left
behind during the
northwards migration of the Indian sub-continent about 135
and Coetivy. The
are the isolated islands of Platte
include true atolls
submerged or
atolls (Aldabra),
and
Joseph, Alphonse, Farquhar), raised
(St,
partially
submerged
atolls
(Desroches, Coetivy), and platform or bank structures
million years ago. These are surrounded by widespread but
(African Banks, Providence-CerO- Coral cover varies con-
Mahe
siderably between localities, ranging from close to zero on
discontinuous, fringing reefs. Along the east coast of
and the west coast of Praslin such fringing reefs are well
some banks and
developed. Reef
Cerf Bank),
and terminating
flats
in a
reaching over 2 kilometers in width
clearly
zoned reefs are
locations
less apparent in
more
sheltered
where more complex reef formations have
reef slopes (notably the large Providence-
60-70 percent on some
The Seychelles
high algal ridge are followed by a reef
slope descending to a floor typically at 8-12 meters. Such
to
diversity.
Some
101
fish species have cal
lie in
atoll slopes.
an area of relatively high faunal
hermatypic coral species and 920
been
listed.
The reef fauna
is fairly
typi-
of the Western Indian Ocean, as exemplified by the
many
developed. Coral cover varies, being virtually absent from
reef fish:
some former reef
wider areas of the Indo-Pacific, however about 15 percent
structures, but
abundant
in other areas,
including non-reefal slopes and granitic surfaces.
Aldabra Atoll
is
248-4i, 19941.
are confined to the western part.
a raised atoll in the southwest Seychelles
on land, including the last giant tortoises
in the region,
are widespread across the ocean basin or
and a World Heritage
Site.
There are
The
coral reefs of the
many unique
species
while the reefs are important and relatively pristine ISTS068-
MAP7f
;« tt^
S
!9
^ I
to
I
n
^
O
p
^
i^ ffs
Q
> g
^^i\
MAP 79
.a
a
^ O4
^
r^;^ s
V*"'
iM
Ki
b F^-
£
f-
=3
^
s,
S
K]^1
^
^1U
^
to
r^
;
. s
•;
)
Y
4^-~... • Adigtat
14°
\ f-'v-p
Itomil..
Dahlak Archipelago
^
fi
]
Gabbi Hu
q R£/) 5£^
13°
ETHIOPIA
12°
^/ 0,
39°
40°
41°
DJIBOUTI 30 42°
60
vs90
'^^^i^.J 120
150
km
246
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
changes
by
explained
largely
are
in
environmental
Yemen
conditions, including increased turbidity and the loss of
deeper water species. South of Massawa. reefs support sig-
and other macroalgae during
nificant growths of Sargassum
the winter, a pattern similar to the coastal
Some of
southern Arabia.
Red Sea
southern
communities of
smaller islands
the
the
in
are of regional importance for seabird
colonies, and there are important
dugong populations
in the
surrounding waters. Bleaching during the 1998 El Nifio event was observed in Eritrea, although mortality was res-
some shallow water
tricted to
more widespread
well have been
Yemen many
colonies.
m
corals had
events during a similar
Such incidents may
in the region,
although in
General Data 17 479
Population Ithousandsl
GDP
15 387
US$1
(million
733 130
Land area (km^l
547
Marine area (thousand km^j Per capita
consumption (kg/yearl
fish
7
Status and Threats 73
Reefs at risk (%1
Recorded coral diseases
fact died in localized bleaching
warming event
in
Biodiversity
1995.
700
Reef area (km^j na
Coral diversity*
Mangrove area (km^j
Eritrea The
of Eritrea are extensive and suffered
reefs
human impact
before the
been small increases fisheries.
Commercial
1990s. Since then there have
trawlers, including licensed vessels
operating from Saudi Arabia, fish mostly
away from
some
the
reefs,
in
this
oysters.
molluscs,
finfish,
There
and around 100 000
and 1997.
sea
fish
is
into reef
cucumbers and pearl aquarium
were exported between 1995
The most important and diverse
reefs,
around the
ofTshore islands including the Dahlak Archipelago, remain in
relatively
protection.
good condition despite the lack of
By
•
The higher coral
overestimate as
it
diversity figure
8
is
is lil 30 31
32 33 34 3b
Pulau Pulau Pulau Pulau Pulau Pulau Pulau
NR Kaget NR Dua
36 37 3S 39 40
Kembang RP Moyo HP Moyo RP Noko & 41 Nusa
NR
42
Pulau Rambut NR Pulau Sangalaki RP Pulau Semama GR Pulau Sempu NR Sukawayarig NR Tanjung Keluang RP Tanjung Puting NP
43 44
Teluk Baron NR Teluk Kelumpang/
22
T. Selatan
28
Selat Laut/Selat
NR
Sebuku 4S 46 A7
Sunda
Tujuh Belas Pulau NR Wijaya Kusuma NR Abai MFoR
Shelf '^
76l^j*; Keramian
.1 9
o
Karimuniawa Karimunia
10'
18
Archipelaj elago
Bawean 35
Greater Sunda
%
.
•a-
Is. Kepul lulauan
Muria (Volcano)
,
Sabali
Bogor
Kangean *
KranilauaD
KahiKalukuang
SEA
J A VA
25'^AKART^
o Masalembo
'•*
.•«»
Bandung
7
.erS"'".
15
23
Java
~ "
*
Sapudi
INDONESIA
M'-
27
Surabaja *
46
"«<
8
'
Kepulauan
West Nusa Xenggaia
43 Bandung
90
180
270
360
28
24
Surnbawa^****/^'
Blambangan Peninsum
450 km
Lombok
L
e
s
s
e
^>
Sunda
bU b1
b2 b3 b4 bb bB
be b9
MALAYSIA Bako CFo Batang Jemoreng PFo Batang Lassa PFo
Batumapun Mangrove VJR Bengkoka PFoR Benkoka Penninsular MFoR Bonggaya CFoR Elopura MFoR Gum Gum AFoR Gum Gum MFoR Kabili Sepilok
VJR
60
Kayangeran FoR
71
61
Klias
PFoR
62 63
Kota Belud BS Kuala Bonggaya and Kuala Labuk MFoR Kuala Segama and Kuala
12 73
64
Mamap MFoR 6b 66 6/ 66 69 /U
Kuala Tlngkaya MFoR Kudat and Manjdu MFoR
Kulamba WR Lahad Datu MFoR Loba Pulau PFo Maludam FoR 109°
Matang HR Mengalong VJR
Pulau Sipadan BS Pulau Tlga P Pulau Tukong Ara-Banun Rajang Mangrove FoR
Menumbok MFoR Niah FoR Padas Damit AFoR 76 Paltan CFoR 77 Pulau Batik VJR
84 85 86 87 88 89 90
VJR
91
Selangan Island
MP
92 93 94 95 96
Sempoma MFoR
M lb
78 /9 80 81
82 83
Pulau Pulau Pulau Pulau Pulau Pulau
Bertiala
Kuraman
Penyu (Turtle Islands) P Rusukan Besar MP Rusukan Kecil MP Sakar
VJR 113°
97 98
WS
WS
100
Sarawak Mangrove FoR
PFoR
VJR FoR
Sepilok (Mangrove)
SibuB Mangrove
MFoR Similajau NP Sibyte
Smnba
MFoR
Sungai SugutPaJtan, Pulau Jambongan MFoR
99 Tabawan.Bohayan.
Sampadi FoR
Samunsam
Sulaman Lake
^
Is f,
48
20
>•
/
39
101
102 103 104
Maganting.Stlumpat Islands Tabin Tanjong Kelepu CFo
WR
Tanjong Nagas
PFoR
in.'i
Tawau MFoR Tmsan Kinabatangan MFoR Tunku Abdul Rahman P
106
Umas Umas VJR 117°
11°
Southeast Asia
reefs
and
a small barrier reef.
Semporna
lie
a
number of
Offshore from the town of
islands of volcanic origin with
extensive reef developments. Just off the continental shelf
Pulau Sipadan, a small coral cay with a surrounding
lies
reef with high coral cover and diversity. Further north,
onshore reef development
restricted,
is
fringing reefs around the Turtle Islands.
but there
are
Off the north and
west coasts, and particularly around the offshore islands, there are significant areas of fringmg reefs.
Over 200
kilometers off the west coast of Sabah there
is
atoll,
Layang Layang, with high
coral cover
a coral
biodiversity, although
on the outer slopes was only recorded
percent. Overall. some
have been identified
at
29
346 species of scleractinian coral Malaysian waters. The impact of
in
the 1998 bleaching appears to have been highly varied,
but no widespread mortalities were recorded. At the same time, declines in coral cover were noted throughout east-
ern Malaysia in the decade up to 1999, linked to various
anthropogenic impacts.
Marine fisheries are an important economic for Malaysia, with the majority of
activity
them commercial and
focussed towards non-reef species using trawl and purse seine. Traditional
methods account
fishing
quarter of the total catch, only
dependent, and overfishing a
major
threat.
There
is
for about a
some of which
is
reef-
not generally regarded as
is
significant destructive fishing,
notably using explosives, and particularly off the coast of
agriculture and urban development. Tourism development
Sabah where more than four
hour have been
has also had impacts, through the construction of accom-
most significant
modation and associated infrastructure, but also through
recorded
in
blasts per
several areas. Perhaps the
threats to reefs arise
from onshore
activities, notably the
direct
damage caused by anchors and
divers.
Development
high degree of sedimentation from logging activities and
on Layang Layang.
the sedimentation and pollution associated with industry.
subsequently with the construction of a tourist resort, has
initially to establish a
Singapore
Malaysia
presence, but
Brunei
Darussalam General Data Population Ithousandsl
21
793
4 152
336
GDP
70 402
60 363
4 034
(million
US$1
330 278
526
Marine area (thousand km^)
351
1.4
9
consumption
53
na
22
91
100
100
Land area Ikm^l
Per capita
fish
5
770
(kg/year)
Status and Threats Reefs at risk 1%)
Recorded coral diseases Biodiversity
210
3 600
'^
\-.^.
Pelcng
»
Kapiua
,
-^
'^,
r.-'' Kepulauail*>^.
'"-^ i,
V
'~^-'~
•
Sula
KepulauanSula
SERAM SEA
,
',
Sulab«i
Lampoko Mampie GR
Misool Selatan
NR
RP and GR
js^y
J^
^
r^
,
Kepulauan Alor
C/'^',»C->-.
.
SAWU SEA
^ Teluk ,
' i
.
Masela^;
•^ '
•DILI
:
:
Maubesi
J
lulauan Kepuli
Lei;ti
Luang
Ukenao j
^•'^
Timor
BenaHP
^ > rrii
O-
INDONfESIA
NR
TIMOR SEA
-rffy
Kupang RPJ'i -"
-"JSawu
Lesser
*«""
EASTTIMORy -
East Nusa Tenggara
\.J>
~
-^
Komodo National Park World Heritage sue &
^n
i
JV
f^
o
Btosphere Reserve
Smnba
Layeni
^
Besar
LembataL
'
•'w*'
*
,.
Nil»-
"
Roma
Pulau Teluk
"
Kepulauan Barat Daya
-
.f-'-J,.
ic.™i "Sumbawa
.
^^^ Karompalompo
FLORES SEA C
.
Pulau Kasa
INDONESL\
-'
i
Obi
— ^5^-°
Misooi'^TT
>,S-
Momwali NR
k;^
'
"^ •/
Sulawesi
Bacan '
/
.w''
5£-4
^^ i*
BakiriangGR
"*
^^
Gebe^
l^.Togianls. ^ Patl-PatlGR
.vr
Taniuna
\
""
ff^
Halmaher&^-v*-, > "» Motio , ,
UnaUna
','
3°
(
TWo^V
^'j^.PanuaNR
:
//MoTOtai
Oi.
,
BatuangusNR -^
'
Popalo
),
n^
-^
Bangka
'
/" ^ ^-'^
_
\
r •«
(
NP .
.
,«*
Makassar
Tahulandang Biaio
Arakan Wowontulap
o
,,
„^
^^'^'
Sunda 121°
Is
Olango Island
Wildlife
Tanjung Oisina Mangrove
Sanctuary Ramsar Site
Swamp GR 50
^ir=-- Roti 124°
127°
100
150
200
250
km
MAP
ioe
^IZy^T
Southeast Asia
660 kilometers, although these have been mentioned
rarely
in regional reviews.
little
studied and
Reefs are thought to
be poorly developed along the east Sumatra coast where there
significant riverine
is
input and the coastline
is
dominated by large mangrove communities. Fringing reefs are widespread in the Riau Archipelago and 95 species
of scleractinian coral have been recorded from Batam Island.
Water conditions are highly turbid
in this area,
however, and coral co\er quickly diminishes with depth.
Much
further south around Belitung Island, fringing reefs
have significantly higher diversities, presumably asso-
more
ciated with
- 174
suitable conditions for reef development
scleractinian species have
The
been recorded.
fringing reefs around Java have received
despite
attention
much of the
rest
little
high accessibility (compared to
their
of the country). There are well developed
fringing reefs surrounding the volcanic islands in the
Although not marked on most charts,
by the opposing monsoon systems. During the Nonheast
Sunda
Monsoon (December-March) winds over Sumatra
pre-
has been suggested that there
dominate from the northeast, bearing moist
and
development off the south coast of Java, but
driving higher rainfalls. This air
typically in
air
deflected
is
southern Sumatra and out over the Indian Ocean and
reef
Strait.
flat
to the
may be
it
extensive reef that classic
and reef crest structures have not developed due
extreme exposure and high energy environment.
dominated by northwesterly
Fringing reefs are well developed around the Blambangan
and westerly winds. During the Southeast Monsoon
Peninsula and off the short east coast of Java, with reef
bears round such that Java
is
(particularly June-July), typically drier air flows
from the
southwest across Sumatra, and from the southeast across Java. Patterns
of surface water currents are largely driven
flats
reaching 200-400 meters
limited off
much of the
reef comple.xes in the region
by these winds and during the Northeast Monsoon currents
patch reef chain, also
from the northeast flow
This
southeast and eastward
in
and are largely deflected into
flowing currents along eastern
Sumatra and northern Java. These are mirrored by longshore currents flowing south and east along the Indian
Monsoon
shores of these islands. During the Southeast
some of
Ocean
these patterns are reversed, with strong westward
in
is a
width, but these are again
north coast.
known
is
as the
northwest of Jakarta Bay.
and most have shallow are quite diverse
at
thoms
of Sumatra, by contrast, maintains a southeasterly flowing
southern islands
all
year round. In the Strait of Malacca there
Surprisingly reefs
little is
is
the
The reef slopes
be an increase in
reefs,
Outbreaks of crown-of-
may have reduced
diversity in these
further.
Reefs are widely developed around the Karimunjawa
a
Archipelago north of Java, and there are reported to be
to the northwest.
known about
1995
to
one of the southerly
northwards along the east coast of Sumatra. The west coast
still
Islands.
in a chain just
from Java - 88 scleractinian
species have been recorded
starfish in
known
have associated islands
and there appears
rising to 190 species in the north.
permanent current flowing
Thousand
intertidal reef flats.
with distance
diversity
Many
best
Kepulauan Seribu
group of almost 700 reefs lying
flowing currents along the coasts of Java and deflecting
current
One of the the
development of
around Sumatra. Fringing reefs are considered well
extensive fringing communities around its
Bawean
Island on
eastern side. Fringing reefs are also well developed
the islands
along the south coast of Bali and have a deep spur and
immediately north of Sumatra. They are are also likely to
groove formation associated with the high exposure along
developed
in the
north around
Aceh and around
much of
be widespread along
the west coast of Sumatra
Ocean - and have actually been recorded Mentawai Islands - but there is little published
facing the Indian at
the
material
describing the remainder of this
Likewise this region
is
believed to support
barrier reef systems: an 85 kilometer section
the north,
coastline.
some is
is
not clear to what degree
is
4 Batinese
fishing boat.
North of Java
it
in
some
areas.
appeared to be more varied and generally
less significant.
it
Kalimantan
a
enjoys
active coral growth. Further barrier reefs along the west
coast of Sumatra are recorded with a
affect the reefs
reported in
submerged or drowned system some 13-20 meters below it
The 1998 bleaching event did
around Bali, with over 75 percent bleaching
extensive
20 kilometers off the coast of Aceh. This
the surface, but
this coast.
combined length of
Much of Borneo,
the is
its
of Kalimantan, or Indonesian
low-lying and subjected to
riverine inputs. for
coastline
The Mahakam
considerable
River, in particular,
is
noted
high volume discharge and has been estimated to
276
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
while there
is
also an extensive fringing reef to the north
of the Berau Delta. Offshore from the east coast
lies
Indonesia's longest continuous barrier reef system, the
Sunda Barrier Reef, some 630 kilometers long, on edge of the Sunda Shelf Despite
its
economic, social and biological importance, largely
The
undescribed.
the
and potential
size
this reef is
communities of the
coral
Anambas. Natuna and Tambelan Archipelagos have not been well studied, although well developed fringing reef
communities have been recorded on charts of the
area.
Sulawesi and the Nusa Tengarra This region
sometimes referred
is
to
and
as Wallacea.
encompasses the islands of Sulawesi and the Nusa Tenggara Islands.
It
is
an area of complex oceanography:
of the islands have narrow continental shelves and
all
many
from one another by
are separated
waters.
The geological
relatively
history of this region
complex, and there are active volcanoes southern
and
islands
in
northeast
the
is
all
deep
extremely along the
peninsula
of
Sulawesi. All of these islands are mountainous, but their
iB 10km produce 4-10 million tons of sediment annually, with a
plume which may extend up of the
Mahakam
Delta.
to
400 kilometers southeast
Even between the
mouths,
river
the shores are largely fringed by mudflats and there are
extensive mangrove communities.
Sunda Shelf and hence
the
shallow, and
is
The main
often relatively turbid, waters.
however, the continental shelf edge the mainland. There are
some much
island lies on
surrounded by extensive
several
narrow widths mean
that there are
watersheds and riverine input
is
circulation patterns generally follow those of Kalimantan:
during the Northeast
Monsoon
northerly winds reach the
north of Sulawesi, but are rapidly deflected, becoming
westerly along the southern coast of Sulawesi and the
Nusa Tenggara
Islands, while this pattern
flow permanently eastwards along the north coast of Sulawesi and permanently southwards along the west
Between Sulawesi and the Nusa Tenggara there
coast.
a
South China Sea and the Natuna Sea. The patterns of
Monsoon, which
monsoon weather
Monsoon. South of Nusa Tenggara
to
described
for
Sumatra and Java, with Northeast Monsoons bnngmg northeasterly airflow which
is
a
at
this
westerly flow. Surface water currents
time mirror these winds. During the Southeast
Monsoon
airflows are predominantly from the southwest,
however the surface water currents are a
little
different,
Conditions
stretches the
running
for
may be
number of
total length
and also off the large
known
is
Blimbing and
T.
in the west,
and
T.
Sambar,
T. Putih, T.
Pengujan
Selatan in the south. In the east, extensive reefs are
recorded for 140 kilometers between
T.
Setan and
T.
Pamerikan, and again around the Mangkalihat Peninsula,
The
Mahakam
97-65. 19921.
These are particularly well
20 meters wide, resulting
in their
barrier reef systems have been described
with a
T.
some near continuous
omission from many marine charts. Further offshore a large
headlands such as Tanjung (headland) Datu and
reef dev-
100-200 meters wide. In other areas reef
less than
of riverine input. They are thought to be well developed islands,
for
hundreds of kilometers along
coastline of Sulawesi.
Kalimantan coastline, but do occur away from major areas
on the offshore continental
Southeast
Timor Sea the
developed along the eastern arm of Sulawesi where reef
flats
main
the
in the
region are ideal
shores of most islands, including
flats are typically
the
this
in
deflecting towards the west as they meet the south coast.
much of
during
elopment and there are extensive fringing reefs along the
flowing from the north along the east coast, then
Fringing reefs are absent from
reversed
is
currents flow permanently westwards.
deflected around the south
of Kalimantan such that the south coast actually receives a predominantly
strong east
is
flowing current during the Northeast
and Tambelan Archipelagos on the border between the
similar
almost exactly
close to
further offshore, notably the Anambas, Natuna
are
is
reversed during the Southeast Monsoon. Surface currents
nearshore islands and
those
few major
widely dispersed. Air
east,
To the
lies relatively
relatively
the
of 2 084 kilometers.'
Among
Spermonde Barrier Reef, which has
the best a series
of reefs leading towards the outer edge in a manner similar to the Great Barrier Reef - some 224 scleractinian corals have been described
on the Banggai
in this
system. South of Peleng Island
Platform there
is
another shelf-edge
barrier reef system, the Banggai Barrier
Reef This
is
of
River produces vast quantities of sediment which inhibit coral reef development over a wide area ISTS050-
Southeast Asia
particular interest because of the development of faros, circular atoll-like structures otherwise largely associated
with the Maldives (Chapter
8).
mouth of Tomini Bay
in the
TheTogian
in
Islands, located
northern Sulawesi,
lie in
During the Northeast Monsoon, northwesterly winds
most of the region, while during the Southeast
cut across
Monsoon Irian
southeasterly winds
come up towards southern
and the southern Moluccas, but these are
Jaya
become westerly
very deep water and boast a number of interesting reef
deflected to
formations including fringing, barrier and atoll reefs. The
Surface currents are somewhat mixed in this region.
Tomini Bay are some of the most biodiverse
reefs of the
in
in the
more northern
However, a northward current flows between
areas.
Irian Jaya
the world, with an estimated 77 species of Acropora alone.
and Halmahera and an eastward current flows along the
The 1998 bleaching event appears
north shore of Irian Jaya during the Northeast Monsoon.
little
much of
impact over
to
have had relatively
and
this region,
or no
little
There
is little
detailed information describing the reef
communities of the Nusa Tenggara Islands, but fringing reefs are again widespread. Studies of
show
the center of the group the coastline.
The northwest
Lembata Island
reef
fringing reef
is
well developed
in seagrasses; this
even wider on the west coast. By contrast, the
flat is
south coast has a narrower reef flat, which
Ocean
Indian
to
in
significant variation around
with a 200-400 meter wide reef flat rich
swell and
may
is fully
exposed
be further affected by
cool water upwellings - a pronounced spur and groove structure
again noted, and a number of deep water
is
may
species are found which
prefer cooler waters. North
of these islands well developed barrier reefs are reported to
occur northwest of
Sumbawa and
north of Flores. At the
southern end of the Makassar Strait and
number of
there are a
atolls,
in
wide areas are
the southeast coast of Irian Jaya
unsuitable for reef development: this coastline includes
some of the
largest
mangrove
forests in the
off the central coast and in Bintuni
world - those
Bay may
rival the
area
occupied by the Sundarbans forest between India and Bangladesh. There are reported to be fringing reefs along
much of the
higher coastal areas to the west. There
is little
or no information describing the reef communities around Bird's
Head
Peninsula.
Along
there are fringing reefs on
all
the rest of the north coast
islands in Cendrawasih Bay,
however the central and eastern coasts of
this
bay are
dominated by mangrove forests and wide mudflats, and fringing reef systems have not developed. Further east, fringing reefs are believed to follow a large proportion of the
coastline between Sarmi and the border with Papua
New
Flores Sea
Guinea. For the most part these are poorly described, but
including the largest in the
reef flats are estimated to reach 300-400 meters wide in
in the
Bone
country: Kalukalukuang, Sabalana and Taka
each over 60 kilometers
This pattern reverses during the Southeast Monsoon.
Along
bleaching was recorded north and west of Sulawesi.
Rate,
length with complex atoll rims
places. Further offshore, north
of Irian Jaya, and also east of
Halmahera, there are several small
atolls.
Off the
east coast
formed from individual patch reef structures separated by
of the Aru islands there are vast fringing
narrow and deep channels.
reef flats extending up to 15 kilometers from the coast.
Banda Sea
In
western end of the
the
there are, additionally,
many
The Moluccas and
reefs,
with shallow
smaller atolls.
Irian
Jaya
*
• Naga
«,
9
Island
'
'
.
Mindoro
t^Catanduanes
'^^'^^
5^> Bwias
Santa Cruz
Apo Reef NatP Apo
^r
,,
-
^ -
'S^1»
""Sibuyan Sea
.'
">
^^^
J-. Burias\
PLS($f '
Calauit Island
.^ ••/ :•
'.
120°
-^N
»
Slrail
Mimioro
.•^^~
Romblon
Tobias
GR ,
^
Vy
ir'
nyxablas \\22.°
sibuyan „
r
Masbate
i " -
\
124°
Southeast Asia
be turbid and
much of the
reef area
reported to have been
is
Philippi nes
destroyed by blast fishing. At the mouth of the Lingayen
Gulf there are wide fringing
reefs around Bolinao and the
General Data
nearby islands, with discontinuous fringing reefs running south to Manila Bay. The explosion of
with
its
mud
massive ashfall and
Mount
GDP
flows, caused a steep
down
decline in live coral cover from 60-70 percent
20 percent on the nearest fringing
to 10-
is
Park. There
little
is
in the
Per capita
in
in
many
like
is
It
little
Biodiversity
25 060
Reef area (km^j
around Puerto Galera
Mindoro. Over 200 kilometers west of Luzon
97
Recorded coral diseases
there are discontinuous
areas, notably
30
Reefs at risk (%|
published mformation describmg the
Mindoro and Marinduque, but
fringmg reefs
consumption (kg/year)
fish
Status and Threats
Northern Sierra Madre Natural
reefs around the southern coastline of Luzon, and for
97i
little
coast of Luzon, although fringing reefs are described at the
and
298 120
Land area (km^l
information about the development of reefs along the east
Polillo Islands
52 072
US$1
(million
Marine area (thousand km^l
There
reefs.
81 160
Population Ithousandsl
Pinatubo,
421
Coral diversity
the atoll-
Mangrove area (km^l
formation of Scarborough Reef
much of
Fringing reefs are widespread along
the
up by areas of
coastline of the Visayas, although broken soft sediments, particularly close to river
/
577
1
607
No. of mangrove species
30
No. of seagrass species
19
mouths. Live
cover on some parts of these reefs can exceed 50 percent,
and
fish diversity is also high, particularly
less heavily fished reefs
on protected or
such as Sumilon and
Apo
Islands
Cebu and Negros. Reefs around Mindanao
south of
are
poorly known, although fringing structures are widespread,
and diversity
is
reportedly high on reefs around Arangasa
The Sulu Archipelago has not been described includes
atoll
systems
Cagayan Islands and Tubbataha,
a structure
in detail,
To
fringing and barrier reef systems.
northwest there are two major Sea, the
ecological impacts, including changes in ture
and decreases
composed of two
to allow local recruitment.
atolls.
the
Sulu
in the
is
Further west, Palawan
between 50 and 90 percent
some
in
of banks and shoals off the west coast of to
be part of a long, sub-surface barrier
reef system. Finally, due west of Palawan
complex of the Spratly
lies the
large
which are disputed between
Islands,
several countries, and so considered in a separate section.
Many of
the
reefs
impacted by human fish
of
communities
almost
all
Destructive
severely
areas.
The
utilize
vast majority
hour
in a 2-3
it
is
loss in
at a rate
many
of 10 per
kilometer listening radius around Bolinao.
Following the introduction of stringent punishments for this illegal activity, these rates
now
little
Cyanide fishing and there Taiwan,
have dropped, and there
is
or no blast fishing, but only in this one area.
is
is
also
common
for the live fish trade,
a significant illegal fishery
Hong Kong,
by vessels from
Singapore, Korea and Japan. The use
of cyanide by Philippine fishers
is
prohibited, and this
is
monitored for the export fishery, so the majority of legal live
manner. Live fish are also caught
yield up to 10-15
nearly every part of
1989 blasts were heard
coastal waters up to 15
may
in
and causes significant reef
under local government
has been estimated that reefs
unclear whether this
widespread. Although
also
continues
-
control and are often closed to larger commercial vessels. It
fishing
blast fishing is illegal,
fall
this fishing is small-scale
kilometers from the shore
are
Dense populations
activities.
in
country
this
in
It is
forms of environmental degradation.
the latter being
areas. Prior to
Palawan are thought
struc-
has been
solely related to overfishing, or exacerbated by other
fringing and patch reefs along most of the coast and live
A number
it
Catches of demersal fish have
has remained stable or increased.
the Philippines
coral cover reaching
areas
claimed that there are insufficient adult fish populations
has some of the best developed reefs in the country, with
places.
community
many
in diversity. In
been stable or declining since 1976, while fishing effort
Island on the east coast.
but
Such overfishing has significant
the southern Sulu Sea.
fish exports are probably
a fairly large
Muro-ami
no longer caught in a
few areas
aquarium trade export, largely
fishing
is
in this
to
to the
supply
USA.
another method which has been used
percent of the total annual fisheries production of the
in the Philippines.
Although now
may
continues, while a
new method, known as pooling, utilizes 100 or more at one time) with hoses
country, and studies have
shown
that individual reefs
support yields of between 3 and 36 tons offish per square
kilometer per year. Despite
including reef fish,
as
this,
well
as
demersal fish stocks small
pelagics,
are
considered to be biologically and economically overfished in
almost
all
areas other than eastern Luzon, Palawan and
divers (typically
aiming compressed the nets. This
and
is
illegal
it
almost certainly
air at the reef to force the fish into
may be widespread
off the coast of Palawan,
indiscriminate and destructive to the reef
The
Philippines once featured as a major coral exporter. This
283
28A
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
formerly legitimate trade has been stopped, although
may
gal exports
still
Sedimentation high
many
in
is
of deforestation and poor
Some 60-75
agricultural practices.
percent of the original
mangrove cover has been removed, reducing the
role these
can play as nursery areas or sediment traps. Urban and industrial
effluent
locations, such as
is
a
particular
problem
Manila Bay. At Toledo
in
some
Cebu, an
City,
estimated 100 000 tons of mine tailings are discharged into the sea daily, with
considerable number of marine protected areas
have been declared
another major threat, and loads are
rivers as a result
A
ille-
be considerable.
massive losses of fish and coral
in the
Philippines but few have ever
been effectively enforced. Some of the larger failed to
win the support of
local
others, the local people have
sites
have
communities, while
been unable
in
to control the
impacts of outsiders. There are a few exceptions to this
Apo
however, and the two small reserves of
Island and
Sumilon are globally recognized as examples of good
community-based management.
In
both cases very small
no-take zones have been established and actively enforced for a
number of
years. This has led to increases in fish
cover along 7 kilometers of coastline. Similar problems of
populations and average sizes, which
discharge combined with poor flushing have
affected
export of fish from these areas to surrounding waters and
growing
an overall increase
Calancan Bay industry
in
in
Marinduque, Tourism
is
a
the Philippines, although diving
is
not as
significant as in other parts of the region, possibly in part related to the degraded nature of so
many
merchandise fee
reefs.
in fish
of reefs. In addition
in turn
have led
to
yields despite the partial closure
to these benefits, the islands
to tourist divers,
have sold
and from 1999 received a
from visiting dive vessels.
Protected areas with coral reefs Site
name
Designation
Abbreviation
lUCN
cal.
Size
YeaS
Ikmil
Philippines
Agan-an
Municipal Marine Reserve
Andulay
Municipal Marine Reserve
Apo
Protected Landscape/Seascape
Island
•
MuMR
IV
0.06
1999
MuMR
IV
0.06
1999
PIS
V
6.91
1996
NatP
II
116.77
1996
FiS
na
0.01
1988
Apo Reef
Natural Park
Basdiot
Fisfi
Batanes
Protected Landscape/Seascape
PLS
V
2 135.78
1994
Bien Unido
Fish Reserve
FishR
na
na
1995
Bio-OS
Municipal Marine Reserve
MuMR
IV
0.08
na
Bolisong
Municipal Marine Reserve
MuMR
IV
0.10
1995
Bongalonan
Municipal Marine Reserve
MuMR
IV
0.20
1993
Cabugan
Municipal Marine Reserve
MuMR
IV
0.07
1993
Cabulotan
Municipal Marine Reserve
MuMR
IV
0.06
1993
Cagayan Island
Other Area
ETC
Unassigned
na
1970
Calag-calag
Municipal Marine Reserve
MuMR
IV
0.07
1991
Cangmating
Municipal Marine Reserve
MuMR
IV
0.06
1997
Caohagan
Marine Reserve/Tourist Zone
MR/TZ
na
na
na
Carbin Reef
Municipal Park
MuP
na
2.00
1983
Danjugan Island
Private Reserve
PrivR
Unassigned
0.43
1994
ElNido
Marine Reserve
MR
Unassigned
950.00
1992
Fortune Island
Marine Reserve/Tourist Zone
MR/TZ
Unassigned
na
1978
Fugo Island
Marine Reserve/Tourist Zone
MR/TZ
Unassigned
na
1978
Sanctuary I
.
-.
i
.
—
MAP
^
a:
0=0 o
3
»
C 3
S
CO
Q.
T3
—^
to
_
w o «
ra
,<
:
TO
(0
E
E C o
-t
i^S
^
{!]
CO
a
3 O 3 o (0
i =
ro
!. J "'J^ — '
.
zape^ R/Ver FHFf
;
-V
^
'
-
•
11"
Gulf of Carpentaria RaineL
CORAL SEA
Great Detached Reef 12°
>
\
Yule Detached Reef 12°
13° :
Cape
DiiectioD'
J
•
*
^
''
CclebiBtioQ Reef
13"
*?-'W V a^.,
•?>•
I
„ , ^NTijouReef
•JA-Bow Reef
^-,
J
^er Arched Silver Plains
Magpie
& Wodd Heritage
^^ \ \
f/f''> \-.'.--{flj**i ••««*
I
-.
NP
Princess 7/icesj
'
/^^l
VjK}^-^
^Br ,
"• *" •
'
«^-tL; NP f -v^^—^ -^> ^
Hicks
!
Nymph
Reef
IsiandNP ^ "
^: -^ V, .
1
,
German
:
Ti »i _* ^
:
;.;-»
;
)
Lizard
-"
isiandNP
BarFisSs
two Group
/s/aiTds
Cap^FlattolK
Turtle'
:::::::
NP i..'^s.l »
w
I
rt" •ma>
Endeavour
AUSTRALIA
River NP
•
»
Osterland Reef
wp
:•>;-;•.•;;: -^ •'•'•'•
/
6\^" '.
/"^
'
Curlew L ..^.Jl
/
''
v-\
i.
n
Percy
.
i
^
South L
^" Bedwell Group
•
^^
Bell
"
'
^
Cay
--
3-fV
Hight Peak
22°
if ^
. •
i
*
:
--^
'
BacchiCay
.;?-
Isles
'*'^"-
Islands
22-^%^
Pine Peak
•
Northumberland
-o.'
„„BpurL
.
/
l^.'-
1.
:lT^
'•
^1
%
_**
,"1
.
•
*.
Blue Lion Reef
:-::''-*•*'•' -=*1.-'
Horseshoe, ./--••^""'V
Great Barrier Reef CoMP S. Woiid Heritage Site
W-i *
Alain
:' :''*
'
Haclde
ToWDsend L
SBic0jaiyi22°
-"^^'1
Rccr—
.
-
«/
'
SweethpRcef
Karameg Bank
1^ IM"
23°
Capricorn
Shoalwater and Carlo
Bays
Channel
Ramsar Site
Moresby Bank
.
:23' North KeppelL
Yeppoon;
S
AUSTRALIA
^—^
Habetfield Shoal
»~- Douglas
"
(Queensland)
North West '
f5
RockhamptonS "^
JSl^*^ Broomfield . Capncom Ufl*™*!* ^ Rfcf ;
rroup < :
;....::.... ,:..
jr>';>;::::::::s**^ .
7 CamiillaWetR 8 Colosseum FHR 9 10 1 1
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Conway NP CorloBayFHR Eurimbula RessR Great Barrier Reef
CoMP
FHR HervayBayMP Keppel Sands CP Kolan River WetR Hays
LIndeman Islands
26 27 26 29 30
Maokay / Capricorn
MP
HoskynlE.
Channel
Fairfax
U/^
Seventeen Seventy Turkey WetR
33 34 35 36
Hill Hill
Bunker Group
Lady Musgrave L
24°
r^^-t-^--::;:
8^^
'.
30
^LidyEDiof L
t
1lTt13
•
\
^
29
Rodds Hartjour FHR Round Hill FHR Sand Bay FHR
West 32 West
NP
Facing L
34
19 MarronWetR 20 Middle Island FisSs 21 Mouth Of Baffle Creek 22 Newport CP 23 Newry Islands NP 24 Repulse FHR 25 Rocky Dam WetR
31
Inlet
UeweUynR«f
Curtis
26
Name
CP 2 Broati Sound FHR 3 Boyne Creek WetR 4 Cape Hillsborough NP 6 Cape Palmereton FHR 6 Cape Palmerston NP
J»
FiEroyReef*;;^
u"-'
vfBarubbra Island
.— OneTreel "'
Maslheadl.' -
1
i
Wstari Reef^naMJ' Sjies Reef
Xg7/)e/
>,-.^ ^*rf^«-v^...;
No. Protected Area
Shoal
20 Of.J---*® SouAKeppelL
WetR
FHR NP
Whitsunday Islands
NP
Wild Cattle WetR Wild Duck Island NP
Woongarra
MP
20
4
60
80
10
km
Bundabergr
.14
\» I
149°
150°
151°
152°
25"
153°
316
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
loggerhead and flatback turtles
numbers
of the flatback
turtle,
amounts of time
nest in considerable
all
Unfortunately, with the exception
in the region.
most individuals spend substantial
neighboring countries where they are
in
severely threatened by direct hunting and indirect killing,
notably as fisheries by-catch. There are globally important is
some
of these by Aboriginal and Torres
Strait
Islander communities the northern population of
some
populations of dugongs traditional hunting
8
000 individuals
While there
in the region.
considered stable.
is
By
contrast, the
smaller southern population of about 3 500 individuals is
now
declining, largely as a result of deaths associated
with boat collisions, entanglement in
entanglement
some 26 species of cetacean
In addition
visitors to the
and also
nets,
gill
swimming
shark nets placed near
in
beaches.
are resident or
Great Barrier Reef, including significant
numbers of humpback whales which breed
in the
southern
and central waters.
There are important seabird communities on the Great Barrier Reef with over 55 major nesting islands and 1.4-1.7 million breeding birds
from some 23 species, with
32 non-breeding species. Most of these islands
a further
are in the north total seabird
and south, with around 75 percent of the
biomass
in the
Capricorn-Bunker group.
The Great Barrier Reef has been one of most
same species
of the
synchronized,
with
releasing eggs
and sperm often within minutes of one
individuals
another over wide areas of the reef The phenomenon was only
first
observed
in
November
1982, and yet
is
one of the
extensively
starfish,
with the
impacted first
observed on Green
by
the
mass outbreak of
Island,
the regions
crown-of-thorns
off Cairns,
this in
predator
1962. The
possible causes of these outbreaks have been debated for
some time
(see Chapter 2), with
much of the work having
most spectacular events on any coral reef Vast numbers of
been conducted on the Great Barrier Reef While there
eggs and sperm are released and form massive slicks on the
still
much
to learn
about these outbreaks,
it
is
is
clear that
for cross-fertilization
they have had a significant impact on the ecology of the
between colonies, while the massive scale of such an event
region, causing apparently periodic massive losses of live
ensures that would-be predators are fully satiated, thereby
coral cover.
increasing the chances of survival of individual larvae.
central
sea surface.
The spawning allows
In addition to
its
considerable diversity in terms of
coral reef organisms, the Great Barrier
Reef
is
also an
extremely important region for other marine and coastal
ecosystems,
communities.
most
notably
seagrass
Mangroves generally
lie
and a
mangrove
considerable
Most outbreaks have been recorded
sections
in the
of the Great Barrier Reef The
1998
bleaching event also impacted a number of reefs, most notably in the inner shelf areas where reefs
some 25 percent of
showed bleaching of 60 percent or
bleaching was worst Barrier
Reef while
greater. Overall,
in the central sections
outer reefs generally
distance from coral reef communities - with the exception
levels of bleaching. Mortality
of a few fringing reef systems. But some 37 mangrove
some inshore
of the Great
showed only low
was generally
low, although
fringing reefs suffered greatly.
species from 19 families have been recorded at the Great
Barrier Reef, with the highest levels of diversity in the "wet tropics'" north
of Cairns. Seagrass communities are also
widespread, with some 3 000 square kilometers of
mapped
Socio-economic considerations In general the Great Barrier
Reef
is
not heavily affected
some concerns
shallow seagrasses, and an estimate of at least 2 000 square
by human
kilometers of deep (>15 meters) seagrasses. Both seagrass
deforestation, poor agricultural practices and high con-
beds and mangroves are extensively used as breeding and
centrations
nursery grounds by
many
species, including a
number of
terrestrial
activities,
but there are
that
of agricultural chemicals and nutrients in
runoff
may have some
impacts, particularly on
commercially important species, and some reef species.
those reefs closest to the mainland. The majority of reefs,
Seagrass beds are also important for some turtle species as
however, are far offshore and
well as large populations of dugongs. Green, hawksbill.
prevailing long-shore currents, reduces the effects of land-
Spinner dolphins Stenella longirostris.
this,
combined with
the
Australia
based sediments and pollutants. The distance from the
Capricorn-Bunker group
mainland of most reefs also makes access more
Peninsula.
difficult,
while the coastal population adjacent to the reef overall
impact on the
The a
small
is
and does not generally exert a very large
some commercial
reefs, except for
fisheries.
of marine and coastal resources has
utilization
among
long tradition
direct
Aboriginal
the
Further north in
Strait, the
Torres Strait Islanders,
who
of
inhabitants
Cape York and
Australia.
the Torres
are of different
ethnographic origin, have also been great users of reef
numbers
resources. Following European colonization the
of these peoples diminished and many of their traditional
ways of
broke down. There remain some
life
Strait Islander
a slightly larger
engage
of about
probably
number
in
even on such species as dugongs and
turtles,
more
far
is
significant than that by indigenous
extremely popular,
communities. Recreational fishing
is
although
reefs
typically
it
the
targets
not covered by the park
The park is
closest
itself is
fall
within other protected areas.
zoned. About 80 percent of
trawling (with permits), and a further 16 percent for general use but with trawling prohibited.
5 percent
is
managed by
some 210
to
the
line
fish exploitation
catch of
some
live fish trade,
3
is
fishery concentrated on groupers
combined annual
("coral trout") and emperors, with a
000-4 000 tons. Part of
this is for the
Hong Kong. There
is
lobster fishery to the north, collecting
addition
In
there
sea
some
are
fisheries associated with the
staff with
an operating budget of Au$27.2
on
visitors to the park.
all
park
is
For administrative purposes
divided into four broad sectors.
management plans have been developed
some 840
with (5
500
(1
while an overall 25-year strategic plan has been
localities,
developed
in
collaboration with the major stakeholders.
Active scientific research within the Great Barrier
tons
small-scale
and
fishing
actually trawling,
tons), scallops (200-1
000
some
concerns over the size of the by-catch (typically over 50
much
as 90 percent of hauls),
which includes benthic organisms, snakes and
turtles,
Trawling nities
and
trawling
some
is
in areas
not permitted over
in a
still
and even sea
fish,
and over the wider impacts on benthic
communities, particularly
of repetitive trawling.
known
seagrass
commu-
few other protected areas, however
occurs. There
is
illegal
evidence of overfishing of
target reef fish species, although this
is
mostly on
a
small scale and restricted in spatial extent.
The
vast majority of the Great Barrier
protection as the Great Barrier
Reef receives
Reef Marine Park,
the
world's second largest protected area. This covers most
of the lagoon and
all
of the offshore reefs from the
The fringing reef on Orpheus Island
in
is
carried out by a
number of
however
the
major research
organizations, includ-
management
institution
monitoring and core scientific research Institute
The
of Marine Science based reefs
of the Torres
authorities,
which undertakes is
the Australian
Townsville.
in
Strait lie outside the
under any
Great
ment has been developed with Papua
tons) and other crustaceans (500 tons). There are
percent and sometimes as
Detailed particular
some 50-200
licensed vessels, typically landing prawns
000-6 500 tons), fish
for
management agree-
trade, trochus
is
is
provided by an environmental management charge levied
legal protection, although a fisheries
cucumber The most important commercial
within the Great Barrier Reef area
in collabor-
also an important
fairly
aquarium
is
fall
annually, and a separate fishery operating in the Torres Strait.
The park
Barrier Reef Marine Park and do not
with groupers being air-freighted to the
Far East, notably
also
million in 1998-99. About 30 percent of this budget
ing several universities and the
predominantly a
total).
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,
Reef
Commercial reef
is
Only about
a specially designated federal agency, the
mainland and near the major population centers. The
year.
area
closed to fishing activities, but this includes
over 120 reefs (about 12 percent of the
recreational fishing catch has been estimated at 3 500-
4 300 tons per
its total
open for general use including commercial fishing and
the
Utilization of marine resources by the wider pop-
ulation
waters and terrestrial areas of offshore islands which are
and Heritage. Between them, these organizations employ
sustainable levels.
still at
of Cape York
tip
in the
A small proportion
urban areas.
northern
ation with the Queensland Department of Environment
000, together with
1
1
to the
large proportion of the remaining coastal
Torres
hunting and fishing on the reef, however
in
their impact, is
1
and Aborigmal communities, mostly
far north, with a population
still
1
A
the
Palm
Islands.
Overfishing
is
while
remains
there
pollution, both
from
oil
certainly
significant
associated in
the
strait.
New
Guinea.
pressure within the region, potential
in
Papua
with
the
from the mines
spills
shipping traffic
a
a
strict
New
threat
of
Guinea and
relatively
heavy
MAP
11f
H^Cr.^
150°
147°
N
PACl FIC OCEAN /K.Bundab6ffg
^^:;
-•'- Lord
lord MnitfKr^ LoniHowci.
26*
13'
Howe Ball's
'^J"{, '^"'^
ii> 10
*
X
20
;
,
Pyramid
Brisbane
-Osprey Reef
MP
Lord
(Queensland)
'
Howe
Island
13°
km
168'48'
159'12'
'» '
Norfolk L
r«»-'' "il Elizabeth Reef
Shark Reef
I
^—
Middleton Reef
Solitaiyls.
Philip
BOabelh end Mi0dleton
f
y-AK
L
FeofaNNR
(New South Wales) LordH(MrelirV\
i
10 20 30 ton
•
T AS MAN SEA
Bougainville Reef
16°
•IP;'',
Diane Bank
if
^p
Holmes Reef
Willis
CORAL SEA
Group - HeraldNNR
Coringa Flora Reef
•
LihouReefNNR
*;
*-
-Herald Surprise
Dart Reef,
^vn;>M
Tregrosse
1,.
4'.
Diamond Islets
Islets •,
MellishReef
and Reefs
>
Lihou Reef and Cays
Flinders Reefs
* Great Barrier Reef CoMP & World Heritage Site
-yimill
0'.
-^
19°
19"
'J Wet
Tropics of
1
Jilt-
Queensland World Heritage Site '
Manon Reef
Ayr
Charters Towners
BoweP.
^
,,
Proserpine
"5*
'^
If
^
Frederick Reef
Mackay
KemiReef Porpoise
HMS HM.
IVrec* HSh/p
)
22°
'
SaumarezReef
^^r.:^.^>...;..
J
Cay
Wreck Reef
Porpoise
HShip '
^H '
Stioalwater
and Corio
Bays Ramsar
.
Site
Yeppoon
Capricorn
'
Channel
Cato HShip -^
Br. Rockhampton'SI
BoyneCreek WetR
AUSTRALIA
• Blackall
Cato
'^^
erald
Kolan River
n^*^:, WetR
Woongarra
(Queensland)
MP
Barvbbra island
25°
CP -'-'
Sii^-r- Hervay Bay MP *
Gregory WetR Cherwell
..V "
HSH" Aartius HShip
'
.;^:.i.;
-.?.'
See/b;
I
i
^ —
FHR
//.'•StrBurwm WetR ^-j' ^ - Burwm - Toogoom WetR ..••Bunvm - Iris FHR Fraser Island WetR '.^-''IfSusan River FHR' Maaroom FHR
-
...
Great Sandy
40
80
120
160
200 km 147°
Strait.
Tin
Strait (including
Can Bay ay and 150'
Tin
Can
Great Sandy
inlet)
Fraser Island World Heritage Site
Ramsar Site
Ja.
156*
-
Australia
The Coral Sea MAPnf
Due
Reef and the Torres
east of the Great Barrier
Strait,
Australia
holds jurisdiction of a
number of reef formations
lying
some
the continental shelf In the far north close to
algae and sponges
New
The majority of the remainder
known
as the Coral Sea Plateau.
stretching from Osprey
Reef
in the south.
Reef
is
Some
Reef
cover.
Cay
are atoll formations,
are substantial in
Wreck and Cato
A
lie
Left:
The vast
atoll structure of
In
general
Lihou Reef
in
months
old,
is
often greater than coral
very diverse, with over 730
this
same
island
some 356
of reefs
some of the
coral cays, while the beaches are turtles.
renowned
for the water clarity
Sea
in
the
central
life.
A
number
Coral Sea area are protected.
Although not under constant surveillance,
they have
the Coral
fish species
small number of dive operators take tourists out to
they,
and many
other reefs in the region, benefit from their remote location.
lSTS0i6-90-9. 19921 Right, above:
minlatus with extensive branching corals. Right, below/: This coral recruit only a few
is
and wide diversity of near pristine marine
and they have only been visited by a small number
of expeditionary research units.
Around
the reefs of the Coral Sea,
Reefs.
Information about these reefs remains relatively scant,
alone.
widely utilized by nesting
further south or east, off the Coral Sea Plateau, including
Mellish, Frederick, Kenn,
The molluscan fauna
colonies on
500
square kilometers. In addition, a number of other reefs
a considerable proportion of
have been recorded. There are very important bird nesting
Saumarez area - Lihou
in the north to
a long oval reef structure totalling nearly 2
estimates of
species listed from the areas around North East Herald
are located in an area
Most
make up
the substrate. Total algal cover
Guinea these include the Portlock Reefs and Eastern Fields.
maximum
19-26 percent hard coral cover. In contrast, both coralline
distance off
Papua
low coral cover, with
relatively
large
yet over decades or centuries colonies
may reach
is
A trumpet emperor Lethrinus
only 15 millimeters
several meters across.
in
diameter and probably
319
320
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
High latitude reefs MAPllf
reefs South of the Great Barrier Reef there are several south
and coral communities
at
high latitudes. The
flowing East Australia Current has an important role to play in maintaining these
warm
on the
is
tions dependent
new
the
is
some 6 kilometers along
its
of Lord
to the north
Howe
western
mainland coast there are no true coral east
of Brisbane,
is
On
GDP
(million
Marine area (thousand km^l
the
Per capita
been
fish
Reefs
Recorded coral diseases
nities
smaller benthic
Biodiversity
is
low
New
19
32
at risk I%1
6
Biodiversity
48 960
Reef area (km^j
South Wales.
in these areas, but they
437
(
commu-
with coral reef species elsewhere along the coastline
of South Queensland and northern
304
7
Status and Threats
Further south, the Solitary Islands also have important coral
many
7 706
consumption kg/year]
colonized by a range of tropical corals and other species.
communities. There are also
359 913
US$1
Land area Ikm^l
reefs. Flinders Reef,
a sandstone structure, but has
19 165
Population Ithousandsl
in the world,
Island.
^
General Data
platform reefs lying on older volcanic seamounts which
form a chain
|H
larval recruits
beyond 31°S. Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs are
lying
on recruitment of new individuals from
a high volcanic island with a reef
most southerly coral reef
particularly at
be temporary popula-
Australia
structure extending for
This
Some of these,
Island, are thought to
reefs.
Lord Howe Island
side.
Island has 65 species.
Lord Howe
communities, bringing
waters as well as the potential for
to settle
Howe
428/461
Coral diversity
remain
500
of significance as they represent the ecological limits of
Mangrove area Ikm^l
many
No. of mangrove species
39
No. of seagrass species
21
species.
The offshore
reefs
are also of interest
because of their considerable isolation. Elizabeth and
11
Middleton Reefs have 122 species of reef coral while Lord
Interesting
and important
coral
communities have developed
at high latitudes
including the remote Norfolk Island. This species Porites heronensis of Japan, although absent
from the reefs of central Southeast Asia
is
around islands
to the
east of Australia,
a high latitude species, also recorded on the reefs
Iphoto:
JEN
Veronl.
Australia
more northerly sources of fish have
been recorded
most part
Some 477
is
species of
Lord Howe Island -
but also including
tropical
Endemism
species.
larvae.
at
are recorded,
some temperate
large populations of sea
clownfishes.
relatively high, with about 4 percent
making
of the fish unique to Lord Howe, Elizabeth and Middleton
An
Reefs.
where
outbreak of the crown-of-thorns starfish in
the 1980s caused extensive
damage
to
is
mainland coast, biodiversity
thought to
although are of
it
rival that
this
in the Flinders
Little
of which 80 percent are
anemones with
penguins also nest
their resident
the
in
islands
with the Galapagos, one of the only places
group of predominantly Antarctic species may
Most of these
reefs
and coral communities have some and Middleton Reefs
legal protection. Elizabeth
are a marine reserve, while their isolation protects
Reef
from large numbers of
of the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs,
resident population
remains poorly documented. The Solitary Islands
more
this,
form of
on the outer reef slopes.
On the
fish
be found near coral reef species.
both Elizabeth and
Middleton Reefs, considerably reducing coral cover, particularly
and some 280
considered tropical. The islands are also noted for their
for the
visitors.
Howe
Lord
of about 300,
them
Island has a
and while tourism
provides the mainstay of the economy, total numbers are
particular interest as they maintain a balance
limited and any impacts on the reef are small.
of tropical and temperate species. Only 53 reef coral species
Protected areas with coral reefs
I
Site
^^^^^^^^^^B Designation
name
i
Abbreviation
lUCN
Size
cat.
ikm:)
Year!
Australia
NNR
583.00
1983
87.00
1990
2 290.00
1983
Ashnnore Reef
National Nature Reserve
Christmas Island
National Park
MP
II
Cobourg
Marine Park
MP
VI
Coringa - Herald
National Nature Reserve
NNR
la
8 856.00
1983
Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs
National Nature Reserve
NNR
la
1
880.00
1987
Emden
Historic
HSPZ
Unassigined
LOO
1982
CoMP
VI
3M 800.00
1979
NNR
la
8/136.91
1982
MP
VI
^80.00
2000
Shipwreck
la
Protected Zone
Great Barrier Reef
Commonwealth Marine Park
Lihou Reef
National Nature Reserve
Lord
Howe
Island
Marine Park
NNR
la
539.84
1991
MP
VI
2 255.64
1987
26.02
1995
232.50
1990
Mermaid Reef
National Nature Reserve
Ningaloo
Marine Park
Pulu Keeling
Commonwealth
CoNP
II
Rowley Shoals
Marine Park
MP
VI
Shark Bay
Marine Park
MP
VI
7 487.35
1990
Solitary Islands
Marine Reserve
MR
VI
1
000.00
1991
South West Solitary Island
Nature Reserve
NR
la
0.03
1961
Yongala
Historic
HShip
Unassigined
0.78
1982
2 207.00
1974
National Park
Shipwreck
Cobourg Peninsula
Ramsar Site
Great Barrier Reef
World Heritage
Site
348 700.00
1981
Lord Howe Island Group
World Heritage
Site
11.76
1982
Moreton Bay
Ramsar Site
133.14
1993
1.22
1996
21 973.00
1991
2 391.00
1996
Pulu Keeling National Park
Ramsar Site
Shark Bay Western Australia
World Heritage
Shoalwater and Corio Bays
Ramsar
Site
1
Site
322
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Selected bibliography
K-H 119971. Geology of the Vacher HL, Quinn T ledsl. Developments in Sedimentoiogy, 54: Geology and Hydrology of Carbonate Islands. Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam, LB, Zhu ZR, Wyrwoll
Collins
Houtman Abrolhos.
In:
Woodroffe CD, Falkland AC (1997). Geology and hydrogeology of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. In: Vacher HL, Quinn T leds). Developments in Sedimentology. 54: Geology and Hydrology of Carbonate
Done TJ
Patterns
(19821.
distribution
the
in
coral
of
communities across the Central Great Barrier Reef. Coral ffeefe 1:95-107.
U
Gladstone W, Dight
Mar
(19941. Torres Strait baseline study.
PollBul29: 121-125. Hatcher BG (19851. Ecological research at the Houtman's Abrolhos: high latitude reefs of Western Australia. Proc 5(h Int
Coral Reef
Symp
2:
Symp
Science BV, Amsterdam,
Oxford, UK. Zell L (1999). Diving
291-297.
6:
Sport and Territories, Canberra, Australia. Zann LP (2000). North Eastern Australia: the Great Barrier Reef region. In: Sheppard C [edi. Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation, Vol 2. Elsevier Science Ltd,
and Snorkelling Australia's Great Barrier
Reef. Lonely Planet Publications, Melbourne, Australia,
497-502.
Heyward AJ, Halford
Smith
A,
L,
DMcB
Williams
(1998]. Coral
Map sources
reefs of north west Australia; baseline monitoring of an
oceanic reef ecosystem. Proc
8tti Int
Coral Reef Symp
1
:
289-
Map 11a
294.
Geomorpfiologyof the Great Barrier Reef: Quarternary Development of Coral Reefs. John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA. Marsh LM (19921. The occurrence and growth of Acropora in Hopley D (19821.
Tfie
extra-tropical waters off Perth, Western Australia. Proc Int
Elsevier
Zann LP (1995). Our Sea, Our Future. State of the Marine Environment Report, 1995. Department of the Environment,
Hearn CJ, Parker IN (1988). Hydrodynamic processes on the Nmgaloo coral reef, Western Australia. Proc 8tfi Int Coral Ree/'
Islands.
Netherlands.
Netherlands.
Coral Reef
Symp
7thi
islands_oceans_poles/Cocos|Keeling]_76.jpg).
The available data
(19971.
of Carbonate
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/Libs/PCL/Map_collection/
1233-1238.
2:
Geology and hydrogeology of Rottnest Island, Western Australia. In: Vacher HL, Quinn T (edsl. Developments in Sedimentology, 54: Geology and Hydrology
RE
Playford
For Cocos [Keeling! coral reef areas have been copied from a 1:100 000 source map (full reference unavailable, but source was a scanned paper map available on
Elsevier
Islands.
Science BV, Amsterdam,
for
Christmas Island were poor, so reefs a line running immediately
have simply been plotted as offshore
from the island.
In
reality
this
represents an
exaggeration of the true reef area. All remaining areas are
taken from Petroconsultants SA (1990)*.
Netherlands.
Randall JE, Allen GR, Steene
RC
Barrier Reef and Coral Sea,
(1997). Fishes of the Great
Map lib
2nd edn. Crawford House
Coral features are taken as arcs from Petroconsultants
M
Stoddart DR, Yonge Reef.
Sudara
(eds) (1978). The Northern Great Barrier
Third
Wilkinson CR, Ming CL (eds) (1994). Proceedings,
ASEAN -Australia Symposium
Resources. Volume of
Maps
The Royal Society, London, UK. S,
2:
on Living Coastal Research Papers. Australian Institute
H,
Bass
Cheat
D,
Coleman Thompson
A,
1
1c,
supplied Im 19951 by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority at 1:250 000. For the reefs of the Torres Strait, data
G, Miller
I,
Mapllf
Marine Science, Townsville, Australia.
11990)*.
North Ryde, Australia. Veron JEN (2000). Corals of the World. 3 vols. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia. Wilkinson CR, Cheshire AC (1988). Cross-shelf variations
in
coral reef structure and function - influences of land and
ocean. Proc 6th
Int
Coral Reef S,
1:
1
:
227-233.
Ming CL (eds) (1994). Proceedings,
Third ASEAN-Australia
Resources. Volume
Symp
Symposium on
Living
Coastal
Status Reviews. Australian Institute of
Marine Science, Townsville, Australia.
DMcB, Hatcher Al (1983). Structure of fish communities on outer slopes of inshore, mid-shelf and outer shelf reefs of the Great Barrier Reef. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 10:
Williams
239-250.
(1990)*.
Coral features are taken as arcs from Petroconsultants
Veron JEN (1986). Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. University of Hawaii Press. 1993 edn, Angus and Robertson,
Wilkinson CR, Sudara
SA
Ninio R,
A, Tomkins P (1998). Osborne K, Oxley W, Ryan D, Long-Term Monitoring of the Great Barrier Reef. Australian Institute of
d and e
For the Great Barrier Reef, coral reef areas were generously
are taken from Petroconsultants
Marine Science, Townsville, Australia.
Sweatman
SA
(19901'.
Publishing Pty Ltd, Bathurst, Australia.
*
See Technical notes, page 401
SA
Melanesia
Chapter 12 Melanesia
occupies Melanesia southwestern
a
wide swathe
of the
Pacific Ocean, stretching
from
New
Guinea
the east. This
Is
In
the west to
a region
Fiji
in
dominated by
high Islands, with considerable ongoing volcanic activity
In
the west.
A broad range
of reef
types
are found, though atolls are generally not as wide-
and reaching the nearby Bismarck Archipelago some 30 000 years ago.
now
are
Fiji,
The utilized
a
dine
east. This trend
is
high right across Melanesia, though
of is
diminishing diversity towards the
hidden
in
many
national statistics by
an almost reversed trend of l .>-nV^-.-^=
-
< \
rough A -irough
SJ v-
'
IslandRi^,
slarfolt
<
s S
*« >)
>
*%
r .
'-f
'
13
=
J
a:
''^'^: to
•iv
>,
-^ a;
O •
'
^
tn
§
^-^
\
Melanesia
Papua New Guinea MAP 12a
New Guinea one of the worlds major coral Papua reef nations, with a vast area of The area is
reefs.
is
13
total
probably considerably larger than the figure of
840 square kilometers provided here, as many reefs
remain unmapped
in
the present
Lying on the
work.
eastern edge of the great center of coral reef biodiversity in
Southeast Asia, there
is
every indication that this
country enjoys remarkably high levels of biodiversity. has suffered very
in
little
It
terms of human impacts and
the Fly River. Further north the mainland
number of places and more than
are further at the
the island
eastern half of large
number of
smaller islands. To the west the country shares a land border
with Irian Jaya (West Papua). Indonesia. To the north of the mainland, the
Pacific
Ocean becomes enclosed
as
Bismarck Sea, bounded by the Bismarck Archipelago north and
New
Britain to the east. East of
the mainland coast lies the
Solomon
New
the
to the
Britain and
Sea, further
as the Highlands, reaching
(Mount Wilhelm). There
the highest point
at
mountains along much of the north coast, divided
mouth of the Sepik
show considerable
relief
activity
resources.
divided by the
over 3 000 meters in a
4 500 meters
management and conservation of
its
is
known
islands to the north
New Guinea consists of the of New Guinea together with a
Guinea. In
long range of mountains
there are great opportunities for continued sustainable
Papua
New
kilometers of the southern coast of Papua
the southwest there are extensive coastal lowlands around
where the
tectonic plates
River.
The offshore
The northern
lie in
all
the
a region of important tectonic
large Pacific, Australia
come
islands also
coastline and
together, separated
by
and Caroline a
complex of
microplates underlying the Bismarck and Solomon Seas.
Papua
New
Guinea has a vast area of coral
reefs,
including fringing, barrier and atoll formations, but there is little
information for
likely that there
possibly
may
unknown
much of the country and it seems be large areas of unmapped and
still
reefs.
bounded
by Bougainville Island in the east and the Louisiade Archipelago
Papua and the Torres
is
Mainland reefs
South of the mainland and the
in the south.
Louisiade Archipelago
the Coral Sea, with the
Strait to the west.
Torres Strait are Australian, but
The Calvados Barrier Reef
Is
come
The
Gulf of
islands of the
to within just a
few
The north
coast, pailicularly in the west,
however there are fringing
reefs in
many
is
little
known,
areas, including
around the nearshore chain of the Schouten Islands. East of
a spectacular structure, here encircling Sudest Island ISTS065-92-50.
199il.
32s
MAP
12a
Melanesia
the Sepik
and
Ramu
river
mouths fringing
reefs continue,
widespread and include fringing systems as well as
often in long unbroken stretches up to the easternmost point
platform and atoll
of East Cape, while in places barrier reefs run further
available about these. Equally
offshore, notably around
Madang where
associated offshore islands.
is
has been estimated
It
over half of this coastline
all.
there are about 50
may have
a major break in the fringing reef around
Gulf, where the
Markham is
Lae
in the
Huon
River delivers an estimated 10
million tons of sediment per year. reef development
that, in
fringing reefs. There
somewhat
Along
is
known about
reefs of Bougainville Island; a barrier reef 15 kilometers off the southwest coast
and there are other
number of small associated islets Around New Britain the shelf is mostly
off the east coast.
very narrow and, although there are fringing reefs, they
of the
and barrier structures, including around Kimbe Bay and the Gazelle Peninsula in the north.
forests, turbidity is east, coral reefs are
Southeast
sometimes termed the Papuan Barrier Reef as they run
Perhaps the most extensive reef systems
some distance
are those of
offshore, separated by a lagoon about 5
kilometers wide. The total length of this reef is
the
located about
barrier structures with a
widespread from Port Moresby eastwards. These are
kilometers, though this
is
are not continuous. There are also various offshore patch
restricted in the area
high and salinities are variable. Further
though few details are little
the southern coast,
Fly River Delta and the smaller river deltas to the east,
where there are extensive mangrove
structures,
is
some 560
broken by a number of channels.
is
in
the country
Milne Bay Province. The continental shelf
broad and scattered with numerous platform
some with
associated
their
islands
(both
reefs,
volcanic and
calcareous) between the mainland and the Trobriand Islands to
Northern islands and reefs
the north. These islands are relatively flat limestone
The same shelf continues southwards
structures.
to
the
To
the north of the mainland, the westernmost islands of
volcanic D'Entrecasteaux Islands. East of theTrobriands are
the
Bismarck chain include a number of coralline islands
several islands and reefs, including
surrounded by fringing
reefs,
and also
a
number of atolls,
including the large Ninigo Atoll, Liot, Heina and Kaniet (Sae) Islands.
The Hermit group
is
a near-atoll, with two
high basaltic islands in the center of these
lie
Manus and
its
lagoon. East of
the Admiralty Islands, dominated by the volcanic
Island, but including a
atoll
formations. The
Lavongai (New Hanover) and
number of smaller
large
New
volcanic Ireland
lie
Many
of
Papua
New Guinea s
barrier reef systems,
and Budibudi Atoll
in the far east.
A
long chain of reefs and islands extends southwest from the tip
of Papua
reefs.
New Guinea and here there is a vast complex of
The most
significant
is
the Calvados Barrier Reef,
of
continental shelf, right around the tip of Sudest Island to
islands
further east,
fringing reefs
Atoll, the large
extending as a long arm along the southern edge of the
Matthias group, Tabar and Lihir Islands. Reefs are
Left:
Egum
Island with associated fringe and near-
islands
with other smaller high ones to the north, including the St.
Muyua (Woodlark)
follow the northern edge of the shelf, a total distance of
some 640
kilometers. This system encircles
many
other
lagoonal platform reefs and fringing reefs around islands.
remain unexplored. Wfiere the reef flat
feature on any maps. Right: Reef scene dominated by Porites lichen.
is
narrow
tfiey often
do not
327
328
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
percent in
many
areas. Coral bleaching has
on a few occasions, with the extensive bleaching
location in
at a
been observed
earliest report describing
Kimbe Bay
in 1983.
This led to close to 100 percent mortality, although there
was
a near complete recovery within 10 years. In 1996-97,
bleaching was observed in a number of locations, and was reported to have led to mortalities approaching 80 percent
around Motopure Island
in
Kimbe
Bay over
Bay. In Milne
50 percent of corals were reported to have bleached
in
one
study in June 1996, however recovery was good. Bleaching
was
also observed at a
number of locations
in
2000.
Socio-economic considerations The most widespread use of Guinea
is
New
Papua
coral reefs in
for subsistence fisheries.
However, few
settle-
ments are wholly dependent on fish resources, as fishing generally second to agriculture for food and income. also surrounded by a
The nearby high
island of Rossel
large barrier reef
some 200 kilometers
is
in
circumference.
addition to the reefs described above, quite a
In
number of other systems
even more remote from the
lie
high islands. There are several atolls far off the continental shelf in the Pacific Ocean, including Lyra.
New
Nuguria east from east
Malum and Nukumanu
Ireland and Takuu and
from Bougainville. The remote reefs of the northern
Coral Sea visited
fall
dominant commercial offshore fishery conducted by foreign vessels under
New
Guinea.
green
snail, pearl shell
of Papua
reefs
explored the late
New Guinea
only just being
are
1990s revealed extremely diverse communities,
many
including
hitherto undescribed species.
survey of multiple
some 869
sites in the
Milne Bay area revealed
corals.
When combined
with the limited
records from previous surveys these totals
from
with
1
039 fishes and
this region
alone.
a predicted
420
While there are
become even
Direct pollution from
human
settlements
New
Guinea
may
near future. The major
logging and mining. Logging
of Southeast Asia, and there
is
increased sedimentation will impact nearby nearshore reefs.
Mining, notably for copper, gold and industry, still
and
in the late
1
the reefs to the north are
structures,
weak. Deliberate or accidental discharge of mine
tailings into rivers or directly offshore has
lems
in a
number of
locations, both
while complex
in the
caused prob-
by smothering corals
tailings into the
damage reefs.
Ok
tailings prior to its
The Ok Tedi mine
Tedi and Fly Rivers, causing massive
to inland forests
and possibly affecting offshore
The Misima gold mine
in
Milne Bay was reported to
have caused extensive destruction on nearshore reefs, and there are similar mines at
new
mainland and offshore
volcanic slopes where true reef structures have yet to
its
southwest has released tens of millions of tons of
and diverse reef communities have also developed on
many
other localities on the
islands.
Natural factors also affect the status of reefs
form. Similarly coral cover, and the doininant species or
groups, are highly varied, from low diversity, low coral
New
cover locations, notably close to areas of high sediment
considerable implications for the reefs.
loads, to diverse coral slopes with coral cover reaching 100
been severely damaged by volcanic and seismic
Traditional fishing
major
Bougainville was reported to have smothered some 100
community. Reefs include a complete
range of geomorphological
silver, is a
990s environmental controls were
and from toxic impacts. The Panguana copper mine on
of course, not possible to describe anything
like a typical reef
much
a considerable threat that
with
centers of diversity and endemism. With such a variety is,
commeroccurring
coral species
affinities
closely linked to the Indonesian and Philippine
it
is
over large areas, although not on the same scale as in
closure in 1989 as a result of civil war.
of reefs
limited to
is
significantly impact the reefs of
in the
square kilometers of sea floor with
still
live fish
areas close to major towns. Unfortunately there are various
Milne Bay and by implication thus
The
are reported to be reduced in the
Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea faunas, the reefs of all
fish.
particularly around urban centers.
recent
reef and nearshore fishes, 637 molluscs and
362 scleractinian
larger,
A
com-
northwest. There have also been reports of blast fishing,
cial industries are
terms of their biodiversity, and studies in
in
and some reef
numbers of large reef fish
Papua
The
largely
trade has been operating in a few areas since 1991, and
other threats which
Biodiversity
tuna,
license. Inshore
mercial fisheries include lobster, sea cucumber, trochus,
under Australian jurisdiction, but a few are
by dive vessels operating from Papua
is
is
The
methods predominate over wide areas
Guinea. The country
of Melanesia.
lies
within the cyclone
A
in
Papua
belt,
with
few have also activity. In
Melanesia
Protected areas with coral reefs ^^^^|^^H[)esignation _^^^^^L
name
f
lUCN
Abbreviation
Size
cat.
Ikm^l
Year
Papua New Guinea Bagial
Wildlife
Management Area
Baniara Island
Wildlife
Management Area
Wildlife
Management Area
Crown
Island
Horseshoe Reef
Marine Park
Kamiali
Wildlife
Kimbe Bay
Fisheries
Management Area
Long Island
Wildlife
Management Area
Maza
Wildlife
Management Area
Nanuk
Wildlife
Management Area
Pirung
Wildlife
Management Area
Sawataetae
Wildlife
Management Area
Simbine Coast
Wildlife
Management Area
Sinub Island
Wildlife
Management Area
Talele Islands
Provincial Park
(tidal
25 kilometer section of coastline
waves) on record in the
country, with devastating effects on coastal villages.
impact on fringing reefs
activity, dive
in the area is
whole
as a
tourism
is
The
MP
Unassigned
WMA
VI
FMA
WMA WMA
a relatively small-scale
is
growing
fairly rapidly
1977
0.15
1975
59.69
1977
3.96
1981
474.13
1996
VI
0.02
1999
VI
419.22
1977
842.30
1978
IV
0.12
1973
VI
58.50
1985
VI
442.40
1989
VI
7.00
1977
VI
0.72
2000
VI
0.12
2000
IV
0,40
1973
VI
WMA WMA WMA WMA WMA
137.60
1
Coral reef research has been somewhat limited
in this
country. Conservation International has been undertaking a
number of research expeditions
Bay
unknown.
VI
PP
hit
north of the
VI
PR
Ndrolowa
While tourism
Unassigned
Provincial Park
Island
1998 one of the largest Isimamis a
Management Area
WMA WMA WMA
to the reefs in the
Milne
region, while there are also research facilities
Motupore Island near Port Moresby and
in
Kimbe
Bay.
because
of the spectacular and unspoiled nature of so many of the
Papua New Guinea
There are now a number of operators, particularly
reefs.
associated with "live-aboard" vessels.
A
number of protected
areas covering coral reefs
have been declared, but the majority of these are simply
marine extensions of
terrestrial sites,
with
little
or no real
provisions for marine protection. Even where they exist, there
is
or no local knowledge or application of
little
regulations. In
ownership style
in
many ways, because of traditional
almost
all
areas, the application
national parks and reserves
may
uses and
of Western-
not be entirely
appropriate in this country. Recognizing this, a
number of
General Data Population (thousands)
GDP
(million
U5$l
Land area (km^l Marine area (thousand km^l Per capita
fish
4 927 4 730
467 498 2
consumption (kg/year)
366 14
Status and Threats Reefs
46
at risk 1%)
Recorded coral diseases
community-run wildlife management areas have been developed. In 2000, the most effective of these included a
number of
sites
which were
establishment, such as Sinub
still
awaiting
Island in
full
legal
Madang Lagoon,
Biodiversity
Reef area (km^l Coral diversity
Simbine Coast (125 kilometers northwest of Madang)
Mangrove area (km^)
and Kimbe Bay. Elsewhere, traditional fisheries combined
No. of mangrove species
with relatively low coastal populations spare wide areas of
No. of seagrass species
reefs
from immediate
threat.
13 840
378/517 5
399
44 7
on
329
330
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Solomon Islands MAP 12b
Solomon
The
900 islands
Islands consist of over
widely distributed
Western Pacific. The bulk
in the
of the land area comprises seven large volcanic islands
which form a double chain running from northwest
to southeast
Cristobal).
and converging on the island of Makira (San
The Santa Cruz Islands
are a second group of
three larger volcanic islands lying to the east;
Ndeno,
Utupua and Vanikolo together with smaller
islands,
including
Reef Islands and
the
addition to these there are several
Ontong Java
reefs.
kilometers
a large atoll of
nearby there
is
atoll (there is a
1
Roncador
About 200
volcano of Kavachi, south of
New
one of the most active volcanoes
new
created several recently in
is still
on
locations, notably
May
islands
in
Georgia. The latter in the
the
last
is
region and has century,
most
2000.
Coral reefs are widespread throughout the country.
A
number of
atolls
have already been mentioned, and
numerous around most of
are not
the islands.
marked on maps, such
as
around
Guadalcanal, there are narrow, steeply shelving fringing structures. Barrier reefs are less developed, although there
are barrier
New
complexes with associated islands around
A
Sikaiana Atoll (Stewart
Georgia and northeast Choiseul and around Utupua.
number of small
islands around a near-
complex system occurs around the Reef Islands, including
main
island chain are
two raised
atolls,
with no associated islands - the Indispensable Reefs. The far eastern borders
of this island nation are determined by
the three small islands of Anuta, Fatutaka
The Solomon
Islands
lie
and Tikopia.
on the western margin of the
A sunset wrasse Thalassoma coral.
number of
is
Bellona and Rennell, with fringing reefs around their
massive
are of volcanic origin. There
Santa Cruz Islands and on the submarine
Even where they
perimeter. South of these are three large atoll structures
Left:
in the
500 square
45 meter high remnant of the volcano). To
the south of the
Tinakula
fringing reefs are
a smaller atoll,
islands.
all
islands and
of Santa
kilometers northeast of Malaita Islands), with a
some
In
north
which has no associated
Reef,
Islands.
more remote
over 250 kilometers
lying
Isabel, while
is
Duff
the
Pacific plate and
volcanic activity in a
the 25 kilometer Great
main
Reef extending westwards from the
island group. Other shallow platform reefs are found
north of the Reef Islands.
Very
little
is
the reefs of the
currently
known about
Solomon
Islands,
location and the relatively low levels of
many
biodiversity on
however given
their
human impact
areas, they are likely to include highly diverse
important reef communities.
A
in
and
recent survey of the fish
lutescens takes shelter under a plate Acropora. Right: A feather star with a
MAP 12b
332
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
communities
in
Santa Cruz Islands identified 725
tlie
Some of
species (including non-reef species). detailed data describing the
most
the
of the region were
reefs
gathered during a 1965 Royal Society expedition which visited a large
number of the western
islands. Overall this
marine tenure
widely held and
is
traditional
leaders,
kastom men, or even the villagers
usually for a restricted period of time.
some
protection
developed, and listed only 87 species of scleractinian
as around
were
house the
spirits
following
strict protocols.
But
misplaced:
it
would appear
made of scuba
use was
little
that these observations
has been further suggested that the reefs
diving, and
may have been
impacted by some form of mass mortality just prior the expedition. Coral bleaching
range of localities
2000,
in
was reported from
at the
bleaching event recorded in
it
same time
a
as the
to
wide
major
These include obser-
Fiji.
vations from the high islands in the west, but also from
Ontong Java
There
Atoll.
is
no information about the
degree of associated mortality.
The
coral
wide areas
still
reefs
of the
largely
Solomon
Islands
include
activities,
although there are also areas where such pressures are large
and growing. The islands have one of the
population growth rates the people are rural.
in the world,
Dependence on
and
more populous areas in certain parts,
Malaita.
many of
this
is
fastest
and 86 percent of
coral reefs for protein
remains high and subsistence fishing the
is
widespread. In
leading to overfishing
such as the Lau Lagoon off north
provided
in
Onogou (Ramos)
More complete
areas by other beliefs, such
which
Island,
is
believed to
of the dead and can only be visited after
Commercial fishing has probably had more
far-
reaching effects across the islands, notably for selected target species. In
1999 the export of trochus and related
snails brought in over
US$1
million, with sea cucumbers,
shark fins, live fish and spiny lobster also bringing
are already overfished
peaked
many
areas.
and
A
their
numbers
are declining
significant giant clam fishery
1983, but overharvesting has depleted these
in
stocks in
in
amounts. Both trochus and sea cucumbers
substantial
all
areas, exacerbated
foreign vessels.
by
illegal
poaching by
(A Taiwanese vessel was captured on
the Indispensable Reefs in
1986 with 10 tons of frozen
adductor muscles on board, representing
many
thousands of individual clams.) There
some concern
is
tens of
that as these different fisheries collapse exploitation
of
other stocks, such as those used in the live fish trade, will increase.
the preferred edible species have been
Fishing methods can also be destructive, whether
lost.
is
rapidly in
unimpacted by human
"owned"
rights. Christian
themselves regularly place taboos on particular reefs,
expedition concluded that coral reef growth was not well
coral.
reefs are
all
by particular groups who have fishing
Efforts to establish giant
clam mariculture have been
ongoing for about ten years. While
this has
been
inter-
trampling and damaging the reefs with nets, or poison
rupted by violence on Guadalcanal, a smaller operation
fishing including traditional methods that
continues near Ghizo. Pearl exports have traditionally
plant
species
to
use coastal
provide the poison. This poison
unselective, killing a
is
number of non-targeted species and
management systems
erable importance in the
Solomon
East Rennell, a World Heritage 244-94, 1994].
the
export of wild-caught stocks prohibited there are
now ongoing
reportedly damaging corals. Traditional
been an important industry in the Solomons, and with
efforts to establish a
farm near Ghizo. The
still
of consid-
aquarium trade has been increasing
Islands, as
customary
much of
Site, is
are
an uplifted
atoll,
it
around Nggela
with the brackish Lake Tegano
relatively
rapidly,
in the Florida Islands,
filling
where
the former lagoon ISTS068-
Melanesia
Protected areas wi th coral reefs I
Site
name
lUCN
Abbreviation
Designation
^^^^
Size
cat.
Year
Ikmil
Solomon Islands Arnavon
Marine Conservation Area
East Rennell
World Heritage
there have been reports of extensive damage. Coral pieces
damaging methods such
are broken off for collection,
as cyanide are used to capture reef fish,
trampled during capture, resulting
One unusual Solomon
Islands
in coral
and reefs are
the use of lime in the habit fruits
The lime
in
an
was revived and
some
was declared
Major users may consume 20
areas, such as the lagoon reefs
One
Malaita, these corals are highly depleted.
of
estimate sug-
a
is
the
Arnavon
1975 there
First established in
1992
in
community-based management
a
World Heritage
aries extending
third of Rennell Island
Site in 1998, with
bound-
seawards for 3 nautical miles.
The current
prepared by burning branching
is
kilos of lime per year (derived from over 30 kilos of live in
marine conservation area.
committee established. The eastern
corals (typically Acropora).
and
The most successful marine protected area
comes from
taken from the
na
1998
confusion to rapidly deplete the surrounding reef resources.
the site
latter are
82.70
370.00
have been a number of disputes and problems, but
breakage.
of a palm and are chewed with a pepper leaf and lime
coral),
VI
but highly significant threat to reefs in the
of chewing betel nuts. The
addictive habit.
MarCA
Site
civil
unrest in the
Solomon
Islands
is
largely confined to the island of Guadalcanal, but general is
causing considerable disruption, not only
small
tourism industry, but also to development
instability to
the
activities,
including mariculture. In particular the closure of
gested that about 6 million kilos of lime are used per year,
the Coastal Aquaculture Centre near Honiara in late 1999
derived from 10 million kilos of live coral, making this one
has set back aquaculture research considerably, although
of the largest single threats to reefs
some ongoing
country. There are
in the
efforts to establish coral gardens
which might
some of
its
activities
have been transferred
A new
to a
work has relocated
center near Ghizo. while other
second to
New
of Marine Resources run by the
be harvested sustainably, and some communities report that
Caledonia.
they utilize coral patches on a rotation system.
University of the South Pacific has also been abandoned.
Institute
Although many of the Solomon Islands remain forested, logging
few efforts
to
is
ongoing
have been no studies will be impacted in
seems highly
it
some
areas and there are
likely that coral reefs
areas. Particular
been expressed about logging
Vangunu and
many
in
control sediment runoff Although there
activities
the potential impact
on the Marovo Lagoon.
Previously selectively logged areas
on
this island are
now
being clear-felled and converted to oil-palm plantations,
and there
concern that the conversion process
is
may
produce even higher levels of sedimentation, and that sub-
There
no sewage treatment
is
Solomon
Islands.
in
any of the urban
As populations grow
will increasingly threaten the health of both reefs.
1
General Data Population (thousands)
GDP
(million
this
humans and
/i66
22i
US$1
Land area (km^)
27 740
Marine area (thousand km^l Per capita
sequent fertilizer use could create ongoing problems.
centers in the
Solomon stands
concern has
on the island of
fish
1
consumption [kg/yearl
630 33
Status and Threats 46
Reefs at risk (%l
Recorded coral diseases
Tourism has never been a major industry, although
there are various hotels and "live-aboards" divers.
The establishment of
areas in the
Solomon
tomary tenure of
Islands
all reefs.
A
which cater for
legally gazetted protected is
complicated by the cus-
number of
island sanctuaries
Biodiversity
Reef area (km^l Coral diversity
Mangrove area [km^l
have recently been repealed. As negotiations on the owner-
No. of mangrove species
ship of at least one of these have been ongoing, there
No. of seagrass species
is
evidence that a number of villages have been using the
5
101
750
/398 642 22 3
334
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
New Caledonia MAP 12C
The
New
Archipelago of
by the large land
Caledonia
mass of Grande
largest island in the Pacific (after
New
Zealand).
It is
dominated
is
Terre, the third
New
from Australia some 65 million years ago. and has
mountainous
interior rising to
The shallow shelf on which siderable
distance
to
the
continental lies Belep and a
down
to the lie
which these islands
1
a
600 meters.
the island sits extends a con-
largest barrier reef, over
1
and
rimmed by
the
300 kilometers
worlds second in length.
There
In a
few locations
to the
Grand Recif de Koumac and the
Recif des Frangais, a deep lagoon has developed within the single structure of the outer barrier reef rare double barrier structure.
the mainland there are
fringing reefs are also
to a charmel, the
a group of reefs
flat,
forming a
many platform structures, while widespread in many areas. To the
A
Grand Passage. Beyond
known
Mare
is
in the
the low-lying chain of
south has some volcanic
composed primarily of uplifted
rocks, while the others are
limestone. Fringing reefs encircle most of
Ouvea
Mare and and
to the north is a partially uplifted
northwest
this there is
as the D'Entrecasteaux Reefs,
reef slope showing high coral cover, with a
map
is
its
in considerable
Lying
Lifou.
tilted atoll
eastern (uplifted) coastline,
the small atoll of
then a small group of reefs
Moving
Beautemps-Beaupre and
known
as the Astrolabe Reefs.
isolation to the northwest of the
Loyalty Islands and to the east of the D'Entrecasteaux
Reefs
is
another significant reef structure, the Petrie Reef
Far to the east of the Loyalty Islands are the two small islands
of Matthew and Hunter. Geographically these
are a part of the Vanuatu chain, but they are claimed by
both countries.
Over 550 kilometers west of Grande Terre are two very
Between the barrier reef and
northwest the barrier reef continues beyond the lies Belep
up
Grande Terre
but with a wide reef-fringed lagoon to the west.
mouths on the mainland.
north, notably along the
east of
with fringing reefs along
islands
are quite regular passes in the reef, largely associated with river
Due
the Loyalty Islands.
number of smaller
des Pins. The shallow platform on
lie is
and a number of
northwest, and includes the
To the southeast the shelf con-
coral cays further north. tinues
more than
Atoll, Surprise Atoll
smaller atoll and barrier-like structures.
Guinea and
of continental origin, having diverged
Huon
including
large shallow reef areas.
The Chesterfield
cays along the penmeter of a large
Islands are coral
atoll.
with a very steep outer slope marks
A
its
shallow reef northern and
western margins, while to the southeast there atoll
is
no clear
margin, but a gentle slope to considerable depths. To
puffer Arothron mappa.
MAP12C
336
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
the south, Bellona Atoll again has a
and
a
few coral
Between the
number of shallow
islands, notably along
the Chesterfield Plateau
wide Landsdowne Bank, which
70-80 meters in the north.
To the southeast of
and Grande Terre
is
mostly sandy and
is
Nereus Reef
this area the
to the surface
reefs
western perimeter.
in depth, but includes the small
Reef also comes close
A number
its
and dries
at
exist: lie
tide.
de Sable.
However, there may be shallow banks and submerged reefs in this region,
undescribed. Thus far about
950
known and
fish species
have been
sponges and 300 corals. Around
5 percent
of species are
thought to be endemic.
Grande Terre contains about 40 percent of the world's
known
nickel deposits. Held in the sub-surface rocks of
the high
mountain areas
it
is
extracted using open-cut
techniques involving the removal of about a 30 meter
depth of surface
dug
which remains poorly charted.
1
recorded, about 5 500 molluscs, 5 000 crustaceans, 600
Fairway
low
of maps show a large island to the northwest of
Nereus Reef which does not actually
large archipelago nonetheless remain poorly
soil
and rock. Over 300 mines have been
in the past century,
removing 280 million tons of
somewhat seasonal, warm from
surface rock for the extraction of a further 110 million
November to April when it is dominated by frontal systems and when cyclones may occur, followed by a cooler season from June to September when southeast trade
tons of ore. Sedimentation from these mines has been
winds predominate.
the
The climate
The
is
location of
New
Caledonia relatively close
global center of coral reef diversity, large area
Unlike
and variety of
many
to the
considerable
in
many streams and estuaries, and has some nearshore waters. In
greatly increased turbidity in
Ouenghi Basin north of Noumea
extended by 300-400 meters along a
3
the delta area has
kilometer stretch of
combined with the
coastline as a result of this sedimentation over the last
very high diversity.
30 years.
reefs, ensures
other reefs in the region these have been the
subject of considerable study, although
many
areas in this
Much of
the sediment flows out onto the east
coast in the Thio and Dothio Rivers. Controls reducing
sedimentation from
The world's second largest barrier reef encircles Grande Terre I5TS033-73-61,
19891.
new mines have been
in
place since
Melanesia
Protected areas with coral reefs
H
Site
^^^
name
New
Designation
_^^^H t
Abbreviation
lUCN
cat
—
Sjzelkmji
jiM
Caledonia Special Reserve
SpR
Bale de Bourail
Special Reserve
Aguille de Prony
IV
na
na
SpR
IV
na
na na
Humboldt
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
na
Les Bancs de Sech e-Croissant
Special Fauna Reserve
SpFR
IV
na
na
TlePam
Special Fauna Reserve
SpFR
IV
4.60
1966
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
na
na na
Amedee
Tlot
et
Rec
f
Abore
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
na
llot
Canard
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
na
na
Ilot
Casy
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
na
na
Tlot
Goeland
Special Fauna Reserve
SpFR
VI
na
na
Tlot Bailly
Tlot
Laregnere
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
na
na
Tlot
MaTtre
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
^.5i
1981
Tlot
Signal
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
na
na
Tlot
Tenia
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
na
na
Tlot
Vert
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
na
na
Poe
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
na
na
Pointe Kuendu
Special Reserve
SpR
IV
na
na
Tournante de Marine Faune
Special Marine Reserve
Yves Merlet
Integral Reserve
however the older abandoned mines
the 1970s,
tinue to release sediments for
many
some
to the protective nature
which holds sediments close Aside
355.70
la
167.00
1970
will con-
New
Caledonia
protection
from such impacts, but nearshore areas may suffer con-
owing
IV
IR
decades. The offshore
location of the majority of reefs provides
siderably
SpMR
1981
of the lagoon
General Data
from sedimentation, most of the human
(million
Land area Ikm^l Marine area (thousand km^l
town of Noumea where there
Per capita
problems of
2 987
US$1
pressures on the coral reefs are centered around the main are localized
202
Population Ithcusandsl
GDP
to shore.
fish
19
UO
1
7^0
consumption (kg/yearl
25
domestic pollution and some overfishing. Here and else-
where around the southeast there have been significant coastal modifications associated with urbanization
tourism developments. The tourism industry ularly important to
Noumea and
there are
and
is
partic-
many
hotels,
notably in the southeast but also along the west coast and in the
Loyalty Islands.
There
is
a
good network of marine protected areas
around the southeast of the region, and there are plans to
develop a similar network in the north. In addition
to these,
customary reserves and traditional fishing areas
are recognized.
Status and Threats Reefs
13
at risk (%l
Recorded coral diseases
1
Biodiversity 5 980
Reef area (km^) Coral diversity
Mangrove area (km^j
151
/359 456
No. of mangrove species
16
No. of seagrass species
8
337
338
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Vanuatu MAPS
I2d and e
ii^stisiKm
Vanuatu
represents the main bulk of an island chain
which continues
into the
Solomon
the eastern
Santa Cruz Islands of
Lying on the western
Islands.
margins of the Pacific plate, the islands are canic origin, and there
number of
Ambryn
activity in a
Anatom
the
Gemini Seamounts
and
May
and
eastern seamount in 1996.
Seamount, which surface,
rises
was reported
to
to
However
Gemini
The Matthew and Hunter
Islands,
in
to
least
at
Uma
in
part of the
1987 was one of to Efate
Southeast trade winds predominate between
and October
southwards. generally
the
In
central
islands
fringing
not continuous and reef flats can
reefs
are
be quite
narrow. Typically reefs are best developed on eastern and
northern coasts. The eastern coasts of Santo (Espiritu Santo) and Malakula both have wide fringing reefs and
about 30 meters below the
have considerable marine
damage
Fringing reefs encircle most of the islands from Efate
are another area
the western
its reefs.
uplift.
an area particularly prone to tropical
in
most devastating, causing considerable harm
the
active,
of volcanic activity - explosions were observed from the
lie
archipelago annually. Cyclone
notably off Epi and Erromango. About 100 kilometers
south of
islands
cyclones, which cause
in the
in the central islands,
Submarine volcanoes are also
in the south.
The
of vol-
Banks Islands
locations, including the
northeast, Lopevi and
Tanna
ongoing volcanic
is
all
carbonate structure which has undergone a slight
number of
a
life.
the far south of
esting
One
coral islands on their coastlines.
phenomenon
in relatively
inter-
recent times has been
New
the observation of significant tectonic uplifts, particularly
Caledonia. All of the islands are volcanic rock or uplifted
along the western coastlines of Malakula and Santo. Reefs
carbonate structures, or some combination of these. The
on the northwest coasts of both islands were uplifted by
northern islands form a double chain. Current volcanic
up
the island chain, are disputed between Vanuatu
activity
is
generally restricted to the eastern islands and
reef development
is
greatest in the western ones. Fringing
reefs predominate, though is
Cook
a small atoll-like structure with
is
the
most diverse
to 6
meters in 1965.
Detailed
undertaken
in
surveys of biodiversity have not been
most
areas, although
some 35
Reef, north of Efate,
were visited by divers from the Australian
no associated
Marine Sciences
The Reef Islands north of Vanua Lava
Acropora
and
islands.
are also part of a
coral genus, with
numerous forms
in
locations
Institute
of
1988. Typically the reef crests and
shallow reef areas are dominated by coralline algae and
including branching
and plate
corals.
MAP 12d 167°30'
166°45'
168°15'
,
,-»., la-is' Is.
Tones
13MS
Vot Tandi
I.
\ T
1
J" I.
Is.
Is.
Rowa(ReefIs.)/ ^3
lT«giia
I 1 I.
Mota Lava
Ol-Mota
\^
V
14°00'
Torres
)
Ur^arapara ,-—
I.
Grande Passe
Vanua Lava
i.
Is.
a
V
M'Off
A
Banks
* Passe
Lilas
Dumanoir I.
Santa Maria
Tf-
*t-—*•
«W-^,.
WOT
7^ 2
•iLTogaJ
L Santa Maria 2
°
4
6
km
LM^g
6 km
4
L
MM Lava
CapNaboI
r"
PACIFIC OCEAN
14"45'
14*45'
N CapQueiltis \
^
C^^l p
.
'BigBayj
VANUATU Lathi
V^.
L Thion
^^-.LUtho
LMa6vo
-J_ L Lataro >p LLataroa
L Espiritu Santo
"^^LNtovia I i.1,.1 LAcse iV President Coolidge
IS'Sff
Million Dollar Point
/ '^
,,
r CapMata'av6e
LAiald LUrflapa
~^
r
MR
Bucaro Aom RecR
Aore RecR
^l Malo ^aomebaravu-Malo R Detroit de Bougainville
-
and^
no. Tutuba
y^^.—Ai^^)'^ A
/ I-
Aoba
y
.^Z::.::^..:.:^.
—
„ Passage Patteson r~)
j.U
IS'Sff i
MAP I2e 170°00'
169°15'
\
LEpi ,..
I T6&la
•'Tk......L Laflta
L Tongoa
'
L Ewos^ .
Falia -,
I.
,
_
;
LNguna
^.
^
L Tongariki L Buninga
^^^vi"^*
Etoai L Makura (Makir)
O'
L Kakula ...7«;i« 17°15'
17°15' LMalaso-^
X
LEtarik
_/
Lfeftoka
Efati (Vat^)
r
I.
___*_
"
Pt
LEfiti (Vati)
PangoPt 18°00'
J
C/^'U^^ ,v 12
km
NarpowPt^^-**
-.-^^
WW
PACIFIC OCEAN
VANUATU
18°45'
19°30' I.
uroff
i7r2(r
I.
i7i"4ff
Mz-m
;i7r20'
Matthew I.
22'40'
Futuna
40
20
Hunter
60 km
L Anatom ^y^.^,^/ 10
20
30
40
20"15'
50 km 169°15'
170°00'
Melanesia
Protected areas with coral reefs name
Site
Designation
lUCN
Abbreviation
Size
cat.
Year
(km^i
Vanuatu Aore
Recreation Reserve
RecR
Unassigned
0.37
1984
Bucaro Aore
Recreation Reserve
RecR
Unassigned
0.20
1984
R
Unassigned
0.11
1984
MR
Unassigned
Naomebaravu
Malo
-
-
Reserve
President Coolidge and Million Dollar Point
Marine Reserve
robust plate and branching corals, particularly in exposed
predominance of massive and branching
locations, with a
number of reserves have been
not widespread, though a
established off Santo. For the most part however these
known
corals below a depth of 3-5 meters. Massive coral also
are not respected, or even
becomes predominant
The President Coolidge Reserve
more sheltered
in
embayments, with
some 469
locations. In all
soft corals in
fish species
295 scleractinian corals were observed during although the complete
list,
and
this survey,
particularly for the fish,
is
be far longer. Periodic crown-of-thorns starfish
likely to
outbreaks have been reported, and these combined with the impacts of cyclones and tectonic activity coral
live
mean
that
cover and physical state are quite variable
Vanuatu has a rapidly growing population. While a
live
number
on
of reef resources
tenure
constitution. ities
a
US
shipwreck sunk
a popular dive location for visitors.
is
At the
number of more
is
legally
live in the
two main towns, over 70 percent
their traditional lands
and remain heavily
reliant
recognized
the
in
effective
management measures
have been established, including harvesting restrictions
on particular stocks, and sometimes more comprehensive protection of the marine environment.
A
proposed
Bill currently
under consideration might provide an opportunity
to put
such areas under some form of legal protection as com-
munity conservancy
areas.
on subsistence from the land and ocean. Catch methods include in
gill netting,
more remote
bow and substantial
capture by hand and spear gun and,
areas, traditional techniques including
arrow,
spears,
Subsistence capture
is
amounts of
poisons.
is
also provided at the local
cucumbers, trochus. green
and aquarium
fish.
of Vanuatu
have remained heavily forested. However, there are increased logging activities in a
number of
General Data Population (thousands)
GDP
to the present time the larger islands
may be impacting
Vanuatu
shellfish (34 percent) and lobster
level through collection of sea snails, crustaceans
traditional
largely of fish, but also includes
(20 percent). Cash income
Up
and
traps
now
areas which
coral reefs through sediment runoff
Close to the main urban centers there are considerable concerns about pollution arising from sewage inputs,
(million
190
US$1
Land area (km^l
191
12 535
Marine area [thousand km^l Per capita
fish
680
consumption (kg/yearl
26
Status and Threats Reefs
70
at risk (%|
Recorded coral diseases
sediments and storm-water runoff, notably around Port Vila and the airport.
Away from
these areas concern has
Biodiversity
been expressed about the overharvesting of some non-
Reef area (km^l
motile reef species.
Coral diversity
Although
relatively restricted in terms
operates, tourism the
is
economy, and diving
among
visitors.
of where
it
an increasingly important sector of is
a
highly popular activity
Formal protection of reef resources
is
in
Customary
of villages and local commun-
level
Environmental and Resource Management
across the country.
large
1942)
about, by local people.
(a
29b
L.
110
1
219
Mangrove area (km^l
16
No. of mangrove species
15
No. of seagrass species
1
341
342
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
r~
Fiji MAP
I2f
40
is
a vast archipelago centered on two relatively
Fiji shallow the
geological features, the
Lau Ridge. Geologically,
Indo-Pacific plate close to plate,
Fiji
the area lies
The two
Levu, together with quite a number Fiji
This island has fringing reefs along but
much of its
coastline,
further dominated by a 95 kilometer long barrier its
southern and eastern coasts and
extending into the Great Astrolabe and North Astrolabe
geology and
of smaller ones,
is
reef rurming along
Reefs.
The
Levu and Vanua
largest islands of Viti
on the relatively shallow
on the
the boundary with the Pacific
an area of relatively complex
in
fracturing.
Platform and
km
lie
Platform. Fringing reefs
of the Yasawa group
line
in the
eastwards towards Vanua Levu by
west
Fiji's
is
continued
longest barrier
reef structure, the Great Sea Reef which runs along
200
surround most of Viti Levu, with the largest continuous
the shelf edge in a near continuous chain for over
fringing reef running for 100 kilometers along the Coral
kilometers, gradually converging towards the coastline of
Coast on
its
southern shore. Offshore from eastern Viti
Levu the Suva Barrier Reef follows to the island is
the shelf edge
up
of Ovalau. The northern coast of Viti Levu
dominated by a very complex array of platform reef
structures and intervening channels.
some
distance west of Viti Levu
known
as the
is a
Running northeast
at
string of high islands
Yasawa group, again with an associated
complex of fringing and patch
reefs.
These islands
lie
close to the edge of the Fiji Platform, and part of this
shelf-edge
is
capped by Ethel Reef, a 30 kilometer barrier
reef Immediately south of Viti Levu
Beqa, enclosed Reef.
to the south
Further south, the
separated from the
This broad view
Fiji
is
the island of
and west by the Beqa Barrier large
island
of Kadavu
is
Platform by the Kadavu Passage.
shows northern
Viti
Vanua Levu
at its
northeastern
between the two high islands
tip.
The Vatu
Ira
Channel
a tongue of deeper water,
is
by elongated barrier reef structures including Vanua Levu Barrier Reef along the eastern edge of this channel and up to the southern shore of Vanua Levu.
also fringed
the
Much of
the southern shores of
Vanua Levu are lined by
fringing reefs, while the northern edge similar
Out
to
complex of platform the
collectively
several atoll,
east
lies
a
marked by a
complex of islands and
atolls,
and also Budd Reef which
A group of reefs the
islets
located in
19881.
near-
is
a
its
lagoon.
on the outer edge of the Ringgold Islands
Nukusemanu and Heemskercq
Reefs, parts
Levu and western Vanua Levu, inctuding the complex platform reef structures
along the northern shores of both islands ISTS027-32-34,
reefs
termed the Ringgold Islands. These include
with a group of high
make up
is
reefs to that along Viti Levu.
MAP 12f
km Reef
Ra)
o
un
1
-f
(Ceva-i
9 6
Conway
3
S
344
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
of which are submerged but
may be considered
a near-
The Lau Islands make up the eastern edge of the group and
lie at
the top of the
southwest
Fiji
Lau Ridge, separated from
the southeast, Fiji claims the
Some of
further south carbonate islands predominate. There are a
but. given the overall extent
near-atolls throughout the chain.
The
Exploring Isles make up one of the largest structures
in
high island of Vanua Balavu, as
in
Minerva Reefs, although
of their ecology and biodiversity,
sively studied in terms
this group, including the
a small coral cay
the reefs of the country have been exten-
northern islands are high and of volcanic origin, but
number of atolls and
is
these are also claimed by Tonga.
by the Nanuku Channel. Most of the
the Fiji Platform
Conway Reef or Ceva-i-Ra
of some 200 by 50 meters on a platform reef Finally,
atoll or barrier-type structure.
of Fijian reefs, a vast pro-
portion remain poorly known. Species numbers are high,
from the location of these
as might be expected
relation to the Indo-Pacific center
reefs in
of diversity as well as
well as a long barrier reef running out to the east and
from the sheer variety of reef types. Most of the studies
Towards the center
have been undertaken close to the University of the South
enclosing a number of smaller islands.
of the group the Bukatatanoa Reefs are another massive
Pacific in
barrier reef complex. Lying considerably to the south of
is
Suva or on the Great Astrolabe Reef where there
an associated field study station.
Some 298
species
Islands are the smaller islands of
of scleractinian coral have been recorded, alongside over
Vatoa (a high limestone island with a barrier reef) and the
475 species of mollusc (including 253 nudibranchs and
the
main group of Lau
of Vuata Vatoa. Further south again
atoll
is a
complex of
four small reef systems including Oni-i-Lau, a small
the
is
Lau Islands and
Levu
is
a relatively enclosed sea
Viti
scattered in this area.
between
Levu. There are a few islands
The Lomaiviti group
east of Viti
mostly volcanic and has well developed fringing
and barrier structures. Further south, the Moala group
made up of
three high volcanic islands with
is
predom-
Far from the main islands of In
the
far
Fiji are
three other reef
northwest, the island of
volcanic and has wide fringing reefs.
Rotuma
is
A number of smaller
islands nearby also have fringing reef structures. In the far
Left:
the
198 species of fish have been recorded
these reefs
is
in the surface
led to
Reef.
total
of
algal flora of
known, and some 422 species have
been documented. Early
in
waters around
2000, a major warming event Fiji
and neighboring countries
between 50 and 100 percent of corals becoming
bleached over wide areas, and extending to depths of
30 meters.
Many
corals subsequently died, particularly in
The
rural people
of
Fiji
depend on coral
reefs for the
vast bulk of their protein, and subsistence catches from reefs are estimated at approximately
Although fishing with hand
Damselfish such as these humbugs Dascyllus aruanus often take shelter
Beqa Barrier
them reef-associated. The
also well
A
in Fiji's waters,
southern parts of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.
inantly fringing reefs around them.
areas.
1
the majority of
group of islands enclosed by a barrier reef
The Koro Sea
102 bivalves) and some 60 species of ascideans.
lines is
among branching
1
7
000 tons per
year.
most common, a vast
corals. Right: Part of
Melanesia
range of techniques are used including traps, fences, spears, gill nets,
hand nets and poisonous plants (notably
derris root).
Some
hookah
Gleaning
gear.
shellfish,
now
fishers
low
at
cucumbers,
sea
Customary marine tenure
tide is also important for
and octopus.
urchins
sea
of individual
level
at the
lages has controlled utilization of reefs in
many
vil-
areas, with
villages having rights of access to fishing areas ox qoliqolis.
Although such systems are
still
in place
on many
islands,
there are increasing problems of overexploitation.
000 tons
many
annual fish catch. In
now
have
target stocks is
to the
areas
may
urban centers,
1
Land area Ikm^l Marine area (thousand km^l Per capita
fish
217 33
Reefs at risk (%)
68
Recorded coral diseases
play a role. Stocks of
1
Biodiversity 10 020
Reef area (km^l
177/398
bump-headed parrotfish Bolhomeiopon municciium has
Mangrove area Ikm^j
Kadavu
or
may have been
similar manner,
1
consumption (kg/year)
Coral diversity
ten years and
602
19 379
emperors, mullets and trevally have declined, while the
not been caught in Lau,
832
Population Ithousandsl
GDPImillion U5$l
declined considerably and this
largely linked to overfishing, although pollution, par-
ticularly near
General Data
Status and Threats
Nearshore commercial fisheries probably contribute a further 6
Fiji
and
also utilize scuba
Vanua Levu
locally
for at least
extirpated.
In
a
385
No. of mangrove species
9
No. of seagrass species
5
of bivalves has long been
collection
popular as a food source and led to the extermination of the giant clam Tridaciw gigas. which was last recorded
degree, particularly
over 50 years ago. Other clam species, including the
setting aside (using taboos) of certain areas such as those
in
the outer islands, and includes the
(only
which become overfished. Traditional fishing areas have
are also reported to have
been mapped by the national government. Customary
declined significantly. Black-lip pearl oysters, trochus and
fishing rights have hindered the formal establishment of
relatively
the
main
Fiji
and Tonga)
target species of sea
reduced
greatly
discovered
recently
recorded from
collected. Fiji
in
recent
Tridacna
tevoroa
cucumber have
years,
but
continue
and there
for aquaria in the Pacific,
is
be
underway
addition
to
centers,
in
a
number of
incorporate sub-littoral elements. Despite
places,
this, a
none
number
of tourist resorts have established small private sanc-
in
tuaries through agreements with
seaweed farming.
to establish
urban
company Hong Kong.
marine protected areas and, while existing protected areas extend to the shoreline
also a
exporting live fish for the food trade
In
to
the major exporter of live coral and fish
is
Efforts are also
also been
land-based
other
holders. Similarly,
being established
customary fishing rights
community-based marine reserves are in a
few areas, with the support of the
reefs in Fiji include
government, non-governmental organizations and local
runoff from
communities. These, together with the wider recognition of
mines, agriculture, sugar and timber mills, poorly planned
customary marine tenure, increasing environmental edu-
activities
which threaten or degrade
mangrove clearance
development and solid waste disposal. Although
tourist
there
for land reclamation,
some sewage treatment
is
this is often inadequate,
visual
urban areas
in the larger
while solid waste
is
not only a
problem but may be a health hazard
humans and
to
cation and the establishment of reef monitoring,
much larger and medium term.
suffice to protect
the short
areas of
Fiji's
may
both
coastal species. Industrial pollution (mainly
eutrophication, although there have been recent oil spills in the harbor)
Viti
is
a particular
Levu and Vanua Levu
problem close
intensive
to Suva.
On
commercial farming
on steep slopes has led to considerable
soil
erosion.
Similar problems of sedimentation have been observed in
some of result
the
more remote and uninhabited
islands as a
of overgrazing by goats.
Traditional
management of
reefs
has led to their
sustamable use throughout the archipelago for thousands
of years. Although the ownership of the seabed now resides with the
state, the
customary fishing rights of indigenous
Fijians remain, under the Fisheries Act of
management of
1
942. Traditional
reefs by the villages continues to
Traditional society
some
and customary marine tenure may have an important
role to play in the protection of
well
coral reefs in
Fiji's
reefs.
345
3A6
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Selected bibliography PAPUA NEW GUINEA Halstead
Rock T
B,
119991. Diving
VANUATU
and Snorkelling Papua New
Done
Navin KF 119901. Vanuatu Marine Resources: Report of a Biological Survey Australian Institute of Marine Science,
Guinea. Lonely Planet Publications. Melbourne, Australia.
BW
The position of northern New Guinea in marine benthic diversity: a reef coral perspective. Proc 7th Int Coral Reef Symp 2: 710-717. Huber ME I199iil. An assessment of tfie status of the coral reefs of Papua New Guinea Mar Poll Bui 29: 69-73. Maniwave T, Sweatman H. Marsfiall P. Munday P, Rei V 120001.
Hoeksema
119921.
center
the
of
Status of coral reefs of Australia and Papua
Wilkinson
OR
Australian
ledl.
Status of Coral Reefs of
Institute
of
New tfie
Guinea.
In:
Guinea.
JM
119921.
Guinea and 7tfi
Int
its
South
R,
International
fish
resources
Wilkinson C ledsl.
Reef
Coral
Initiative
Regional Symposium, Noumea, 22-2A May 2000.
South GR, Skelton PA 120001. Status of coral reefs in the southwest Pacific: Fiji, Nauru, New Caledonia, Samoa,
Solomon
World: 2000.
Islands, Tuvalu
and Vanuatu.
Wilkinson
In:
CR
led).
of Marine Science, Cape Ferguson, Australia. Zann LP. Vuki V 120001. The south western Pacific Islands region. In: Sheppard C ledl. Seas at the Millennium:
of
Reefs of Papua
Marine Science,
Cape
An Environmental
A review
Symp
of
the tectonic history of
2:
New
Evaluation. Elsevier Science Ltd, Oxford,
UK.
718-728.
FIJI
marine invertebrates
research and conservation priorities.
to establish
Reaka-Kudla ML, II: Understanding and Protecting our Biological Resources. Joseph Henry Press, Washington DC. USA. Werner TB, Allen GR ledsl 119981. RAP Working Papers. 11: A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Coral Reefs of Wilson DE, Wilson EG
/vlilne
the
of
B,
New
Institute
119971. Using
In:
ledsl. Biodiversity
Bay Province, Papua
International,
Salvat
In:
significance for marine biogeography. Proc
Coral Reef
Thomas JD
and
J 120001. Status of coral reef
Proceedings
Ferguson, Australia. Pandolfi
W, Aston Vanuatu.
of
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. Australian Institute
ledl 120001. Tfie Status of Coral
Australian
Townsville, Australia Naviti
Marine Science, Cape Ferguson.
Australia.
Munday PL
TJ,
New
Guinea.
Conservation
A
The Islands and coral reefs of Fiji, Bull Mus Camp Zoo( 33 - 67 and 20 plates. Ferry J. Kumar PB, Bronders J. Lewis J (19971. Hydrogeology of carbonate islands of Fiji. In: Vacher HL, Quinn T ledsl. Developments in Sedimentology, 54; Geology and Hydrology
Agassiz
118991.
1
:
of Carbonate
1
1
Islands.
Elsevier Science
BV,
Amsterdam,
Netherlands.
Jennings
Washington DC, USA.
S,
Polunin
NVC
and
119961. Effects of fishing effort
catch rate upon the structure and biomass of Fijian fish
communities. J App Ecol23: 400-A12.
SOLOMON ISLANDS Grano S
led] 119931. Solomon Islands: National Environmental Management Strategy. South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme. Apia, Western Samoa. Richards AH, Bell LJ, Bell JD 119941. Inshore fisheries resources of Solomon Islands Mar Poll Bui 29: 90-98. South GR, Skelton PA 120001. Status of coral reefs in the southwest Pacific: Fiji, Nauru, New Caledonia, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. In: Wilkinson CR led).
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. Australian Institute of
Marine Science, Cape Ferguson, Australia.
South GR, Skelton PA 120001. Status of coral reefs m the southwest Pacific: Fiji. Nauru, New Caledonia, Samoa,
Solomon of
Vuki
119881.
Caledonia.
A
NEW CALEDONIA SPOT images for coral fruitful
approach
reef
tor classic
Coral Reef
An Environmental
CR
ledl.
120001. Status of
GR
ledsl.
Initiative
Fiji's
coral reefs.
Proceedings
of the
Regional Symposium,
Evaluation. Elsevier Science Ltd, Oxford,
mapping in New and new topics.
Departements and Territories. Ministry of Spatial Planning and Environment and State Secretariat for Overseas Affairs, Pans, France.
Map sources
Map 12a Coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants
South GR. Skelton PA 120001. Status of coral reefs in the southwest Pacific; Fiji, Nauru, New Caledonia, Samoa, Islands, Tuvalu
Wilkinson
UK.
Proc 6th Int Coral Reef Symp 2: AA5-ii8. Gabrie C 120001. State of Coral Reefs in French Overseas
Solomon
In:
Noumea, 22-2A May 2000. Zann LP, Vuki V 120001. The south western Pacific Islands region. In: Sheppard C ledl. Seas at the Millennium:
R,
W
Naqasima M, Vave R
Salvat B, Wilkinson C, South
International
the
Bour
and Vanuatu.
Marine Science, Cape Ferguson, Australia. V,
In;
Hay C, Ramohia P, Lam M 120021. The Coral Reefs of Solomon Islands. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Cape Ferguson, Australia,
Sulu
Islands, Tuvalu
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. Australian Institute
and Vanuatu.
In:
Wilkinson
CR
ledl.
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. Australian Institute of Marine Science. Cape Ferguson. Australia. Zann LP. Vuki V 120001. The south western Pacific Islands region. In: Sheppard C ledl. Seas at the Millennium: An
Environmental Evaluation. Elsevier Science
Ltd, Oxford,
UK.
SA
119901*.
Some
the island groups
areas in
of additional reef
have been added
for
the far northwest of the country Iwestern
Bismarck Archipelagol from Department of Defence 119711, were compiled from higher resolution maps, uncontrolled air photography and radar imagery. Department of Defence 119711. PNG5 - Vegetation and Timber Resources. 1:500,000. 1st edn. Department of Defence,
which
Canberra, Australia.
Melanesia
Map 12b Coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants
SA
(19901*.
Map 12c Coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants
SA
119901".
Maps12dand12e Mangrove and coral reef data were taken from IGN 11967a b. 1968a, b and c, and 1971a and bl. All these maps are based on aerial photographs taken between 19'*3 and 1962. Areas of mangrove cover were prepared as polygons and and
coral reefs as arcs.
IGN (1967al. Ambrym-Pentecote. 1 ;100 000. Series no. 624. OAl. Institut Geographique National.
IGN I1967bl. Maewo. 1:100 000. Series Institut Geographique National.
no. 7.
IGN |1968al. Aoba. 1:100 000. Series no. Institut Geographique National.
6.
IGN Il968bl. Epi Shepherd. 1:100 000. Series 624.041. Institut Geographique National. IGN I1968c|. Santo Sud. 1:100 000. Series no. Institut Geographique National.
IGN (1971al. Lamap. 1:100 000. Series Institut Geographique National.
no. 10.
IGN 11971bl. Matekouta. 1:100 000. Series no. Institut Geographique National.
Map
5.
9.
8.
Maps
Maps
624.041.
Maps
624.041.
no.
11.
Maps
Maps
624.041.
Maps
624.041.
Maps
624.041.
12f Coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants
SA[19901'.
See Technical notes, page 401
347
348
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Chapter 13 Micronesia
northern island areas of the Central and
The
Western
consisted of frameworks of sticks, sometimes having
archipelagos of relatively small
other Items such as shells bound to them. These charts
scattered
The western
islands.
limits of this region
lie
along the boundary of the Philippine plate,
and there
considerable volcanic activity
is
While most
of
in
the north.
occurred
in
the distant
geological past. Cores taken through the base of
1.4
m
marked with considerable accuracy the
the Marshall Islands
show
some
reef deposits up to
kilometers thick, dating back over 50 million years.
Reefs are well developed throughout the region,
and clearly played
a critical role in oceanic navigation.
At the present time there are considerable dif-
ferences both
human
the state of reefs and
in
cultures.
The influence
of the
in
with rapid Western-style development, in
a
number
parts of the
of countries, notably
the impacts of
USA, associated is
traditional
systems and the sustainable
resources,
together with associated
shows very high
Philippines and Indonesia, and of
the
levels
species diversity. Biodiversity declines to the east.
The peoples and there the
is
of
Micronesia have diverse origins,
complex
a broad
Marianas were probably
of cultures. first
Patau and
populated around
3 500 years ago by peoples from Indonesia and the Philippines. At the
same time
the western parts of the
region were probably settled from eastern Melanesia. At least
15 languages with
across the region, giving
pendent cultures that while
many
little
common
in
some measure
exist there.
of the high island
It
is
occur
of the inde-
believed that,
peoples did not travel
pollution. Military activities
able impact
in
it
utilization of
problems
this region. Intensive nuclear testing
number
of
Marshall Islands, with repercussions
to
the present. There
USA
of
some
practice.
economic
is
also ongoing utilization by the
islands and reefs
and the Marianas target
for
Tourism
activity
in
Saipan and Chuuk impact, the region
a
Atoll. still
in
military is
a
the Marshall Islands
purposes, critical
including
and growing
few islands, notably Guam,
Away from areas
includes a very large
of human number of
great distances following their establishment, those of
islands and reefs
the low islands maintained ocean-going canoes and
traditional use of the reefs by local peoples
continued
Left:
to
travel.
Early European travelers to the
in
good
to excellent condition,
sustainable and well managed.
The six banded angelfish Pomacanthus sexstriatus. Right: Coral scene with branching Acropora. Diversity
Micronesia diminishes from west
to east.
of
have also had a consider-
during the 19iOs and 1950s impacted a atolls in the
in
the breakdown of
few islands has brought with
in
also
Marshall Islands. Urban growth on a
Patau
closest to the center of reef diversity
considerable
Guam, but
except on the coastlines of recently active volcanoes. lies
locations of
other islands, reefs and even patterns of ocean waves,
the other islands and reefs can be linked
to volcanic activity, this largely
atolls
Marshall Islands were shown "stick charts" which
Pacific are characterized by widely
in
where
remains
^s:^.
MAP
^
^
13
\
«
^^
-^
^,^.
-
I
> >
s
\^-
E
8
1.^•i
V
vN
]
> >V 1
-t
^
I
3'
< Z
^,^-. ^^
1 N,.S i
V
>
%>-* •
"^
P •«
East
Mariana
Hasin
>.S
^
.
\-%
£ Q
^
\
\
''''i/
-S .=
Si
i/idunol
111
^ o Q
r> :-^
?.
MAP
13a M/'OO'
145°30'
148°30'
N
21 -OO'
ZIW
+
Uracas Island Pr Farallon de Pajaios (Uracas)
Supply Reef
Maug
Island
,
Maug Is.
Pr
Asuncion
I.
19°3(y 19°30'
IB'Off
Alamagan
NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS (USA)
Guguan
Zealandia Banks
*
Sarigan I6°3ff
16°30'
Anatahan
W
Farallon de Medinilla
15
km
Managaha FiPr ;J IS'OO'
Saipan
15'W
Esmeralda Bank Tinian
Aguijan
Rota
PACIFIC OCEAN
Sasanh6ya FiPr
13°30'
la-Sff
U-\ GUAM'
145°30'
uroor
Micronesia
Commonwealth
of the
Northern Mariana Islands and Guam
The Mariana islands in
Islands form a long chain of 15 high
the Western Pacific, running approxi-
mately 800 kilometers from Farallon de Pajaros
(Uracas)
in
the
north
Guam Guam is
to
southernmost island of
the
in
The
south.
an unincorporated
of the USA, while the remaining islands, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), are a commonwealth in political union with the USA.
territory
They
are located on the eastern margin of the Philippine
consist of a large uplifted limestone
The northern areas
plateau, while the south of the island
volcanic hills reaching 406 meters. encircled by fringing reefs.
of the
CNMI
MAP 13a
similarly
The
five
consist
is
The
dominated by
entire island is
southernmost islands
of both volcanic and
uplifted limestone structures. Rota has a volcanic center
with an uplifted limestone terrace
around, and
all
is
mostly surrounded by narrow but well developed fringing reefs.
Tinian
and the nearby Aguijan
are
uplifted
tectonic plate. To the east, the Mariana Trench has been
limestone - Tinian has a few areas of narrow fringing
formed by the subduction of the Pacific plate and there
reefs,
is
considerable volcanic activity, particularly to the north
of this chain. The Mariana Trench trench in the world,
Challenger Deep meters.
is
The climate
from January
to
and
to
the
the deepest is
is
the deepest ocean
south of
known
fairly stable,
Guam,
point, at
1
1
the
034
with a dry season
June when the northeast trade winds
while Aguijan has no clearly developed reef
structures, although there are diverse
reaches nearly 500 meters
the west, and a
has
a
running off
number of
Rota
in
Guam
and
speeds on
Guam
of 185 kilometers per hour and gusts of
over 270 kilometers per hour.
Guam
Two
is
the southernmost and largest of the islands.
lined rabbitfish Siganus Uneatus.
but has a raised
small
more dramatic one on
the east. Saipan
developed barrier reef and lagoon system
well
The region experiences regular typhoons, most recently
December 1997 with recorded sustained wind-
in elevation,
limestone perimeter with a gently shelving coastline on
predominate, and a wet season from July to November.
Supertyphoon Paka, which passed between
and actively growing
coral communities. Saipan also has a volcanic center and
its
west coast with fringing reefs
localities.
Farallon de Medinilla
is
in
a
another
limestone island, with coral communities in
its
surrounding waters.
The nine
islands north of Farallon de Medinilla are
entirely volcanic, including
and, for the
most
part,
some which
are
still
active
do not have any reef structures.
352
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Pagan
one of the larger northern islands, with one
is
active volcano, but there are reports of
and reef development along parts of
which
its
limited coral
Maug,
coastline.
complex of three islands encircling
actually a
is
some
submerged volcanic crater, has been dormant for time and there
is
reported to be
some
Alamagan
Sarigan, Anatahan and
a
some
active coral growth.
are
volcanic
islands
unrecorded.
submerged
Supply Reef, near Maug, reported
crater
The Mariana
Islands,
Indonesia, enjoy high diversity.
950 species of reef
algae and
more than
cover in
Guam
the sea
and a
considerable volcanic activity below volcanically active banks are
Guam, which
is fairly
well
300 recorded species of scleractinian
studied, has about corals.
is
lying relatively close to the
center of coral reef biodiversity in the Philippines and
only limited coral or reef development. In addition to
number of
an inactive
communities on the crater rim.
which, though inactive for some time, are believed to have
these islands there
is
have some living coral
to
I
fish,
220 species of benthic
400 species of molluscs. Live coral
some
reaches 50 percent in
the majority of sites
now show
less than
areas, but
25 percent. Both the geo-
known, including Zealandia Banks (between Guguan and
diversity
and cover decrease considerably
Bank (west of Tinian). Eruptions and it is likely that many more go
logically
younger northern islands where the volcanic
Sarigan) and Esmeralda
do occur
in these areas,
conditions are unfavorable for
General Data
General Data 72
Population [thousands] Imillion
Land area
US$1
Iknn^l
Marine area (thousand km^l Per capita
fish
species, while in
Guam
Northern M ariianas
GDP
many
in
1
155 3 066
GDP
A59
Land area (km?)
572
823
Marine area (thousand km^)
218
na
consumpti on Ikg/yearl
(million
Per capita
US$1
fish
consumption (kg/year)
na
Status and Threats
Status and Threats na
Reefs at risk 1%)
Recorded coral diseases
2
Reefs at risk (%)
100
Recorded coral diseases
1
Biodiversity
Biodiversity
/|C
1
Coral diversity: Two global sources were available for the gives
fish
to
calculation of coral diversity, and their presentation together
000 square kilometers).
Per capita
in
meant
statistics are
000 square kilometers
100 square kilometers for countries with areas of less
than
available, biodiversity
figures taken from national sources are provided
consumption: Data are largely taken from
for
some
idea of the probable range of estimates available
any country.
FAOSTAT, the database operated by the United Nations Food
UNEP-WCIv|C maintains, on behalf
CITES
and Agriculture Organization lhttp://apps. fao.org/). Some,
First figure:
based on Gillett 119971 and are estimated averages for the 1990s. Others come from the World Resources Institute IWRI, 20001. All are based on all fish and seafood.
Secretariat, a database of all scleractinian corals. This data-
particularly for the Pacific islands, are largely
set
IS
xanthellate Scleractmia [as defined by Veron, 2000) within
database were marked, and used
list of
STATUS AND THREATS at risk:
at
the World Resources Institute IBryant et al. 1998) new figures were generated, using the improved global reef map presented in this volume. The single figures presented are the percentage of each country's reefs which fall into either the medium or high level of threat. These threats, as explained in Chapter 2, were based on fishing, coastal pollution, marine pollution and sedimentation. It is important to note that these measures were produced at coarse resolutions, and are broadly indicative rather than highly accurate. They are also a measure of potential threat rather than actual reef state. In a number of countries threatened reefs remain in good condition. Threats can also be diminished or removed by active management interventions, which were not included in the model.
country the total is
listed.
number
likely to
of
be conservative. For each
recorded types
These figures are derived from
of coral a
disease
UNEP-WCIvIC
database Ivro/w.unep-wcmc.org/marine/coraldis/index.htm),
which has been developed from more than 150 published or authoritative
sources. These cover
diseases, although
there are likely to
some
29 different
be problems over
and the true identification of some of these remains controversial. In many cases the total number of identification,
in
the generation of a
recorded species by country. Taxonomic unreliability
and problems
Using the original threat coverage generated
Coral diseases: Data are
based on around 000 published sources which known records from particular countries. All zoo1
provide
this
Reefs
of the
of
synonymy
exist with this dataset,
however
the simple species totals generated from such data are only
influenced by these errors and are
partially
still
broadly
These figures remain unreliable for smaller countries where there are few readily available published species inventories, and they have been omitted where they accurate.
may many
are clearly very inadequate. For larger countries, they
be accurate measures of described species, but
cases such figures are as
much
as they are true measures
Second
figure:
a
measure
of
in
research effort
of diversity.
These represent expected numbers
of
species by country and are based on the electronic [GISI
database used to generate the species distribution maps in Veron (2000). This database recognizes biogeographic regions rather than political boundaries. Note that, for localities where the geographic area is small [like Hawai'i and Singapore), species numbers are from original records (Veron, pers. com.) rather than from the database, and that for countries where a political boundary crosses a single geographic region (like Mozambique and Tanzania), only a combined total number of species is given. These figures are largely based on interpolations from distribution ranges, and as such they incorporate species which are predicted, but may not occur, in some countries. These are thus maximum figures, and may be exaggerated in a number of countries.
Technical notes
Mangrove area: Data are largely derived from the World Mangrove Atlas ISpalding et al, 19971.
VI:
Managed Resource Protected Area: protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems.
mangrove species: WCMC data, World Mangrove Alias, witti updates.
No. of
largely taken from
tfie
BIBLIOGRAPHY No. of seagrass species: Tfiese figures are
likely
be
to
Every chapter concludes with a bibliography which includes
conservative. Ttiey have been derived from a database under
many
development at UNEP-WCMC Records of species distribution have been incorporated into this database from over 60 sources, primarily published books and papers. In a number
well as additional reference materials which
of cases, reviewers
be higher
to
In
have pointed out that true totals are
likely
of the
sources used
as further reading. relied
In
in
the compilation of the texts, as
gray literature and the
heavily on
may be seen
addition to these sources the authors
Web
for
recent
material.
cases where a clearly documented figure was
provided, the data
Bryant D, Burke
were amended accordingly
L,
McManus
M
Spalding
J,
119981. Reefs at
A Map-Based Indicator of Threats to the World's Coral Reefs. World Resources Institute. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, World Conservation Ivlonitonng Centre and United Nations Environment Risk:
Programme, Washington DC, USA. Gillett
119971.
Solomon
The Importance of Tuna
Pacific
to
Forum Fisheries Agency Report
Countries.
Island
97/15. Honiara.
Islands.
Spalding MD, Grenfell
AM
119971.
New estimates
of global
and
regional coral reef areas Coral Reefs 16; 225-230.
Spalding MD, Blasco
The
F,
International
Field
CD
World Mangrove Atlas. Mangrove Ecosystems.
119971.
Society
for
Okinawa, Japan.
Veron JEN 12000). Corals of the World. 3 vols. Australian Institute of Marine Science. TownsviUe. Australia. WRI 120001. World Resources 2000-2001: People and Ecosystems: The Fraying Web of Institute,
PROTECTED AREAS Within the
known
Life.
World Resources
Washington DC, USA.
UNEP-WCMC
IN
THE DATA TABLES
protected
areas database, sites
to include coral reefs are further
annotated and
it
is
these sites only which have been incorporated into the data tables. Alongside the site
abbreviation
is
name and
designation a designation
provided Ithis abbreviation
is
used on the
mapsl. The lUCN management category is also provided, giving an indication of the legal regime protecting the site. This does not always equate with
The following provides
management be found
a
management
summary
short
categories, while
more
effectiveness.
of
the
lUCN
detailed information can
at:
http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/categories/ index.html: la:
Strict
Nature Reserve; protected area managed mainly
for science lb:
Wilderness Area; protected area managed mainly
for
wilderness protection II:
National Park: protected area
managed mainly
for eco-
system protection and recreation III:
Natural Monument; protected area
managed mainly
for
IV:
Habitat/Species
managed mainly
Management
Area:
protected
for conservation through
area
management
Protected Landscape/Seascape: protected area
managed
mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and for recreation
however
there are likely to
come feedback as
It
comes
to
in
le-mail: informationldunep-wcmc.orgl,
and replacement data
intervention V;
made
to ensure accuracy throughany compendium of this size be oversights. The authors would wel-
Every effort has been out this book,
conservation of specific natural features
light
coralatlas/index.html
be posted on our web-page lwww.unep-wcmc.org/marine/
will
403
404
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Index Agartcia tenuifotta 121. 130
A
Agassiz.
Bahamas
Island,
104
al Kin.
Abemama, Kiribati
365 247, 248
Gilbert Islands,
365
Abrolhos MNP, Brazil 172. 175
Abu Dhabi, United Arab El Kizan
see Daedalus, Red
Sea 236,
239
Acanthaster plana
New
40,
Acapulco, Mexico
42-3 1
Federated States
Atoll,
of
217.338,386,389
Acropara abrotanoides 307 93. 95,
125, 128, 140. 165
Acropora palmata3i.
93. 108.
150, 155
Dammam,
IDohal, Qatar 252,
254 Bridge, India/Sri Lanka
214,215.218 Adang Rawi Reefs. Thailand 261.262
Oman
248.
250
Maldives 224
see Gulf
of
Al Hanish,
Red Sea 245
Red Sea 245
Al Mukalla,
Yemen
248, 249
Al Wadj Bank, Saudi Arabia 236,
Island,
Mariana
Admiralty Islands, Papua
New
Guinea 326, 327 Aeoliscus stngatus 203
photography 85
Africa see East Africa; South
West Africa
Agan-an MuMR. Philippines 284. 285
Agaricia 62
Aganciaspp.
121, 122. 128
Apataki, French Polynesia 387 Apia,
Apo
Islands 350, 352 Island,
Vanuatu 338,
Samoa 375
Island, Philippines 70, 283,
284
Apo Reef PLS/NatP, Philippines
anchor damage 156 Andaman Islands, India
282, 284, 285 179,
Andaman Sea
Aqaba. Gulf
Guam
of,
350
see Gulf
Aqaba, Jordan 236
Aqaba MP, Jordan
Bahamas 104 Andulay MuMR, Philippines 284, Island,
236, 239
aquaculture see mariculture
aquarium trade 50-1,
74. 278,
374
285
Anemone
Arabian Gulf 57. 178. 179.234.
251-5
153, 158
City DS, Maldives 223,
Bahrain 254 Iran
anemonefish
254-5
Kuwait 254
33, 180
pink 287
Qualar 254
two banded 238
Saudi Arabia 241 United Arab Emirates 253-4
angelflsh 41
grey 155
ArabianSea2U.
queen 124
Arabian tectonic plate 251
SIX
banded 348
247. 248
Aralura Sea. Indonesia 277. 302. 308. 309
aragonite 62
Albert Meyer, Tonga 377
Aniwa
Arakan Wowontulap NR,
Alcyonaria seeOctocorallia
Anjouan see Nzwani, Comoros
Aldabra Atoll SpR/World
Annotto Bay. Jamaica 138
Heritage
Site.
Seychelles 200,
and Futuna
371.372
MR.
St.
Artificial
Reefs
Atoll.
Seychelles 200,
117, 118
Amblygtyphidodon teucogasier
St.
St,
Island.
Vanuatu 338.
Lucia
Anse Pointe Sable-Man Kote St.
Lucia 160.
Guadeloupe IGalapagosI
Guadeloupe 159, 166
UNESCO
131, 133
BRINI, Mexico 112, 113-4. 116 Archipielago de Camaguey.
Cuba
167
134, 135
200.
Archipielago de los Canarreos,
Volbert. Seychelles 201
Archipielago de los Colorados,
Cuba 134
201
Anse
la
Biosphere Reserve,
Archipielago de Revillagigedo
Anse Royale, Seychelles
Ambohibe, Madagascar 195
Venezuela
Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador
Anse Mamin Reef MR.
Mangroves MR.
Site,
Archipielago de Colon
Lucia 160, 167
160. 167
Amanu. French Polynesia 387
Archipel de
UNESCO
Lucia 160, 167
Lucia 160. 167
202
NP/Ramsar
169, 170. 171
Anse L'lvrogne Reef MR,
Alpheidae 36
339
Archipielago Los Roques St,
Anse Galet-Anse Cochon Reefs
Niue 378
Ambryn
St.
Indonesia 273, 279
Archaeogastropoda 37
Lucia 160, 167
MR,
Alofi Island. Wallis
Alphonse
Vanuatu 340
Anomura 36
Anse Cochon
algae 29-30 Alofi,
Island.
Anse Chastanet Reefs MR.
202, 204
of
Aqaba
261-3, 267
Andros Barrier Reef, Bahamas Andros
Apra Harbor,
Anguilla 158, 159
374
Agaricia agaricites 125. 140.
Vanuatu 339
Island,
Albatross Island 206, 207
Ambergris Cay, Belize
Agana Bay, Guam 350
262, 265
Aore RecR, Vanuatu 339, 341
Angoche, Mozambique 190
202, 204
Aden
Aoba
225
Aldabra Group, Seychelles 200,
of
Amphipnon penderaion 287 Anambas Islands. Kalimantan
Anegada Passage
16
Islands 350
Saudi Arabia 252
Ao Phang Nga NP, Thailand
Anegada, Virgin Islands 154 1
Al Halaniyat Island,
Alamagan
remote sensing 86
Africa;
Cook Islands
240, 242
Actinana 33
Atoll,
383.
Al Llth, Saudi Arabia 242
119, 121, 122. 128. 140. 149.
Aden, Gulf
Cook Islands
Aitutaki Island,
Al Kabir,
Acropora seriata 307
Amphiprion fuscocaudatus 180
103, 104
381,383,384
Acropora abrothosensis 293
Adams
Cook Islands 381.
Akumal, Mexico
losses 98, 108, 135, 158
Ad Dawhah
100, 102
384
/\cropora 14, 23, 29, 143,216,
Acropora cervicornis
Aitu Island,
Aitutaki HR.
Aceh, Sumatra 275
330,331
bicinctus 238
212,214,217.262
Bermuda
Anton Lizardo, Mexico 114, 115 Anuta Island, Solomon Islands
Amphipnon
340
Islands 361. 362
Netherlands Antilles Antipatharia 34
Amirante Islands, Seychelles
Anatom
Micronesia 356, 359
383
12
Antilles see Lesser Antilles;
Amirante Trench. Seychelles
Anao CRes Guam 350, 353 Anatahan Island, Mariana
Caledonia 335, 337
Airplane PA,
60,
Antigua 158, 159, 161
American Samoa NP 375. 376
268. 276
361
see also crown-of-thorns
Acanthundae
155
351
Ailinglapalap. Marshall Islands
Abul Thama, Bahrain 254
aerial
Aguijan, Mariana Islands 350,
Ailinginae Atoll. Marshall
Abu Galium MRPA, Egypt
Addu
Agrihan Island, Mariana Islands
Ahnd
Anthozoans 32-4
American Samoa 374-6
200. 202
Agulhas Current 191
Emirates252, 254, 255
Ad
Reef 312
Aguille de Prony SpR,
172, 174
America, East Pacific coast 110
200, 202
350
Abrolhos Archipelago. Brazil
active
Agelaga Islands, Mauritius 206,
Agincourt Reefs, Great Barrier
Yemen
Aborigines302, 304, 316, 317
Abu
350
207
Abaiang, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati 364,
78-9, 80
Guam
Agat Bay,
Abaco
Abd
A
Antarctic species 321
Cuba 134
Index
Archipielago de Sabana. Cuba
Ardasier Banks and Reefs.
Maldives 223
Atoll.
AtoLdasRocas, BiR,
Aride Island SNR, Seychelles
201.204
Brazil 172,
UNESCO
Biosphere Reserve. French
100, 102
Arkan Mountains. Myanmar
atolls
Aulostomus maculatus 136
Samoa
Arkan Peninsula, Myanmar 262,
375,
Austral Archipelago, French
263-4
Arnavon MarCA. Solomon
Australia 179.302-4
Islands 331. 333
la
Plata,
Dominican
Banco de Navidad. Dominican Republic 150-2. 151
Bahia Gayraca, Colombia 130,
Banco
Mexico 112. 114
Ingles.
Banco Nuevo. Mexico
131
Banco
y
112, 114
Cayo Nuevo, Mexico
112
131
Panama
Bahia Honda.
Polynesia 369, 386, 390
Banco de
Republic 106, 150-2, 152
Republic 151, 152
Bahia Granale, Colombia 130,
376
Banco Chinchorro BRINI, Mexico 114, 115, 116, 118
Mexico 115
Aunu'u. American
263-4
Mexico
Nf^lP,
Bahia del Espinlu Santo,
16-17
Banc du Pracel. Madagascar 195, 196
Bahia de Loreto
Bahia de Samana, Dominican
Polynesia 391
Ansto PA. Bermuda
Ascension, Mexico
la
112, 116
deTairo
Atoll
Bahia de 115
173, 175
Spratly Islands 288
An
see also individual countries/ regions
13^.135
Banda Sea, Indonesia
126
Bahia State, Brazil 174
277,
273, 274,
308
Arno. Marshall Islands 361
Coral Sea 319
Bahrain 253, 254
Bandar Abbas,
Arorae, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati
high latitude reefs 320-1
Bale Beau Vallon, Seychelles
Bandar Sen Begawan, Brunei
Northern 308-9
365
protected areas 321
Arothron nigropunctatus 228
Western 305-7
Arrecife Alacranes. Mexico 112.
see also Great Barrier Reef;
NMP,
Homos. Mexico
114,
Arrecife Tnangulos, Mexico
Sciences 317. 338
Arrecifes de
Cozumel NP,
Mexico 112, 115. 116
Myanmar Ayr.
Mexico 112, 116 artificial reefs
Aru Islands. Indonesia 274. 277, 277-8
el
Bajo Sisal. Mexico
Lamentations), Red Sea 2^^.
Aruba. Netherlands Antilles 169. 170-1
Babeldaob [Babelthuapl Patau 35A, 355, 357
Babuyan Channel, Philippines
Arufura Sea 274 Arutua. French Polynesia
ascideans 40
Islands, Philippines
281,282
Reef. Northern
Australia 304. 309
Australia 308. 321
AsirNP, Saudi Arabia 241. 245 Asquith Bank. Seychelles 202
Bacalar Chico MR, Belize 118,
Papua
Bahia Banderas,
Caledonia
334, 335
astronaut photographs 84-5
Asuncion, Mariana Islands 350 Atafu Atoll, Tokelau 373, 375
Athi-Galana-Sabak! Rivers 183.
103-5, 134 fvlexico 112,
Bahia Concepcion,
Ivlexico 112,
Atlantic Northern Equatorial
Current 153
Bahia Culebra, Costa Rica 126,
Ocean 92-3
reefs at risk 65
species diversity 21
Baluran NP, Indonesia 268, 279
Bampton
Reefs,
New
Caledonia
Bahia de Amatique, Belize 118
lU
Kiribati
Bahia de Chismuyo WRef,
Honduras
123, 12/i
Western
Basidot FiS, Philippines 284,
285
Bass Islands see Marotin,
Bassas da
223,
Madagascar
194,
195
Banc du Bisson, Madagascar Banc du Borneo, Madagascar Banc du Geyser, Madagascar 195, 197
Western Indian
198,209 159,
162
Batam
225 d'Etoile,
India,
190,
Basse Terre, Guadeloupe
banana industry 120
195
118
Island,
Australia 306
Ocean
195
Bahia de Chetumal, Belize
barrel sponge 28
French Polynesia
Banaba. Gilbert Islands,
Banc
128
112,
318
Banana Reef DS, Maldives
113
126
Bashi Channel, Taiwan 292
282
363,365
131
NWR
barracuda 175
Barrow
335
Bahia Chengue, Colombia 130,
Barra del Colorado
barrier reefs 16
268
Ball's Pyramid, Australia
Bahia de Campeche, Mexico
184
Atlantic
New
113
New
NP, Indonesia 268,
Balintang Channel, Philippines
Assomption, Seychelles 202
Astrolabe Reefs.
Indonesia 268. 272, 275
back reef 25
Guinea 326, 329
Antilles
160, 166
159, 161
Balaclava MP, Mauritius 209
Bali Sea, Indonesia
Bagiai WIvIA,
160, 164, 165
Barbuda, Lesser Antilles 147,
394, 396
BaciUariophyta 30
Bahamas
Astove, Seychelles 202
Baker Island NWR, USA/Kiribali
Ball Barat
Lanka
S, Sri
218,220
Barbados MR, Lesser
272, 279
Assab. Eritrea 245
Asteroidea 39
USA/Kinbati 364,
394, 397
Ball,
120
Ashmore Reef NNR, Northern
Island.
Bako NP Mala/sia 268, 270
282
Babuyan
387
Ashmore
Island.
Lanka 218, 219
Barbados, Lesser Antilles 158,
182. 185
Baker
2^5
Sri
Bar Reef Marine
1 1
Ba)uni Archipelago. Somalia
(Gate of
Islands, Vanuatu 338,
339
BarReef,
14
1
Bajos del Norte. Mexico
Mandeb
bank barriers 17-18
Banks
Bajo Serpiente. Mexico 112. 114
B
WMA, Papua
Guinea 326, 329
bank reefs 17
Bajo Nuevo. Colombia 131
Bab
75
New
114
NP. Mexico 112. 115, 116
Banglade5h214, 216, 217 Banian Island
Bajo Madagascar. Mexico 112.
Queensland 312
267.
272
Bangkok, Thailand 262, 263
MNP. Seychelles
Baja California 112. 113
264.265
262,
194. 195
Baie Lazare. Seychelles 200.
201.204
Arrecifes de Puerto Morelos
Arrecifes de Sian Ka'an BRlNl,
273, 276-7
201
Delta.
butterflyfish 164
Banggai Barrier Reef, Indonesia
Bangka 268 Bangka Island. Sumatra
Baie des Assassins.
Baie Ternaie
Avicennta marina 237
Ayeyarwady River
112, 114
banded
Baie de Port-au-Pnnce, Haiti
Madagascar
Australian Institute of Marine
Austronesians 323
115
bandcheck wrasse 353
150, 151
316.317 1 1
New
Caledonia 335, 337
Australian Aborigines 302. 304,
Mexico 112, 116 Arrecife Cabezo. Mexico Arrecife
Baie de Bourail SpR,
Torres Strait
114 Arrecife Alacranes
252
Darussalam 268
201
Arothron mappa 334
Iran
Island, Indonesia
275
Batan Islands, Philippines 281, 282, 286, 292
Batanta, Indonesia 274 batfish 352
The Baths NaM,
Virgin Islands
154, 157
bathymetric mapping 86 balhymetric surveying 81
406
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Bats Cave Beach RpZ, Grand
Cayman
142,
U3
local patterns 22, 24
Bone Bay, Indonesia 273
Bukatatanoa Reefs,
over geological time 21-2
Boneparte Archipelago,
bump-headed parrotfish 345 Bunaken NP. Indonesia 273.
and reef zonation 24-6
Northern Australia 308, 309
Battimalve Island, India 214
regional patterns 21-2
Bongalonan MuMR, Philippines
Bay
structural 27-8
Batticaloa,
Sn Lanka
218, 219
Bengal 178,262,265
of
Bay Islands, Honduras
121, 122,
123
total
species estimates 28
Yemen
BirAli,
248, 249
190, 191-2, 193
Bazaruto NP. Mozambique 190,
Head Peninsula,
beach communities 24
beaked
butterflyfish 314
Beautemps-Beaupre
New
Caledonia 334, 335
Kiribati
Bedouins 237
Biscayne Bay NP, Florida 96, 99
Bei-Men Coast PA, Taiwan 292,
Bismarck Archipelago, Papua
New
Belitung 268
Guinea 323, 325, 326,
327
Belitung Island, Sumatra 268,
275
Bivalvia
37-8
Belize 62, 70, 110, 117-20
black band disease 62, 140
Belize Barrier Reef 117, 120
black butterflyfish 354
Belize Barrier Reef World
black corals 33-4, 136
Heritage Site 118, 120
41.42
butterflyfish 22,
banded 164
Boqueron RVS, Puerto Rico
154,
157
beaked 314 Bennett's 219
Bora-Bora, Society Islands 388,
black 354
eastern triangle 352
379
"boring cryptofauna" 27
lined
Borneo 266, 268, 269-71, 275-6
racoon 234
Bougainville Island, Papua
New
325-7, 328
57.
saddleback 183 spot-naped 261
Bougainville Reef, Australia
Black River FiR, Mauritius 206,
209
Bellinghausen IMotu One]
butter hamlet 147
Islands
142
Guinea
black pearl culture 386, 389
Belize City 118
Cayman
Site,
Burma Banks, Andeman Sea 265
389
Bismarck Sea 326
Islands, Australia 314,
315
Buru, Indonesia 273
Booby Pond and Rockery
Ramsar
365 Biscayne Bay, Florida 96, 97
296
Japan
booby, red-footed 212
Phoenix Islands,
Birnie,
Atoll,
318
Burias, Philippines 282
Bonin Islands see Ogasawara Islands,
Birgue latro 228
279
Bunker
187, 189
Irian
Jaya 274, 277
193
Island, Philippines 281
Bongoyo Island MR, Tanzania
birds43-4, 316, 364, 395 Bird's
Bongo
343, 344
Bundaberg, Queensland 315,
285
Bird Cay BS, Belize 118
Bazaruto Archipelago,
Mozambique
284, 285
Fiji
312,318 Bourail,
New
Caledonia 335
Bowen, Queensland 312
TRes, French Polynesia 388,
black-spotted pufferfish 228
391
Blackbird Cay, Belize 118
Bowse Bluff-Rum Point MP, Grand Cayman 142, 143
blacklip pearl oyster 52
box
Blambangan Peninsula, Java
Brachyura 36-7
Cabo Cruz, Cuba
Bravo hydrogen bomb 362
Cabo Pulmo, Mexico 112
Brazil 92, 147, 172, 173-5
Cabo Pulmo NMP, Mexico
Solomon Islands
Bellona,
330,
331
New
Bellona Atoll,
268, 275
Caledonia
Blanche King PA, Bermuda 100,
335, 336
Belmopan, Belize 118
Bridgetown, Barbados 160
102
Belo-sur-Mer, Madagascar 195, 196
blast fishing 48, 59, 189, 199.
278, 283, 295
Bengal snapper 212
Blenheim Reef,
Beqa Island and Delta,
Fiji
20,
344
79, 342, 343,
Berau
Barrier,
British Indian
Ocean Territory 226, 227
Bennett's butterflyfish 219
Kalimantan 276
Berbera, northern Somalia 248,
250
142, 143
blue chromis 95
betel nut
chewing 333
Beverdige Reef, Niue 378, 380 Bien Unido FishR, Philippines
blue starfish 302
Cyanophyta boat-based surveying 81-2,
86-8 1
26
Big Bay, Vanuatu 339
Bogue
Big Broadhurst Reef, Great
Bohol, Philippines 281, 285
Barrier Reef 312 Bight of
Bangkok 261
Bight of Biafra 175
Bikar
Atoll,
Marshall Islands
361,362 Bikini Atoll,
138, 140
Bohol Sea, Philippines 281, 285
Bokaak
Atoll,
Marshall Islands
361,362
MarshalUslands
Bimini Island,
283
Bahamas 104
Bintuni Bay, Irian Jaya 274, 277
MuMR,
Philippines 284,
285 biodiversity 27-8
global patterns 19-22
Bolisong
Philippines
284, 285
71, 161, 169,
170-1
Bonaire MP, Netherlands Antilles 169, 171
Cades Bay MR, Antigua and 159, 166
Caesar Point-Mathurin Point St.
Lucia 160, 167
Cagayan Islands ETC, Philippines 284. 285
Brunei Darussalam 268,
Caicos Bank. Caribbean 106.
269-70, 288
107
Islands.
Cook
Islands 382
Calag-calag
Bucaro Aore RecR. Vanuatu
Philippines
Island,
US
Virgin Islands
NaM, US
Papua New Biosphere
Reserve, Cuba 134, 137 building materials 53
Guinea 325, 326, 327-8 264, 265, 288 112, 114, 116
Cancun, Mexico 115, 116
Cangmating MuMR, Philippines
Guinea 326, 327
UNESCO
New
Cambodia
CampecheBank
342, 343
Atoll,
Buenavista
California Current 113
Calvados Barrier Reef, Papua
Island Reef
Budd Reef
Philippines 284 Calfornia, Gulfof 112, 113
160, 167
154, 155
Buck
MuMR,
284, 285
Calancan Bay, Marinduque.
339, 341
Tobago
Caicos Passage 104. 107 Cairns. Queensland 312, 316
Bryozoa 38
Budibudi
Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles
Philippines
Cahuita NP. Costa Rica 126. 129
Virgin Islands 154, 157
MuMR,
MuMR,
brown algae 305
Buck
Bolinao Reef, Philippines 50,
284, 285
Cabulotan
Reefs MR, Akhawein).
(El
Buccoo Reef NR, Trinidad and
Bolbometopon muracatum 345
360,361,362
Bio-05
Jamaica
Cabrits NP, Dominica 159, 166
Barbuda
308
The Brothers
112,
113, 116
284, 285
39
Brushwood FS,
Chagos
Egypt 236. 239
blue-green algae see
Bocas del Toro, Panama
284, 285
Territory
Broome. Northern Australia
Blue Hole NM, Belize 118, 120
134, 135
Cabugan MuMR, Philippines
Ocean
Britomart Reef. Australia 312 brittle stars
blue coral 22, 33, 309, 354, 364
Bermuda 95, 100, 101-2 Bermuda Platform 101 Bermuda Rise 101
British Indian
35
Archipelago
Bloody Bay-Jackson Point MP,
Cayman
worms
226-9, see also
blenny, nalolo 184
Little
Brisbane, Australia 318 bristle
126, 129
Cabo Corrientes, Cuba 134
32
jellyfish
Cabo Blanco SNR. Costa Rica
284, 285
Cannouan,
St,
Vincent and the
Grenadines 160
Index
Cantherhines macrocerus 150
Caohagan MR/TZ. Philippines
Chaeotdon fasciatus 234
International Trade
Cat Ba Islands. Vietnam 289-90
Chaetodon baronessa 352
Endangered Species
Guinea 326. 327 Cat Be NP. Vietnam 288. 291
Chaetodon falcula 183
Cap d'Ambre, Madagascar 195
Catanduanes. Philippines 282
Chaetodon
Cap
la
Houssaye 206
The Cathedral PA. Bermuda
Chaetodon lineolatus 379
Cap
la
Houssaye-St. Joseph,
284. 285
Reunion
MP
206. 209
Cap-Haitien. Haiti 151
Cape Arnhem. Northern Cape
Grenville.
Cape
Melville
Queensland
31
NP. Queensland
Cape
Chaetodon stnatus 164
Ciathria venosa 135
Chaetodontidae 41
cleaner wrasse 41, 42, 199
Caulerpa 30
Chagos Archipelago 179.212.226-9
Cauvin Bank. British Indian
Chagos goby 226
climate change 59, 61-2
Chagos
Clipperton Atoll 93, 110, 114,
Ocean
Territory 227
York,
Queensland
31
Queensland 308. 311. 317 Capricorn Channel. Australia
315 Capricorn-Bunker Islands, Australia 310. 314. 315, 316
103,
134
Cayman
Cape York Peninsula.
Brae.
Cayman
Islands
134, 142
Cayman Dive Lodge RpZ, Grand Cayman 142, 143 Cayman Islands 110. 134. 139, 141-3
Caracas. Venezuela 169
Cayman Trench
Caraquet PA. Bermuda 100. 102
Cayo Coco/Cayo GuiUermo TNA,
Caravelle LtCA/NR. Martinique
Cuba
121, 141
Cayo Lobos, Mexico 115
284, 285
Carcharhinus ambtyrhynchos
Cayo Norte. Mexico
1
Cargados Carajos, Mauritius 206, 207
134.
Cayo Sabinal TNA. Cuba 134,
1
12.
1
14
biodiversity 27
Cayos Arenas. Mexico
coral decline 59. 63. 93
Cayos Cajones, Honduras 123
Eastern 147. 148
Cayos Cochmos. Honduras
112. 114
Cayos Cochinos BiR, Honduras
Western 110-12
Caribbean Current 114, 125,
Caribbean
monk
Cayos de Ana Maria WRef. Cuba Cayos de
seal 58
Caroline Island, see Millennium
la
Cordillera RNat.
measurement 82
coastline protection 55
Chelbacheb (Rock) Islands.
Cobourg MP, Northern
Palau 355
Australia 308, 321
Cobourg Peninsula, Northern
rostratus 314
Chelonia mydas 105, 122. 209
New
Site.
Cockburn Harbour, Turks and Caicos88
Chlorodesmis
Cockburn Town. Turks and
31
Caicos 107
Solomon Islands
330.
Coco Islands. Myanmar 214. 262
331 Christiansted Harbor.
US
Virgin
coconut crab 228
Coconut Island-Hawai't Marine
Islands 154 Kirilimati.
Laboratory Ref 393. 396
Cocos
Kiribati
Island.
Western
Guam
Island.
350
Cocos Island NP/World Heritage
Costa Rica 126,
Site,
129
Cocos (Keeling! Islands.
Australia 306. 321
307
Australia 302, 306, 307
Coetivy Island, Seychelles 200,
202
Chromis vindis 364
Chubb
Northern Australia 308.
321
Chironex fleckeri 32
Choiseul.
Australia 308
Cobourg Peninsula Ramsar
Chromis cyanea 95
Cayos Miskitos RMar, Nicaragua 122, 123, 124
Island. Kiribati
coastline
Christmas Island frigatebird
Puerto Rico 154. 157
Caridea 36
Islands 154
management,
integrated 76
Cheilinus undulatus 42. 49, 58
Christmas Island NP, Western
126, 130, 131
134, 137
130
coastal
Charlotte Amalie, British Virgin
Australia 302. 306. 307
Cayos de Albuquerque. Colombia
islands
chapeiroes 174
Christmas
122. 123. 124
see also indtvidal countries/
coastal development 46, 57
Reef, Mexico 115
Christmas Island see
121-2, 123
sponge fauna 31-2
co-evolution 27
Chankanab
Chlorophyta 30.31
Cayos Areas, Mexico
reefs at risk 65
Cnidarians 32-4
Challenger Deep 300. 351
chitons 37
137
Caribbean 92-3
Challenger Bank 101
Caledonia 334, 335, 336
137
389, 390, 391
clownfish 321
China 288. 290-1.292
1
Cayo Romano NP, Cuba
234 Caretta caretta bA. 316
212.216,221.226
Chesterfield Islands.
131
Gierke Reef. Western Australia
306
Stricture 212. 221, 226
Chelmon
134, 137
Cayo de Roncador, Colombia
160, 167
Carbin Reef MuP, Philippines
20. 61, 73,
Chagos-Laccadive Ridge 178,
Cay Sal Bank, Bahamas
Cape Verde 174
38. 52. 58. 332. 345. 357.
358. 379
Cau Mau Peninsula. Vietnam
Cay Corker, Belize 118
311
Cladophora catenata 135
clams
Cato Reefs. Australia 318, 319
289
Australia 308
Cittarum pica 105
358
flavirostris
Chaetodon oxycephalus 261
100, 102
in
Coleoidea 38
Bahamas
Cay,
105
Colombia 130-2
Caroline Islands, see Palau
CazonesGulf. Cuba 134, 136
Chukai. Malaysia 266
Colombo,
Carondelet, Phoenix Islands,
Cebu. Philippines 281, 283. 284.
Chumbe
Colombus, Christopher 79
365
Kiribati 363.
Caroni
Swamp
285
FoR, Trinidad
of.
Northern
St.
Irian
Jaya
Vincent and the
Grenadines 160
of
Cephaiopholis miniata 199
Cartier Island. Northern
Cephalopoda 38
Carybdea alata 32
Cerf Island, Seychelles 200, 204
Cenanthana 33 certification schemes 74
cast nets 47. 48
Cevi-i-Ra iConway Reefl.
Casteaux Islands. Papua
New
343, 344
Federated States
Micronesia 32. 348
Chuuk Lagoon. Federated
Chuuk
Carysfort/South Carysfort Reef,
cetaceans 44, 316
Atoll,
States of Micronesia 359
Cerantharia 33
Florida 96
Islands. Thailand
261.262
Cartagena, Colombia 130. 131
Cassiopea 32
Island Coral Park MS,
Tanzania 187. 189
Chuuk
212-14 Cephalopholis argus 369
Australia 308. 309
Chumbe
Chumphon
274, 277
Central Indian Ocean 61.
Australia 308. 309, 311
Carriacou.
Colombus
187. 188
Celebes Sea see Sulawesi Sea
Cendrawasih Bay,
160 Carpentaria. Gulf
Island. Tanzania 186,
of
[Trukl,
Federated States
Micronesia 356, 358, 359
Cienaga de Zapata
Fiji
NP/UNE5C0
Colon,
Sri
Lanka 218
Reef, Belize 118
Panama 126
Colpophyllia natans 121
Colvocoresses Reef. British Indian Ocean Comarca Kuna
Panama
Territory 227 Yala indCo,
129
Commissioner's Point Area PA,
Bermuda 100, 102 Comoros 180. 195. 197-9 Con Dao iCon Son]
Islands.
Vietnam 289
Biosphere Reserve, Cuba 134.
Con Dao NP, Vietnam 288, 291
137
Conception Island, Bahamas
ciguatera 31. 49
CITES see Convention on
103
Conception Island NP.
407
408
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Bahamas
Cuneuse MNP, Seychelles
value of 47, 66. 76
100, 105
Conservation International 329
zonation of 24-6
mapping;
Constellation Area PA,
see also
Bermuda 100, 102 consumers 73-5
reef monitoring; reef
Endangered Species
in
(CITES) 50-1. 278
Conway Reef
[Ceva-i-Ral,
Fiji
3U
3^3.
James
79,
30^
New
Cook
Reef.
Cook
Reef. Vanuatu 338. 3i0
Caledonia 335
customary tenure 67
decorator crab 373
cuttlefish 38
deforestation 269, 333
Cuzco Beach, Guantanamo,
Del Este NP. Dominican
318,321 122. 123
cornetfish 367
Isla
115. 116
Mujeres APFFS, Mexico 112,
225
1
1
130,
coral grouper 199
Cayman
Club RpZ.
U3
Derby. Northern Australia 308
Cypraea 37
Desecheo
Daedalus (Abu
El Kizanl.
Coral Reefs of the World 89-90
Cozumel
227, 229
Island.
Mexico
1
14,
244. 245. 246
Dampier Archipelago. Western damselfish 22.
Coral Sea Plateau 319
crab, coconut/robber 228
coral shrimps 36
crabs36-7. 307, 373
humbug 344
Corales del Rosario NatNP.
Crawl Cay. Belize 118
white-belly 374
Colombia
Crawl Cay, Nicaragua 122, 123
131. 133
Crinoidea 39
coralline algae 226
Cristobal,
corals 15-16. 33-5
Cristobal Colon PA.
adaptation 61-2
354
Crocodylus porosus 354
Crooked Bank. Bahamas 103
communities 24-6
reproduction and dispersion
Crown
Island
WMA, Papua New
Guinea 326. 329
23 trade
in
50-1. 278
coral reefs
192.
compound
threats to 63-5
genetic resources global
in
53-4
management 72-3 of
66-7
134-7
overfishing of 57-9
Cubozoa 32
ownership
Cuchillas del Toa
damage
62-3. 64
productivity of
Cumberland
restoration of 75
Queensland 312, 315
22
and sea temperatures
Curacao, Netherlands Antilles
20,
59-62
and sedimentation types of 16-17
Islands.
161, 169. 170-1 22. 24,
57
Curacao UP. Netherlands Antilles 169, 171
39. 61
Islets.
Australia 318
185
Point MP.
Cayman
Islands
Diego Garcia. British Indian
New
Guinea 308,
Territory 73. 226-8. 229
East Timor 273, 308
Dmgalan
308, 309
Bay, Philippines 282
Dinoflagellata 31
mapping
18.
79.
307
Diplona spp, 62, 121 Diploma cUvosa
80
theory of atoll development 17
Yemen
Ocean
Diego Suarez. Madagascar 195 Dill,
247, 248
1
Diplona stngosa disc
1
30
anemones 33
138
Davao
Gulf, Philippines
David.
Panama
Discovery Bay Marine
285
Laboratory 140
126
Dawat Ad-Dafl/Dawat
disease see coral disease
Al-
Musallamiyah/Coral Islands
diving 54-5, 69
PA. Saudi Arabia 241. 252. 255
Djibouti 245. 248.
Daymaniyat Islands,
50
Discovery Bay. Jamaica UO.
Dascyllus aruanus 344 Dascyllus carneus 42
153. 154
Diadematidae
Dtctyota 135. 150. 163
313,326
Darsa.
Culebra Island. Puerto Rico
47-53
Darnley Island, Queensland
reef
101,
142. 143
102
Darwin, Charles
UNESCO
137
pollution of 22. 24. 57
salinity
81, 110,
Biosphere Reserve, Cuba 134.
of 16,
100,
Darwin, Northern Australia
Cuba
physical
Bermuda
Daru, Papua
Venezuela
,
Dick Sessingers Bay-Beach
Parley Reef, Australia 312
Ctenella cfiagius 226 Site,
250
diatoms 30
186, 187, 188
Dart Reef, Australia 312, 318
169,171
67
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 46,
311,313
and ocean currents 20-1
of
(PrivRl,
Crustacea 35-7
Cuare Ramsar
growth 15-16
knowledge
197.207.295.314,316,
341.353.357
Oman
Diamond Reef MNP, Antigua and Barbuda 166 DianiMNaR. Kenya 182, 184.
18
1
Philippines 284, 285
Darlington PA,
crown-of-thorns starfish 60,
Dhofar.
dhow 66, 186 Diadema antiUarum 61 93 D/adema die-off 61. 64, 98,
Diamond
229 Dangriga. Belize
223.
225
163. 166
British
Territory 227.
Danjugan Island
crocodile, estuarine
evolution 21-2
and
Bermuda
100. 102
UO
disease 62-3, 93,
reef
126. 127
Ocean
Haa DS, Maldives
132. 135. 140. 143, 147. 152-3.
Danger Island SNR. Indian
Panama
29,41.42
28,
220
devil scorpionfish
Dhigali
Australia 305, 306, 307
Corallimorpharia 33
Cuba
224, 225
236. 239
Daito Islands. Japan 292, 294
115,116
Site,
Devana Kandu DS, Maldives
Dahlak Archipelago, Red Sea
British Indian
Granma
del
NPA/Vorld Heritage 134, 137
Cow
SNR,
Island. Puerto Rico
Desembarco
Red
Dahab PCo. Egypt
Island
200,
154
Dahab, Egypt 236
cowrie 37
CoralSea302, 310, 311-12
D
Cousine Island 73
coral reefs, see reefs
New
Caledonia 334, 335
Cousine. Seychelles 201
Ocean Territory
coral mining 189. 220. 222
Guinea 326, 327
D'Entrecasteaux Reefs,
Sea 239. 242
201.204
58
U2,
New
338
Dacyitus trimaculatus 180
131
Cousin Island SpNR, Seychelles
causes 59-62
Islands
Uma
202
Courtown Cays. Colombia
Isle
Cyclone
spp- 174
Des Noeufs. Seychelles
Costa Rica Coastal Current
Coral
D'Entrecasteaux Islands, Papua
Costa Rica 125-8, 129
Coral Atoll Program 80
map
Dendropoma
Cyclone Ofa 373
cyclones301.338, 373. 379
Isla
coral bleaching 56, 103-4. 179.
global
Dendroptiyllia dilatata 175
115. 116
anemones 33
coral
112.
Dendroneptittiya 33
Cyanophyta 29
Cyclone Val 373
Costa Occidental de British Virgin
Republic 151. 152
283-4
Seychelles
Atoll.
202
CozumelAPFFS. Mexico
Islands 154, 157
Cuba 137 cyanide fishing 48. 50. 59, 278,
Cooper
Islands 15i
235
rift
Coringa-Herald NNR, Australia
Costa Occidental de
Island, British Virgin
Dead Sea
individual currents
Coringa Islands. Australia 318
Cooktown, Queensland 311
Cooper Island BS.
and
British
Virgin Islands 154, 157
Decapoda 36-7
Cosmoledo
Cook Islands 381-4
Dead Chest Island BS,
curio industry 53
Curtis Island. Queensland 315
Baudo 132
Corn Cays, Nicaragua
Cook, Captain
248, 250. 252
currents see ocean currents
protection; Reefs at Risk
Cordillera del
Convention on International
Trade
reef; reef
Oman
Daymaniyat Islands NR,
201,204
Oman
248
249-50
Doberai Peninsula see Bird's
Index
Head Peninsula, Dog
Island.
Irian
AnguiUa
Jaya
158, 159
Doha (Ad Dawhah), Qatar
252,
Dolangan GR, Indonesia 273, 279
Ensenada de Colombia
131, 133
Epi Island, Vanuatu 338, 339
Efate [Vate) Island, Vanuatu 338.
Epinepheius sp, 290
Epmephelus lanceolatusAO,
340
Dominica 159, 162-3, 166
Egg
Dominican Republic 150-2
Egmont,
dominos 180
Bahamas
Islands,
British Indian
Ocean
New
Egum
Dothio River, Grande Terre
Egypt 236. 237-9, 242
AtoU, Papua
Guinea
326, 327
336-7
maps
Biosphere Reserve, Florida
Ramsar
Site,
Western Australia 306. 308 EilatCoralR. Israel 236. 239 Eklonia spp. 247
99
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
252
Egypt
Ducie, Pitcairn Islands 389. 390
Duff Islands.
Solomon Islands
dugong44. 192,316,317.354
Dugong dugon
44.
1
92, 31
6,
1
WRef. Honduras
ElNidoMR.
Philippines 284,
285
Durand Reef. New Caledonia
El
Nino Southern Oscillation
El
23,
61-2
Quebrachal WRef, Honduras 123. 124
El Salvador 123. 124 El
Eagle, British Indian
Ocean
Territory 227
183. 185. 186
East Australia Current 302, 310,
320
Whale Sanctuary Site 112
East Rennell World Heritage
Solomon Islands 331-3
East Timor 273. 308
Eastern Blue Cut PA,
Micronesia 355
Bahamas
104
Bermuda
Eastern Caribbean 147, 148 Eastern Fields Reefs. Australia
Australia 318, 320. 321
elkhorncoral34,
93. 108, 119.
Eastern Peros Banhos Atoll
Ocean
Territory 227, 229
eastern triangle butterflyfish
352
see Tuvalu,
Polynesia
Emae Island. Vanuatu 340 Embudu Channel DS. Maldives
Micronesia 355
Channel CA, Palau 359
Farsi,
Arabian Gulf 252
Fasht
Adham
339
342. 343
Fiji
Ethiopia 245
Falutaka Island, Solomon Islands 330, 331
Fawaspp. 175 1
74
Fayu, Federated States of
Eua NP, Tonga 378, 380 Eucheuma 52. 364
feather stars 39, 266. 289, 330
Eunicea spp. 168
Federated States of Micronesia
Euphrates River 251
Micronesia 356, 358
355-6, 358-9
Eurasian tectonic plate 272
Felidu AtoU, Maldives 221. 223
Europa seellot d'Europa
Fernandina, Ecuador 131, 133
Eusimilia fastigiata 121
Fernando de Noronha MNP, Brazil 172, 173, 175 Fiji
300, 342-5
NPs/UNESCC Biosphere
early reef
Reserve, Florida 96, 99
threats to reefs 20, 50, 344-5
Everglades NP, Florida 96, 99
Fiji
Exmouth
Filitheyo
Western
Gulf,
Australia 306
Exploring Isles,
maps 78-9
Platform 342. 343
Kandu DS, Maldives
224. 225 Fiji
343. 344
Exuma Cays 105 Exuma Land and Sea Park NP, Bahamas 104, 105 Exuma Sound, Bahamas 104
fire
corals 32
fish
40-3
dispersal 23 diversity
27
see also named Fish
fish
Head DS. Maldives
223,
fish traps
48
fisheries 47-51
Endeavour see Space Shuttle Strait.
Fadhipolhu AtoU, Maldives 223 Fagatele Bay
Islands 392
Queensland
Samoa
NaMS. American
New
Caledonia
Atoll,
Marshall
Fris AtoU. Federated States of
Fakaofo
Atoll,
fish
stocks 57-8
history 47
Micronesia 355, 358
365
schemes 74 enhancement 75 certification
export 49-50
375. 376
Fairway Reef. 335. 336
Enderbury, Phoenix Islands,
Enewetak
Fatu Hiva, French Polynesia
Favia gravida
Tonga 377. 378
Tokelau 375
Islands 360, 361,362
Fakarava, Tuamotu Islands,
Echinoidea 39, 61
Enggano, Sumatra 267
French Polynesia 385. 387
Echtnopora lameitosa 34
Ensenada. Mexico 112
Echinoderms 38-40
Bahrain
387
HR, Puerto Rico 154, 157
'Eua,
reefs.
254
Australia 306.
Emperor Seamounts. Hawaiian
Kiribati
Micronesia 355 faros 117,221,277
225
311
Eauripik, Federated States of
Arabia 241. 245
Esmeralda Bank, Mariana
321
Endeavor
244, 245
Farasan Islands PA, Saudi
Farquhar AtoU. Seychelles 202
223. 225
Emden H5PZ.
311,319.326 "Eastern Pacific Barrier" 93
British Indian
NNR,
Mariana Islands 350, 351
Esmeraldas, Ecuador 131
Everglades and Dry Tortugas
Ellice Islands
100. 102
Vanuatu
Elato, Federated States of
121. 122, 128. 140. 149. 155
Eastern Atlantic 92
Island.
eutrophication 22, 24, 57
Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs
107
Erromango
Elapidae 43
Eleuthera Island,
East Caicos. Turks and Caicos
Ebiil
Egypt 236
World Heritage
East African Coastal Current
SNR.
El Tur,
(Suez), Egypt 236
El Vizcaino.
East Africa 178
Site.
Suweis
Islands63, 350. 351.353
Faraulep, Federated States of
Eritrea 244, 245. 246
Ethel Reef,
lENSOl Events
335
188,208
Estuarina Nacional Bahia Jobos
124
317,354
Equatorial Undercurrent 133
Espintu Santo, Vanuatu 338, 123.
Farallon de MediniUa, Mariana
Farasan Islands, Red Sea 240.
Islands 350. 352
15
ElGiote. Mexico 114, 115 El Jicanto
330. 331
Mexico
El Garrafon.
Fangauta and Fanga Kakau
Farallon de Pajaros (Uracasl.
338, 340
Akhawein see The Brothers,
El
Equatorial Channel, Maldives
Eretmocheiys imbricataA2,
Eighty Mile Beach
Fangataufa AtoU 389
Lagoons MR. Tonga 378. 380
377
Equatorial Current 360
Ocean 214
DryTortugasNP/UNESCO
Epinepheius polyphekadion
300. 360
threats to reefs 53. 55
DryTortugas. Florida 96, 97
Fana, Palau 354. 355 41
Equatorial Counter Current
78. 79
Eight Degree Channel. Indian
Drupetta 307
British Virgin Islands 154, 157
Falmouth, Jamaica 138
224
early reef
drop-off 24
Fallen Jerusalem Island BS,
Epinepheius stnatus 136
Dongsha Qundao Reefs see Tung-Sha Reefs
96, 98,
104, 105
Territory 226, 227
drugs 54
NatNP.
Utria
131. 132. 133
education 67, 76
dolphins 44, 316
Micronesia 355 Fallaron de MediniUa reef 63
126. 129
Ecsenius naloio 184
Ecuador
254
Ensenada de Muertos. Panama
Ecklonia radiata 305 ecolabeling 74
Falalop, Federated States of
Uve trade 49, 58, 284, 290.
317,345 productivity 50-1
protected areas 70
see also aquarium trade;
maricuUure
409
410
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
George Town, Cayman Islands
French Frigate Shoals,
fishing
blast 48. 59, 189, 199,278,
Hawaiian Islands 393, 395,
283, 295
397
cyanide 48, 50, 59, 278, 283-4 Legal controls
68-9
giant
357, 358, 379
385-9. 391
target species 48-50 traditional controls
Frigate
67-8
Rock \NR.
Vincent
St,
fringing reefs 16, 20
Meno/Gili Air/Gili
Trawangan RP, Indonesia 279
Flacq FiR, filauntius 206, 209
Fugo Island MR/TZ, Philippines 282, 284
flalworms 35
311 Flinders Reefs, Australia 312,
313,318,320-1 Flint,
372
gleaning 47-8
366
Flores, Indonesia 273, 277
Fushi Kandu DS, Maldives 224.
225
Flores 5ea, Indonesia 273, 277,
308
Global Coral Reef Monitoring
Network 65
189
Flora Reef, Australia 312, 318
Fushivaru Thila DS. Maldives 223. 225
Guadeloupe
Terre,
159,
162
Grand Turk Cays Land and Sea NP, Turks and Caicos 107.
global area, estimates 17, 18 187,
New
107
Fungu Kisimkasi see Latham
MR, Tanzania
New
Grand Turk, Turks and Caicos
120
Gleaner Reef, Tonga 377, 378
Yasini
Grand Recif Sud,
Grande
glaciations 21, 22, 93
Fungia 38, 113
Fungu
Madagascar 194-6
Caledonia 335
Gladstone, Queensland 315
Island, Tanzania
Line Islands, Kiribati
268,
Gladden Spit MR, Belize 118,
Funafuti, Tuvalu, Polynesia 371,
Flinders Entrance, Torres Strait
Recif,
Caledonia 334
Fromia monilis 180
flatback turtle 316
FiR,
Grand Recif de Koumac,
Fua Mulaku, Maldives 224
66, 186
Grand
364, 365
Fistuiana commersonii 367
fishing
Caledonia
335
Mauritius 206, 209
Gilbert Islands, Kiribati 363,
Gill
New
Grand Passage,
Grand Port-Mahebourg
giant grouper 40, 41
and the Grenadines 160. 167
unsustainable 57-9
dhow
French grunt 165
Grand Macabou LtCA, Martinique 160, 167
Solomon Islands 331 clam 38, 52, 58, 332, 345,
Ghizo,
French Polynesia 52, 301,
methods 47-8
141, 142
108
Grande Terre, New Caledonia 334, 335, 336-7
global distribution 18
Grande
Global Positioning Systems
Grapsus
IGPSI81 global
Terre, Seychelles 202 sp, 192
Great Astrolabe Reef,
warming 62
Fiji
342,
343, 344
Florida 95, 96, 97-9
Futuna, Polynesia 371, 372
Glovers Reef, Belize 118, 119
Great
Straits of 96, 104
Futuna Island. Vanuatu 340
Glovers Reef MR, Belize 118,
Great Barrier Reef 14, 28. 301.
Florida Everglades 96, 97 Florida Islands,
Gnathodentex aurolineatus
Islands 331, 332-3
Florida Keys
NaMS
99
Gulf of Mexico 95, 98-9
Flower Garden Banks, Gulf
Atoll.
Maldives 223
Papua New Guinea
325,326,327,328 Venus Reef, Cook Islands
381,382
Fondo Cabo San Lucas APFFS, Mexico 112, 116
Goidu Atoll see Horsburgh Atoll
human impacts 55, 316-17 management and research
Golfe de Takjoura. Djibouti 248
317
Golfede
mass spawning events 23
Galapagos Islands MRR/World Heritage Site/UNESCO
Fort
George Land and Sea NP,
Turks and Caicos 107, 108 Fort Lauderdale. Florida 96 Fort Point P. British Virgin
Islands 154, 157
Fort-de-France, Martinique 160, 163
Fortune Island MRATZ, Philippines 282, 284
Madagascar 195 Frank Sound RpZ, Cayman Foulpointe,
Islands 142, 143
Frederick Reefs, Australia 318,
319
la
Gonave.
northern reefs 302, 313
131, 133
Golfo de Batabano,
Gama, Vasco da 79 Gambler Islands, French
Cuba
Islands 393, 395
Honduras 123
Panama
126. 129
Golfo de San Bias 126, 128
Mandebl, Red Sea 244, 245 Gaveshani Bank, India 215 Gazelle Peninsula, Papua
Gonaives, Haiti 151
Goodenough
New
Papua
Bay,
New
Gordon Reef, Red Sea 237
218, 219
Great Chagos Bank, British Indian
Ocean
Territory 226,
Great Corn Island, Nicaragua 122, 123, 124
Barrier Reef 311
Islands 288
Bahamas 104 Bahamas 104
Gorgonia ventalina 132
Great Exuma,
Gebel Elba, Egypt 235
gorgonian corals
Great Inagua,
Gebel Elba CA, Egypt 239
gorgonians 33. 101
Great Nicobar, India 214
Gecarcoidea nataiis 307
Gram Coast 175
Great Nicobar
Gemini Seamounts, Vanuatu 338
Grand Cayman. Cayman Islands
genetic resources 53-4
110. 134, 141,
1
13-14, 135
141-3
Genkai QNP, Japan 292, 296
Grande Comoro
Fregate, Seychelles 201
geographical information
Grand Cul-de-Sac Mann
Turks and Caicos 1Q7, 108
82-3
Great Basses Reef, Sri Lanka
Great Discovery Reef, Spratly
Fregate, Mauritius 207
French, Bush and Seal Cays S,
315,317,321
Great Detached Reef, Great
Guinea 326
Guinea 326, 327
CoMPMorld
227
Rica 126 Golfo de Uraba, Colombia 131
el
Great Barrier Reef
80,
Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica 126, 128
Lamentations IBab
Swam and Pompey complexes
Great Barrier Reef expedition
Golfo de Santa Elena, Costa
Gastropoda 37
origins 310
HeritageSite71,72, 304, 311,
Golfo de Nicoya. Costa Rica 126 Golfo de
Indian
Gardner Pinnacles, Hawaiian
of
126.
134. 137
Golfo de
126. 129
Gate
Panama
Golfo de Guacanayabo.
Costa Rica
Ganges Bank, British Ocean Territory 227
134.
129
Maldives 224
Site,
Cuba
313-14,315
Golfo de Chiriqui.
Gambierdiscus toxlcus3^
NWR/Ramsar
Ana Maria. Cuba 134
135. 136
Polynesia 385-6, 387
Atoll,
Haiti 149.
151
Golfo de
Gandoca-Manzanillo
Andaman Sea
Chagos 226
Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador
forest fires 269
262
central section 313
currents 310-11
sp. 161
goby.
Gan, Addu
Forrest Strait,
Gobfosoma
Galapagos Islands, Ecuador
Forcipiger flavissimus 42
Formosa Bay, Kenya 182
60,314,316
Galana River. Kenya 182, 184
13C, 131 of
Mexico 99. 112, 115
Flying
Gaa Faru
biodiversity 27.
Capricorn-Bunker group 314
goatfish 40 96, 97, 98,
Flower Garden Banks NafwIS,
Fly River,
41
251
Florida Keys 96
103
311-12 315.318
120
Solomon
Bahama Bank
systems
IGISI
89-90
George Town, Bahamas 104
NR/Ramsar
197, 198
Site,
159, 162, 166
Guadeloupe
UNESCO
Biosphere Reserve, India 217 Great Palm Island, Queensland
312 Great Sea Reef,
Fiji
342, 343
Great Tobago Island. British Virgin Islands 154
Index
Greater
Greater
Lucia (South Africa!
St.
WP190. St.
Lucia Wetland Park
World Heritage
South
Site,
Greater Sunda Islands 268
Green Cay NWR. US Virgin Island. Great Barrier
316
60,
Green Island Reefs PRes,
green
turtle 105, 122,
Ul,209.
316 160. 164.
Grenadines 160, 164-5
GulfofOman248,
Haputo ERA,
trade
Banda RP,
m
Nassau 136
H
Guadeloupe Channel 159 Guadeloupe Passage 159 348. 350,
351-3
Guam 353
hawksbiU
Vietnam 288. 291
Ha'amonga
Trilithon P.
123,
Ha'apai Group, Tonga 377, 378.
Guanacaste World Heritage Costa Rica 126, 129
Site,
Haatafu Beach
R,
Tonga 378,
380
Guanaja, Honduras 123
Hachijo Island, Japan 292
Guanlanamo, Cuba
Hadummati
Atoll.
Haemuiidae
h\
Guantanamo
Bay,
134, 137
US Naval
Base, Cuba 137
Guapinol WRef, Honduras 123, 124
Gubal
123, 124
Straits,
Guguan
Red Sea 236
Island.
Mariana Islands
350
Gulf of
Aden
57, 233, 234, 244,
246. 247-9
249-50
northern Somalia 248. 250
Aqaba
235. 235-7, 236
Gulf of California 112, 113 Gulf of Guinea 174-5 Gulf of
Honduras 117
Cayman Islands 142, 143 Heemskercq Reefs, Fiji 342,
Hall Islands, Federated States
Micronesia 356, 358
Halmahera.
Irian
Jaya 273-4.
277
Halmahera Sea, Indonesia
of
288, 291
Solomon Islands 331
Honiara,
Honolulu, Oahu, Hawaiian Islands 393 Island,
hook and
Hebopora coerulea
Hormuz Hormuz
22. 33. 309,
354. 364
Japan 292, 294
line fishing
Island, Iran Straits,
48
255
Arabian Gulf
57,247,251.252,253.255
Heliporacea 33 Island, Pitcairn
Horn
Island.
Queensland 31
Horsburgh (Goidul
Islands 389
390,391
Atoll,
Maldives 223
Horsburgh
Island,
Western
Australia 306
Horseshoe Reef,
British Virgin
Islands 154, 156
292, 293
Heniochus diphreutes 205 Herald Cays, Australia 312. 318,
Horseshoe Reef PA.
British
Virgin Islands 154. 157
Horseshoe Reef MP, Papua
Hereheretue, French Polynesia
New
Guinea 326. 329
Horseshoe Reef.
387
Hermes and Minnie Breslauer PA, Bermuda 100. 102 .Hermit Islands,
Papua
New
Guinea 326, 327
Hamelin Pool, Western
Heron
St.
Vincent
Grenadines 160
hotspots205, 212, 216, 221, 226, 300
hermit crabs 36
heron 44
hammerhead shark 98-9
see Gulf
consumption 59
Helen Reef, Patau 354, 355
Haiophila hawaiiana 395
Australia 305, 306
fish
Honshu
319
273-4
Yemen 250 Gulf of
Moon Cay, Belize 118 Moon Cay NaM, Belize
of
Honduras
livefishtrade49, 317, 345
Barkers-Flats RpZ,
Hengchun Peninsula, Taiwan
Thila DS, Maldives 225
Ha//mec/a spp. 30, 135,313
of
biodiversity 247. 249 Djibouti
Tonga
118, 120
285. 286
Guinea, Gulf of 174-5
of
Heritage Site, Pitcairn Islands R,
378, 379, 380
Hakura Half
Virgin
Henderson Island World
149-50, 151
Hakaumama'o Reef
Honduras, Gulf
Hong Kong
316
Henderson
Hainan. China 288, 290
Half
Guindolman ETC. Philippines
Maldives 224
Haemulon flavotineatum 165 Haiti
Guatemala
97
96,
turtle 43, 105. 188,
Hawksnest Bay, US
Head
Holothurians 39-40
Honduras 121-2, 123
seal 395
343, 344
380
124
Hotothuna scabra 379
Islands 154, 155
Tonga
380
Guamera WRef, Honduras
Hotocanthus citians 124
UNESCO
Hawk's Channel, Florida
Ha Long Bay, Vietnam 289, 290 Ha Long Bay World Heritage Site,
TSea, Micronesia 350,
monk
120
Holmes Reef, Great Barrier Reef312,318
393. 396. 397
Hawaiian Islands
Hawaiian
159, 162, 163
Hoi Chan MR, Belize 70, 118,
NWR
Biosphere Reserve 393, 396
330,331,332,333
Guam, Micronesia
NMS
Whale
Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands
Guadeloupe
18 sitesl
Hawaiian Islands Humpback
Gymnothorax meteagns 295
grunts 41
hogfish 101
Hogsty Reef, Bahamas 103
Hawaiian Islands 369, 392-7
393, 396
Gygis alba 73
Bermuda
PA.
100. 102
Hawaiian Islands
Maldives 223, 225
peacock 369
Hog Breaker
393
Guraidhoo Channel OS,
marbled 377
Current 310
Hispaniola 149-52
Hawaii Volcanoes NP. Hawai'i
274
49, 58
Islands 154, 156, 157
Hiri
134. 135
395
Gunung Lorentz NP, Indonesia
leopard 304 live
Api
Havana. Cuba 134
Havana Bay. Cuba
Indonesia 273. 279
Queensland 312
Hippopus hippopus 379
Hawaii Island 300. 392. 393.
Gunung
Bay FMA, Hawai'i 393
Hind Bank MarCD. Virgin
78,79
War 253
groupers
290
Hat Nopharal Thara-Mu Ko Phi
Hatshepsut, Queen, temple of
gulls 183. 364
Philippines
Hinchinbrook Island,
Stream
Gulf
40. 120. 255,
Hilo
Phi NP, Thailand 262. 265
95. 103
MuMR,
285, 286
251.252.254
ground-truthing 83, 86, 88
coral 199
350, 353
262. 265
263. 267. 288
Australia 308
Guam
Hila-ltan
Hat Chao Mai NP, Thailand
Papua 325, 326
Hikkaduwa Marine NR, Sn Lanka 218, 220
Hao, French Polynesia 387
Gulf of Thailand 259, 261,262.
Groot Eylandt, Northern
223,
Gulf of Mexico 98-9, 112, 114
Gulfof Paria 160, 166
Lanka 218,
Sri
220
225
250, 251,252
Guinea
325
Hikkaduwa,
Islands 393
Hans Place DS, Maldives
New
Highlands, Papua
Hawaiian
215.216.217
Gulf of Suez 233. 235-7
165-6
higher plants 30-1
Hawaiian Islands 393, 396 i,
Hibernia Reef, Northern Australia 308, 309
MLCD, Oahu,
Hanoi, Vietnam 288
Gulf
Grenada
MNP/UNESCO
Gulf of Salwah, Arabian Gulf
green snail 58
Bay,
Biosphere Reserve, India 214,
Gulf of
Antigua and Barbuda 159, 166
Bay, Oahu. Hawaiian
Islands 392, 393, 395, 397
Hanelei Bay, Kaua
Gulf of Martaban 262
Islands 154, 157
Reef
Gulf of Mannar, India/Sri Lanka
Gulf of Mannar,
green algae 30
Hana'uma Hana'uma
216,217
214.215-16,218
Africa 190, 193
Green
GulfofKutch, India 214, 215-16 Gulf of Kutch S/NP. India 214,
193
Island, Great Barrier
Reef 314, 315 Heteractis sp. 33
Houtman, Frederick 305
Houtman Abrolhos
Islands.
Western Australia 305. 306, 307
Howland
Island, US/Kiribati
364, 394, 397
412
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Howland Island NWR,
HP
Cocos PA, Seychelles 201,
lie
203, 204
US/Kiribati 39A, 396
Reef DS, Maldives 223, 225
ledela Gonave,
Haiti 149, 151
NP/Ramsar Site. Bahamas 104, 105 Inban MuMR, Philippines Inagua
Hsiao-Lui-Chui, Taiwan 293
lede laTortue,
Huahine. Society Islands 388
le
Denis. Seychelles 201
India 179,212, 214,
Huangyan Dao see Scarborough
le
Desroches. Seychelles 200.
Indian
Yemen
Hulao Hulao Reef
2/i5,
Pam SpFR. New
le
ILb
MuMR,
Humboldt SpR, New Caledonia 335. 337
Indispensable Reefs, Solomon
le
Therese, Seychelles 201
le
Tromelin, Western Indian
Ocean 209
New
Caledonia 33A,
326, 327
Guinea 326 238
53, 236,
Hurricane Allen 63-4, 139,
UO
Hurricane George 98
New
Caledonia
Caledonia
des Saintes, Guadeloupe
Western Indian
Ocean 208-9 198,208-9
197,
Indian
NR, Western
Ocean 209
Portugueses FR, Mozambique
Hurricane Hugo 155
190, 193
see also individual countries/
Ingham, Queensland 312
Mozambique
190, 191. 192
Initao
MP. Philippines 285. 286
Queensland 312
International Center for Living
Aquatic Resources
Management IICLARMI 84 communities 24
Andaman
Sea 262
lotrochota birotutata 135
224
lot Bailly
lot
Polynesia 378, 380 Islands
lot
Ramsar
Site,
Qatar 252
Canard SpR,
lot
llot
llot
International
Center for Living Aquatic
Resources Management Federated Slates of
Micronesia 355
Maldives
Tie
a Vache, Haiti 149, 151
Tie
aux Recifs, Seychelles 200,
201
aux Vaches, Seychelles 201 Barren, Madagascar 195,
196
lot
198,209
d'Europa NR, Western
Ocean 209
New
Goeland SpFR, Laregnere SpR,
New
MaTtre SpR,
Caledonia
New
Caledonia
335, 337
Signal SpR,
335, 337 lot
New
Caledonia
335, 337 lot
Vert SpR,
Isabela.
Ecuador
Ishigaki Island.
Caledonia
335, 337
mperiuse Reef, Western Australia 306
nagua Bank, Bahamas 103
Japan 292, 293,
Puerto Rico 154, 157
Mexico 112
Panama
Coiba,
Isla
Contoy NP, Mexico 112,
115, 116
Cozumel, Mexico
114, 115,
Costa Rica 126
de Rosario, Colombia 130,
Islas
de San Bernardo,
Islas del Cisne,
Honduras
121.
Cisne MRP. Honduras
123. 124
UNESCO
de California
Biosphere Reserve.
Islas
Los Hermanos. Venezuela Mexico 112. 113 Mexico 112.
Islas Revillagigedo.
113. 114
de Quatre WR.
St.
Vincent
160. 167
isthmus Izu
of
Panama
93
Shoto Group. Japan 292,
294. 295
J jacks ^3
116
de Aves. Venezuela 169.
170
Jaffna.
Sn Lanka 218 Sn Lanka
Jaffna Peninsula. la
Juventud. Cuba
134
de Malpelo FFS 131. 132,
133
Islas
126
Isla
Isla
Isla Uvita,
Israel 236. 233. 239
Caja de Muerto RNal,
de
Socorro, Mexico 112
Isla
Isle
Bastimentos NP, Panama
126, 129
Isla
Saona, Dominican Republic
Islas Marias.
131. 133
294, 295
Isla
New
San Benedicto, Mexico 112
Isla
169
Irrawaddy River see
Isla
Tenia SpR,
Isla
Mexico 112. 116
Isla Clarion,
New
112
Islas del Golfo
294
Isla
Roca Partida, Mexico
Isla
Islas del
Indonesia 274.
277-8. 308. 325
Isla
Caledonia 335, 337 lot
lot
223
Ties
190,
Iraq 252
Ayeyarwady River
India
Punta Nizuc NP, Mexico 116
123
Iriomote NP. Japan 292. 296
Caledonia 335, 337
IcIUogorgia spp. 149
Tie
Caledonia
d'Europa, Western Indian
Indian
Atoll,
New
de Bassas da India see
Ocean
Ihavandhipolhu
Caledonia
254-5
Iriomote Island. Japan 292.
Casy SpR,
Bassas da
Hypopiectrus unicotor 147
Ifalik,
New
Mujeres, Punta Cancun
Isla
Colombia 130, 131
Islands 288
Irian Jaya.
335, 337 Hot
Hydrozoa 32
ICLARM see
Caledonia
335, 337
Huvalu Forest CA, Niue,
Huwar
New
SpR,
335, 337
Mujeres, Mexico 116
Isla
131
Iran 248. 251.
Maldives 221,
Morro Grande, Colombia
Isla
150, 151
337
Atoll,
Venezuela 168,
169
y
Hurricane Marilyn 155, 161
Huvadhoo
Gorgona NatNP, Colombia
131, 132, 133
130
Hurricane Luis 155, 161
Hurricane Mitch 114, 121, 124
Santo, Mexico 112,
113
Margarita, Venezuela
Investigator Shoal. Spratly
lot
Isla Espiritu
Lobos, Mexico 112, 114
Ammedee et Recif Abore SpR, New Caledonia 335,
Hurricane Lenny 163
Site,
Costa Rica 126, 129
Isla
Investigaor Channel.
Hurricane Hattie 119
Coco NP/Ramsar
Isla del
Isla
intertidal
Ihas da Inhaca e dos
140
129
protected areas 267-8,
Innisfail.
Western Indian
les Glorieuses,
Coco, Costa Rica 126,
Isla del
169, 170
Inhambane. Mozambique 190
159. 162
BiR, Costa
279-80
Inhaca Islands,
les Glorieuses
Hurricane Gilbert 64, 114, 139,
279
regions
des Pins,
Ocean
Hurricane David 163
New
de Sable,
Cano
Isla del
Isla la Orchilla,
biodiversity
socio-economic factors 278-9
les Eparses,
Hurghada, Egypt
Caledonia 334,
334. 335 les
Huon Peninsula, Papua New
New
336 les
Papua New Guinea
Gulf,
195,
Costa Rica 128
Isla del Cafio,
Isla
Indonesia 44, 179, 267, 272-80,
288
Madagascar
335 les
Atoll,
335
Huon
Tromelin NR, Western Indian
196
340
Huon
Islands 330, 331,332
Indo-Australian tectonic plate 300, 377
Ocean 206, 209
de Providencia, Colombia
Rica 126, 129
see a/so Central Indian
Indian tectonic plate 272
les Belep,
CaledoniaA'anuatu 334. 338,
215-17
178-9, 267
Ronde, Mauritius 206
les Barren,
New
15,
Paul. Mauritius 207
Hundred
281.282.283
Ocean
le
Le
Isla
131
le
humbug damsel fish 3^^ humpback whale 316. 395 humphead wrasse ^2, ^9. 58 Islands. Philippines
285,
286
Ocean; Western Indian Ocean
335. 337
Philippines 285. 286
Hunter Island.
Caledonia
de Mona RNat, Puerto Rico
154, 157
reefs at risk 65
202
Reef. Pfiilippmes
Huatulco, Mexico 112, 113
Hudaydafi,
Haiti 149, 151
Isla
218.219 Jakarta. Java 268. 272
Jakarta Bay. Java 275 Jaluit.
Marshall Islands 361
Index
Jamaica 63-4,
Kalukalukuang
139-40
138,
Jamaica Passage 152
Japan
lOital
MP, Japan 292,
Kamaran
Jarvis Island. USAyKinbati 364,
Islands.
Red Sea 244.
NWR.
US/Kinbati
394. 396
Jayapura. Indonesia 274
NP/Ramsar
Honduras
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 240-1,
Islands 392, 395, 396
Kanzan (Volcanol
Islands,
Japan
jellyfish 32.
354-5
Jennifer Bay-Deep Well MP,
Cayman
States of Micronesia 356
268, 279
Laut GR, Indonesia 267. 279
Jmjiradwip
ISt, fvlartin's Island],
Bangladesh 214. 217
Kan Beyru
Thila DS. Maldives
Jizan. Saudi Arabia 240. 241.
Kanmata. Indonesia 268 Karimata
245
John Pennekamp Coral Reef
Strait,
96.
South China
Archipelago. Java
268, 275
Karun River 251
99
Johnston Island. Johnston Island
Johor
USA 63. 397 NWR. USA 396
Singapore 270
Strait,
Kasan Hanto Higashi Kaigan iKagoshima) MP. Japan 296 Kat
Chau SpA. China
288. 291
Jordan 236, 238. 239
Kate PA. Bermuda 100. 102
Joseph Bonaparte
Kaua'i, Hawaiian Islands 393
Gulf,
Northern Australia 308 Joubin.
ML
79,
Kauehi. French Polynesia 387
Kaukura. French Polynesia 387
80
Juan de Nova. Western Indian
Ocean
195,
Juba
Kavachi.
Ocean 209
River,
Solomon Islands
330.
Kawthoung. Myanmar 262. 265 Kayangel. Patau 354, 355
Junceetla 32
Kealakakua Bay. MLCD. Hawaiian Islands 393. 396
K
Keeling Islands seeCocos Islands, Australia
Kaashidhoo
Fi|i
Kadavu Passage,
Kadu Rah
Maldives 223
Atoll.
Kadavu Group.
78, 342,
Fiji
343
342, 343
Thila DS, Maldives
Islands 393. 396
Oahu. Hawaiian
Islands 393
Kakadu NP/Ramsar
182.
183-5
Kepulauan Aru Tenggara NR. Kepulauan Banggai, Indonesia 273. 276-7
Kailua Bay, Oahu. Hawaiian
Northern Australia 308
Kalpitiya Peninsula. Sri
Lanka
Kepulauan Tanimbar, Indonesia
Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia 267 Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia
Kepulauan Tukangbesi.
266 Kuching. Malaysia 268
Kuda Haa DS, Maldives
Kepulauan Wakatobi NP, Key Largo NaMS. Florida
96. 97.
Kepulauan Banyak, Sumatra
Key West NWR. Florida
Khao Sam Roi Kharg
96. 99
Yot
NP. Thailand
Island. Iran 252.
255
Khuran
Straits
Ramsar
255 Site,
252
Indonesia 267. 279
Kepulauan Batu, Sumatra 267 Kepulauan
Kai,
Indonesia 274
Kepulauan Kapoposang RP.
125, 127
Yala see
San Bias.
Kure
Atoll,
Hawaiian Islands
Kure
Atoll
SWS. Hawaiian
Islands 393, 396
Kure FMA. Hawaiian Islands 393. 396
Marshall Islands 361
Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea 327. 328. 329
Guinea 326, 329
223. 225
Kutch. Gulf see Gulf of Kutch
Kuwait 252, 254
Reef, USA/Kinbati
364. 394. 396, 397
Kiribati 365,
Kuredhu Express DS. Maldives Kuroshio Current 281, 293, 294
Kimbe Bay FMA. Papua New
Kingman
Kuna
392. 393, 395
Island. Iran 252.
Iran
Kuna Indians
Panama
Kharko
Kuwait City 252 Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Islands 360, 361,362
362-7. 397
Kyoto.
Japan 292
Kyushu
Island.
Japan 292. 294
Kyushu-Palau Ridge 294
296 Kiritimati. Line Islands, Kiribati
363. 364, 366
Kish Island. Iran 252. 255
Kisimani Channel, Tanzania 187
MNP, Kenya
182, 185
Kiunga. Kenya 182, 183
Kiunga
L La Alemania WRef, Honduras 123. 124
La Blanquilla, Venezuela 168,
MNaR/UNESCO
169. 170
182, 185
La Blanquilla ETC, Mexico 112. 115. 116
Kiwani Bay, Zanzibar 187
La Ceiba, Honduras 123
Kiyanguchi MP, Japan 296
La Desirade, Guadeloupe 159.
Klein Bonaire Island
Adjacent Sea
and
Ramsar
Site,
Netherlands Antilles 169, 171
Islands.
Cambodia
La Parguera RNat, Puerto Rico 154. 157
Kolombangara. Solomon
Labrador
P,
Singapore 267
Labridae41,42
Islands 331
Kolumandulu
Republic 106, 150-2 La Tortuga, Venezuela 169
265
224
162 La Digue, Seychelles 201
La Plata Bank, Dominican
263
Koh Tang
Kepulauan Banyak RP.
Kuda Huvadhoo Channel, Maldives 224
99
Kill,
223.
225
Ko Phuket Reefs. Thailand 262.
267 Site.
Kalimantan 268, 273, 275-6
218.219
Taiwan 292. 296
Indonesia 274, 279
Islands 393
Micronesia 356. 358. 359
Biosphere Reserve. Kenya
296
Kenya
Islands 393
Kahoolawe RestA, Hawaiian Point,
Kenting NP, Taiwan 292, 293,
Kenting Uplifted Coral Reef NR.
223, 225
Kahana Bay, Oahu, Hawaiian
Kahuka
318. 319
South
Kotu Group. Tonga 377. 378
Kismaayo. Somalia 182, 185
Kenn Reefs, Australia
Site.
Kepulauan Sula. Indonesia 273
Kisite
kelps 305
Ramsar
Kosrae. Federated States of
Kinshima-YaKu NP. Japan 292.
331
Somalia 182. 185
Kepulauan Senbu NP.
Kingston. Jamaica 138
393
198.209
Juan de Nova NR. Western Indian
Kaula Rock, Hawaiian Islands
Kosi Bay
Africa 190
262. 265
Kanmunjawa
SP. Florida 96, 99
John U Lloyd SRA. Florida
275. 278. 279
NP. Thailand 262. 265
Sea 268
292
342, 343
Koror, Patau 354, 355. 357
Khao Laem Ya-Mu Ko Samet
223. 225
Strait Fiji
Koro Sea 343, 344
Indonesia 273. 280
Karang Gading Langkat Timur
292, 296
jewellery trade 53, 136
Korea Koro.
Indonesia 273
Karang Bolong NR, Indonesia
Islands 142, 143
Jeou-Perng Coast PA. Taiwan
267
274
Kapmgamarangi, Federated
280 Korea, Republic 292
Indonesia 268. 280
292. 294
242
Indonesia 268. 279
Kepulauan Senbu, Indonesia
Kangean 268
123. 124
Reserve. Indonesia 268. 273.
Indonesia 274. 279
Kamrau Bay, Indonesia 274 Kanehoe Bay, Oahu. Hawaiian
Java Sea 268
Jeanette Kav>/as
WMA, Papua New
Guinea 326. 329
Java 268, 272, 275
Indonesia 268, 279
Kepulauan Padaido RP,
Japan 292. 296 Kamiali
H.^ritage
Site/UNESCO Biosphere
Kepulauan Lingga. Indonesia
245
Kametoku IKagoshimai MP.
366. 394. 397
Komodo NP/World
Indonesia 268. 273, 279
Kepulauan Karimun Jawa NP,
296
Republic 150. 151. 152
Site.
Indonesia
Kepulauan Karimata NR,
Kamae
179. 292
Jaragua NP, Dominican
Jarvis Island
Atoll,
277
Atoll.
Maldives
Labroides bicolor 199 Labroides dimidJatus 41
413
414
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Laccadives see Lakshadweep
Lacepede Islands, Northern Lachnolaimus maximus 101 Elliot Island,
Great Barrier
Reef 315
Papua New Guinea
326,
327 Gulf, Pfiilippines
282
lagoons 25, 26
Lembata
Nusa Tenggara
Mexico 112, 116
Laguna de
Pananna
Cfiiriqui,
Caledonia 335,
123, 124
Lakemba Passage,
Fiji
343
Laksfiadweep Islands
337
216,217
Irois, Haiti 149,
US
Virgin
Islands 154. 155
Lesser Antilles 147, 158-66
Lamotrek, Federated States
of
Micronesia 355
LampiMNP265 Archipelago, Kenya 182,
183
Lan-Yu Islands, Taiwan 293
Lombok, Indonesia Long
Leyte Gulf, Philippines 285
Long Island
79
land reclamation 53, 63, 222
Landsat Thematic Mapper 83-4
Lansdowne Bank, New Caledonia 335, 336
Bermuda
and ranging
Lihir Group,
1
18,
1
19
326. 327
102
Larus novaehoUaniae 358 larvae 23
170
123, 124
Panama
126. 129
Lassuan MR/TZ, Philippines 285, 286
Latham
Island, Tanzania 187,
Lau Group,
343, 344
Fiji
Lau Lagoon, Solomon Islands
331,332 Lau Ridge,
342, 344
Laughing Bird Caye, Belize 118 Lavan, Iran 252
Lavongai (New Hanoverl, Papua
Guinea 326, 327
Layang Layang, Malaysia 269
Madracis decactis 173, 174 Island,
Vanuatu 339
Mafia Channel, Tanzania 187
Howe
Island Group,
MPA/Vorld Heritage
189
Site,
Magnetic Island, Queensland 312
Los Arcos ETC, Mexico 112,
Mahakam
Kalimantan
River,
275-6
Los Rogues Archipelago,
Mahe, Seychelles 200, 201 Maiana, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati
365
NP/Ramsar
Maibishi MP, Japan 296
Mozambique
Islands,
Queensland
New
Gulf, Philippines 281,
282, 283
lionfish
289
Lisianski Island, Hawaiian
Islands 393. 395
Little
Bahama Bank
Little
Barrier Reef, Saudi
103
Arabia 240
Caledonia
Lanka
1
15
Makassar, Indonesia 279
Makassar
Strait,
Indonesia 268.
277 Makatea, French Polynesia 385,
387-8
Makemo, French Polynesia 387
Lubang
Makin, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati
Islands. Philippines 282
Lutjanidae41. 120
365
Lutjanus apodus 127. 137
Makira ISan Christoball,
Lutjanus ehrenbergii Al
Solomon Islands 331 Makundhoo Kandu DS,
1
36
Maldives 223, 225
Luzon, Philippines 281, 282, 283
Makunudu
Luzon
Malacca, Straits 57, 266, 267.
Strait, Philippines 281,
282
Lyra Reef, 326, 328
Atoll,
Maldives 223
272
Lynher Reef, Northern Australia 308, 309
Sri
Majahual, Mexico
Lu-Tao Islands. Taiwan 293
Lutjanus synagns
Republic 151. 152
218.219
New
Lutjanus kasmira 27. 212
Sur NP. Dominican
Basses Reef,
Guinea 325, 326
Loyalty Islands,
Society Islands 388
361,362
268, 270
334, 335, 337
225
Litoral
Darussalam
Iti,
Majuro, Marshall Islands 360,
Louisiade Archipelago, Papua
lined butterflyfish 379
Lingayen
of
Micronesia 356 Louisa Reef, Brunei
Line Islands, Kiribati 363. 364,
Little
Venezuela
Site,
Losap, Federated States
Lindeman
100, 102
Madivaru DS, Maldives 223, 225
Limpopo
Lithothamnion 119 Fiji
Madiana PA, Bermuda
Maiao
River,
208-9
Guinea
see Archipielago Los Rogues
Lions Head DS, Maldives 223,
Laticaudinae 43
New
Limon. Costa Rica 125. 126
Linkia laevigata 302
188
Madang, Papua
247
188
Los Rogues NP/Ramsar Site
366, 397
Las Perlas Archipelago,
180, 194-6,
Mafia Island MP, Tanzania 187,
Venezuela 168, 169, 170
312,313,315
Las Iguanas WRef, Honduras
Island Group,
116
lime production 333
197,
Madagascar
Mafia Island, Tanzania 186, 187,
Howe
Australia 318, 321
Lihou Reef and Cays. Australia
190
Las Aves. Venezuela 168, 169,
Lord
Islands,
365
macroalgae
Maewo
Australia 318, 320-1
Papua New Guinea
Kiribati
Madracts spp, 175 96, 97,
338. 339
Lord
Lihou Reef NNR, Australia 319.
100.
WMA. Papua New
Lopevi lUlveahl Island. Vanuatu
321
Lartington PA,
103, 104
99
Caledonia 334, 335
274
Site,
326, 327
Bahamas
Guinea 326. 329
318.319
Laos 262, 288
Island,
Looe Key NaMS, Florida
Lighthouse Reef, Belize
of Punt, expedition 78,
268, 278
Long Cay, Belize 118
Leyte, Philippines 281, 285
New
Gulf, Indonesia
McKean, Phoenix
344
ILIDARI 86
Lanai, Hawai'i 393
131, 133
342, 343,
Lifou.
Macclesfield Bank, Paracel
Mackay, Queensland 312, 315
Fiji
light detection
Philippines
Ecuador
lobster 36, 58, 108, 119, 133,
Lomaiviti Islands,
ranging
Macahutom MP,
Ramsar
L'Etang FiR. Reunion 206, 209
and
see Marine Aquarium
Machalilla
316
light detection
MAC
Lobophyton 33
54,
LIDAR see
UNESCO
Islands 288
spiny 35, 105, 155,396
100.
see
Man and the Biosphere Programme
McCluer
loggerhead turtle
102
MAB Programme
Lobophora variegata 135
Lesser Sunda Islands 268, 273
Leuwang Sancang NR,
Thila DS. Maldives 223,
225
285, 286
136
LHerminie PA, Bermuda
laminar corals 34
New
151
Indonesia 268, 280 Bay,
trade 49, 284, 290, 317,
Reef 311, 313
151
M
Maaya
Council
Lizard Island, Great Barrier
Lethrinus miniatus 319
ILaccadivesI, India 212,214,
live fish
160, 167
345
201
Honduras
Lamu
Tobago
Haiti 149, 151
Les Bancs de Seche-Croissant
New
Tobago GS, Trinidad and
Little
Les Mamelles NR, Seychelles
Laguna de Guaymoreto WRef,
Bahamas 104 Little San Salvador WBR, Bahamas 104, 105 Little Sound EnvZ, Cayman Inagua,
Islands 143
Leptosens payracea 128
Les
126, 127
Lameshur
Island,
277
Leslies Cayemites, Haiti 149,
Laguna de Chankanaab PNat,
Land
159,
SpFR,
Lagonoy
161-2
Leeward Islands
LesArcadms,
Barrier Reef 315
Cayman, Cayman Islands
134, 141, 142 Little
leopard grouper 304
Lady Musgrave Island, Great
Lae,
20, 302, 305,
307
Australia 308, 309
LittleBay FNR. Anguilla 166 Little
Leeuwin Current
lace corals 32
Lady
Laysan Island, Hawaiian Islands 393, 395, 397
Islands, India
Malaga MuMR, Philippines 285, 286
Papua New Guinea
Malaita,
332
Solomon Islands
331,
Index
Manila Reef. Federated States
Malakal, Palau354, 355
Malakula Island. Vanuatu 338,
Maiden
Island. Line Islands,
366
Kiribati 36^.
Maldives 223
Kenya
Malindi.
182. 183. 18^
MNP. Kenya
182. 185
Biosphere
Resen/e. Kenya 182, 185
Malinoa Island Park and Reef
Vanuatu 339
Malolo Barrier Reef.
Fiji
3i2,
Maldives
Atolls.
Atoll,
383
Manuae Lagoon HR, Cook Islands 383, 384
Manus
Malpelo Island see
Isla
de
Malpelo FFS
Papua New
Indonesia Atoll,
Papua New
Mamanuca
mammals
Island,
Colombia 132
Group.
Fiji
3^3
Belize 118.
Managaha
Northern
FiPr.
Mananara Marine NP, Madagascar
195. 196
Mananara Nord UNESCO Biosphere Reserve,
Madagascar 196
Mananara
River.
Madagascar
1
Manatee FoR. Belize 118 Mangaia
Island,
Cook Islands
New
Caledonia 334. 335
Maria Island. French Polynesia
Mangkalihat Peninsula.
Kalimantan 268. 276
Manglares Churute ER/Ramsar
Ecuador
Mangoky
Delta,
131, 133
Madagascar
Maria Islands NR.
St,
Lucia 160.
2A, 30-1. 216, 291
Mesogastropoda 37
248.
Microdictyon
marinum
63. 300. 348.
23, 49,
Micronesia 348-9, see a/so
Federated States
Eitrea 244, 245. 246
75. 120. 263.
332, 357, 364. 386. 389
Celeste PA,
Bermuda
100, 102
Marie-Galante. Guadeloupe
Marmduque.
Philippines 281.
283, 284
Marine Aquarium Council
Mammal
Middle (Grand) Caicos, Turks
Matthew
Island.
and Caicos
New
Dominican
Republic 152
marine protected areas 69-72
Marino Ballena NP. Costa Rica
Islands,
Mariana Islands
Hawah 392,393
Mauke
River,
Papua New
Guinea 327
393,395
Island.
Marovo Lagoon, Solomon Islands 331, 333
Marquesas Archipelago, French Polynesia 369. 385. 387
Atoll.
Hawaiian Islands
393. 395, 397
Cook Islands
Midway
Atoll
NWR, Hawaiian
Islands 396
381.383 Mauphihea, Society Islands 388
Midway Islands 14
Maupiti. Society Islands 385,
Mikmdani Bay, Tanzania 189
Miladhunmadulu
Mauritius205-7. 208. 209
Atoll,
Maldives 221, 223
Marshall Islands 361
Maxillopoda 36
Mill,
Mayaguana Bank. Bahamas 103
military activities 63, 73, 137,
155,228. 287,348,353,364
Malaysia 266-71
milkfish 364
Mayotte 195, 197, 198. 199
Millennium Island,
Maza
V\/MA.
Papua New Guinea
Kiribati 363.
366
MiKepora platyphyllia 281
311.326.329
MiUepora alcicornis
168, 174,
175
187. 189 187. 189
MiUepora complanata 149
Meandrinidae 226
Milleporina 32
Medilerranean-Tethys Sea 175
Mills
Megaptera novaeangUae 395 Mehetia. Society Islands 385
Meiuns, Palau 354. 355
289
Polynesia 386, 390
320
Midway
350. 352
Mbudya MR. Tanzania
126, 129
Marion Reef, Australia 318
138. 140
Middleton Reef. Australia 318,
Maziwi Island MR. Tanzania
(MSCI 74
Markham
340
Maui.
106, 107
Middle Moranl Cay NR, Jamaica
Mayan Indians 119 5.
141
Middle Eastern Seas 65. 233-4
134. 136
388
159. 162
of
Micronesia
Matanzas Bay. Cuba
Maug
Mariana Trench 300, 351
106,
Mataiva. French Polynesia 387
Mekong
283. 284
Mexico Miami. Florida 96
Miami Beach, Florida 96 IR. Djibouti
mass spawning events
Marotiri (Bass Islands). French
Manila Bay, Philippines 282.
Mexico. Gulf of see Gulf of
135
Marokau, French Polynesia 387
Manila. Philippines 282
248. 250
250
Manihi. French Polynesia 387
381,382.384
Oman
286
Maskali island, Djibouti 248,
Manifah. Saudi Arabia 252
Manihiki Atoll, Cook Islands
Metis Shoal, Tonga 377, 378
Mexico 113-16
MR
Masinloc and Oyon Bay
CaledoniaA'anuatu 334, 338.
Mariana Islands
Maro Reef, Hawaiian Islands
194
mangroves
Rodngues Mascarene Ridge. Indian Ocean
Matenkupum 47
Marine Stewardship Council
381.383 Mangalore, India 21^
Meso-American Reef 117
middens 47
Marine
17
Australia 306, 321
Mauritius; Reunion;
mid-Cayman Rise
[MACl 74
195
manatee
Mermaid Reef NNR. Western
Mascarene Islands see
Mastigias spp. 357
Mane
Marianas 353
Reef, Western
Australia 306
massive coral 101
maricuUure 51-2,
122. 123
12
Marcus Island see Minami-
350.351-3
120 Man-o-V\/ar Cays, Nicaragua
Philippines
1
Massawa,
Torishima
Myanmar
Palau 354, 355
marbled grouper 386
167
AA
Man-o-War Cay B5.
Atoll.
Mermaid
Islands 142. 143
MuMR.
68,98-9, 316
390
285. 286
Menr
249-50
Maputo, Mozambique 190
Mare.
Guinea 326. 328
Malusay MuMR. Philippines
Merida, Mexico
Mary's Bay-East Point RpZ.
Maskali Sud
puffer 334
Marakei. Kiribati 365
Maluku see Moluccas.
Marutea. French Polynesia 387
Masirah Island,
Island,
Mergui Archipelago. 262. 264-5
Martinique 160. 163. 167
200. 205, 207
126. 129
267,
Merauke. Indonesia 274
285. 286
Cook Islands 381.
Sumatra
Islands,
272, 275
of
Martaban
Masaplot
Manuae, Society Islands 388
map
Mentawai
Cayman
238
mantis shrimps 37
Mapelo
223
Site.
ray 99. 238
Guinea 326, 327
3/i3
Malosmadulu
Malum
birostris
Manuel Antonio NP. Costa Rica
Tonga 378. 380 Island,
Mania manta
Manuae
Malindi-Watamu
MNaR/UNESCO
Brazil 172,
173
Mateolap. Marshall Islands 361
Male
Lanka 218
Sri
Manoel Luis Reefs.
221-5
IRI.
Lanka 218.
187,
189
360-3 Martaban. Gulf see Gulf
Sri
Menai Bay CA, Tanzania
Martea, French Polynesia 387
Mannar,
Male, Maldives 223 Atoll,
of
219
Maldives 25, 53.61. 179.
Malindi
Mannar Mannar Island,
Marquesas Keys. Florida 96 Marshall Islands 78-9, 348.
Micronesia 356
Mannar, Gulf see Gulf
339 Malaysia 266-71
Male
of
River Delta. Vietnam
Melanesia 323-4 Mellish Reefs. Australia 318,
319 Me/oi)es/acea spp. 174
Menai Bay. Tanzania 187
Breaker PA. Bermuda 100.
102 Milne Bay, Papua
New
Guinea
326. 327, 328, 329
Milwaukee Depth 153
Minami-Tonshima, Japan 294 Mindanao, Philippines 281. 283, 285
Mindanao Current 281 Mindoro, Philippines 281. 282.
283
415
416
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Mindoro
Republic 151, 152
Minerva Reefs, Fiji/Tonga 2AU.
377,378 mining
367
57. 328, 364,
Reef, Federated Stales of
f^icronesla 356
Island CA, Tanzania 187,
Mu Ko 138,
New
Montserrat 159, 162, 163
Guinea 328
122, 123, 124
Island,
moray
138, 139
eel 295
Mu KoSurin
Mui hopo hoponga Coastal
Mulaku
Atoll,
muro-am/ Mururoa
Morombe, Madagascar
Musandam
Mnazi Bay MP, Tanzania 187,
Moroni,
189
Mnemba
CA, Tanzania 187, 189
fvlnemba Island, Tanzania 187,
fvloa Island.
Queensland 313
Moala Group,
Fiji
168,
Moheli see Mwali, Comoros
Mollusca 37-8
fvlolokini
States of Micronesia 356, 358
Shoal MLCD, Hawaiian
Myanmar
262.
262. 265
Moluccas, Indonesia 273, 277-8
390
Mombasa MNP/MNaR, Kenya 182, 185
Island RNal, Puerto Rico
153, 154, 157
Mossman. Queensland
Monachus shauinstandi 395 Bay, Western
1 1
Monserrat, Lesser Antilles 159, 162
Guinea 326. 328
247, 261, 266, 275-7.
310,313 100, 102
62, 101 59, 121,
130. 149, 155, 158, 161, 168 168, 174,
Islands,
Western
Australia 305, 306, 307 Cristi,
Dominican
Republic 150, 151
1
Negapnon
Islands,
Comoros
Negros, Philippines 281, 283.
285
of
262, 263-5
Lancaster. French Polynesia
N
Indian
Nabq MRPA. Egypt Island.
Nembrotha cnstata 37 Nemertea 35 Neogastropoda 37
of
Nereus Reef. New Caledonia 335. 336
of
Micronesia 356
Netherlands Antilles
Namonuito, Federated States
Soufriere, St. Vincent
of
29^
191,
195.208-9
Mozambique Current 191 Mozambique Gyre 194. 197 Mpunguti MNaR, Kenya 182, 185
Island PP.
Papua New
Guinea 326, 329
Nanuku Channel, Fiji 3^3, 344 Nanumea. Tuvalu, Polynesia 372
Naomebaravu-Malo
R.
Vanuatu
Council
Mtwara, Tanzania 187
262, 265
Thailand
159. 161-2,
167
New
Napolean wrasse
New New
Britain,
Papua New Guinea
42. 49.
58
Caledonia 323. 334-7 Georgia,
Solomon Islands
330. 331
New Guinea 325 New Hanover (Lavongai), Papua New Guinea 326. 327 New Ireland. Papua New Guinea 326. 327
New
341
see Marine Stewardship
71, 158
169. 170-1
326. 327
Nansei Shoto Chain. Japan 292.
Nanuk
Leeward Islands
Windward Islands
Micronesia 356. 358
Namonk, Marshall Islands 361 Namu. Marshall Islands 360. 361
Mount Wilhelm, Papua New
British
Territory 227.
Nelson's Dockyard, Antigua 159
Vietnam 289
Namoluk. Federated States
164
Ocean
229
236. 239
Micronesia 356
163
Territory 227
Nelson Island SNR.
Nama. Federated States
Artificial
Mu Ko Ang Thong NP,
brevirostris 26
Neilson Reef see Recif
Mouchoir Passage 107
Mozambique 190, 191-3 Mozambique Channel 190,
Hawaiian
Negril MP. Jamaica 138. 140
197, 198. 199
Mwokil. Federated States
Island.
Islands 393
74
Papua New Guinea 326, 327
Nam Du
MSC
175
Monte Bello
73,
1
nalolo blenny 18^
Guinea 325
Montastrea cavernosa
t)artii
Mouchoir Bank 106
Mount
Montaslrea annularis
Necker
coral 38
Mussismilia
British Virgin
Islands 154. 157
Nabq. Eqypt 236. 238
283
Australia 305, 306
Montastrea
Necker Island BS.
TP, Djibouti 248, 250
mushroom
New
Guinea 326, 329
Ocean
Mount Pinalubo, Philippines
seal 395
Montana PA, Bermuda
Ndrolowa WMA, Papua
248
31
Reef MR. St, Lucia 167 Mount Pelee. Martinique
Republic 151
Solomon Islands
Island,
330, 331
Nelson Island. British Indian
Papua New
Island.
Nazareth Bank, Indian Ocean
Ndeno
Island, Djibouti 248,
Myanmar214,
387. 388
Moule-a-Chique
Mona Passage, Dominican
monsoons
Oman
Micronesia 356
Motupure
182, 184
Belize
Musha
Mwali,
Reef. French Polynesia
Motu One. French Polynesia
Monkey River Town,
Oman
151. 152
Navidad Bank, Dominican
206. 207
Muyua (WoodlarkI
mother-of-pearl 52
Molucca Sea 273
Monkey Mia
389
Peninsula,
Virgin Islands 154. 157
Islands 393, 396
Mombasa, Kenya
Islands,
Mosquito Island BS. British
Molokai, Hawaii 392, 393
Atoll
Navassa Island
Republic 106. 150-2
249-50
169, 171
Moses
169, 171
Monte
Musha
168,
Moscos Islands G5. Myanmar
Mochima NP, Venezuela
monk
Muscat.
Morrocoy NP, Venezuela
264-5
P,
Philippines 285, 286
Nautiloidea 38
247, 248. 250
Morowali NR, Indonesia 280
Moscos
343
Moalboal/Pescador
Mona
Comoros 198
Mortlock Islands, Federated
188
245, 246
Maldives 221, 224
fishing 48, 278, 283
MoroGulf, Philippines 285 194, 195
Kalimantan 268. 276
Natuna Sea, Indonesia 268 Nauru 364-7
Tonga 378, 380
R,
multispectral imagers 85-6
Site,
Australia 321
375. 376
Natuna Besar, Indonesia 268
Miyako Island, Japan 292
294
NP, Thailand 262,
Mulloidichthys martinicus 162
Moreton Bay Ramsar
381,383 Miyake Jima Island, Japan 292.
Samoa NP
Natuna Archipelago.
Mukha, Yemen
idol 291
Natal, Brazil 172
National Park of American
Similan NP, Thailand
Reserve
Morant Cays, Jamaica
Cook Islands
Nassau grouper 136 Petra NP, Thailand 262,
265
388, 389
Moorish
Miskito Indians 124 fvlitiaro
Tonga 378, 379, 380
Cook Islands 381.
Atoll.
382
262, 265
Moorea, Society Islands 385,
Miskito Cays RMar, Nicaragua
Mu Ko
Thila DS. Maldives 223.
Nassau. Bahamas 104
Nassau Libong NHA, Thailand
265
Montipora spp 249, 259, 389
R,
Lanta NP. Thailand 262.
265
Mu Ko
140
Monuafe Island Park and Reef
189
Misima gold mine, Papua
Mu Ko
Nasimo 225
265
Montipora fotiosa 250
Misali Island, Tanzania 187, 188 f^isali
Montecristo WRef, Honduras
Montego Bay, Jamaica 138 Montego Bay MP, Jamaica
Ocean 21^
Thailand 262,
265
123, 124
Minicoy. Indian
Mmto
Mu Ko Chang NP,
Montecristi NP, Dominican
Strait, Philippines
285
Providence Island.
Bahamas
103. 104. 105
Nares Bank. Sprally Islands 288
New
Nanva Swamp, Trinidad 160 NASA (North American Space
Newcastle. Australia 318
Agency) 84-5
Zealand 380. 384
Ngaremeduu Bay CA. Palau 355. 357. 359
Index
Ngaruangel AtoU, Patau 354, 355
North Carolina PA. Bermuda
Comoros
Ngazidja,
Ngemelis Islands
197, 198
Palau
FJR,
Bkulachelid CA, Palau 359 R.
Palau 355, 359
Ngerukewid Islands WPres,
Palau 355. 359
North Equatorial Current 103,
North Male
Ngiwal State CA, Palau 359
North Malosmadulu
Atoll,
Federated Stales of
Micronesia 354, 355, 358
Nha Trang, Vietnam Nias. Sumatra 267
288, 289
Nichinan (Miyazaki) MP, Japan
Nihoa Island, Hawaiian Islands 393
395
Nine Degree Channel. Indian
Ocean 214
Bermuda
Australia 304, 305, 306. 307
New
Guinea
326. 327
Nzwani. Comoros 198, 199
Ofu.
Antigua and Barbuda 159.
monsoons
275. 276. 277, 293
63.
393. 396
Nosy Be, Madagascar
195. 196
North Island. Mauritius 206. 207
Noumea. New Caledonia
343
335,
337
369,377.392 reefs at risk 65
Okinawa Senseki QNP, Japan
see also individual regions/ countries
Okino Tori Shima Reef. Japan
MuMR.
Philippines 285.
286
Site,
Bahama Channel 103. 104 Man Bay. Cayman Islands McBean Lagoon
NalNP, Colombia
131. 133
nudibranch 37
North Caicos, Turks and Caicos
Nuguria
Atoll.
Oman
One and a Half Degree Channel. Papua
Guinea 326. 328
New
54
Pagai Selalan. Sumatra 267 Pagai Ultra. Sumatra 267
Pagan
Island.
Mariana Islands
350. 352
Pago Bay. Guam 350
Maldives 224
One Tree
375, 376
Pakin
Atoll,
Federated States of
Micronesia 356, 359 Pakistan 216, 217
248. 250, 252
Gulf see Gulf of
362. 389
North Atlantic Gyre 103
Oman
PADI [Professional Association
Pago Pago, American Samoa
Old Providence
Micronesia 355
nuclear testing 307. 348, 360.
351,369,377.392
of Diving Inslruclorsj
Olango Islands Wildlife
Old
Pacific tectonic plate 300. 330,
Padang. Sumatra 267
292. 294
Olimarao. Federated Slates of
Nowruz blow-out 253
301
Okinawa MP, Japan 292. 296
142
Nosy Radama, Madagascar 195
mapping 78-9
plate tectonics 300, 330,351.
Old
Norfolk Island. Australia 318
Ocean 300-1
currents 300-1
Okinawa Kaigan QNP. Japan
Philippines 285. 286
195.
Vanuatu 339
Island.
Pachysens speciosa 196
human impacts
Sanctuary/Ramsar
194.
Paama
early reef
Nosy Manitsa. Madagascar
196
342.
Guinea 328
Nosy Boraha. Madagascar 195 195
Fiji
301
of reefs 67.
Okinawa, Japan 292. 294-5
Okiot
Nomuka Group. Tonga 378 Nomwin Atoll, Federated States
Site 107, 108
New
Okino Daito Jima, Japan 292
Madagascar
ownership,
Pacific
Papua
292. 296
Islands.
Nosy Antafana. Madagascar 196
North Astrolabe Reef.
179.253
Tedi mine.
292. 296
Philippines282, 283. 286
Mitsio,
342. 343
paaling 48, 283 292. 296
pollution 57. 114. 116, 127.
155.
Nizamudinnia spp. 247
North, Middle and East Caicos
oil
Ok
Northern Territory. Australia
CRER72.
Fiji
overfishing 57-9, 70
[Boninj Islands.
Japan 292. 294
261. 266,
Northern Mariana Islands
Caledonia 323. 335
American Samoa 375
Ogasawara
Ogasawara NP. Japan
northeast
New
Ovalau Island.
Oxycheiimus digrammus 353
Islands 142. 143
Nosy
Islands.
Odontodactylus scyllarus 36
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
organizations (NGOs) 70. 73
138. 140
Oeno, Pitcairn Islands 389, 390
northwest monsoons 310. 313
Nonouti. Kiribati 365
Palm
Ouenghi Basin. Grande Terre
Ouvea.
13
Cemetery MP, Cayman
Niuatoputapu Group. Tonga 378
non-governmental
Island.
336 1
Octocorallia 32-3
Niuatoputapu. Tonga 378
Micronesia 356. 358
Orpheus
Otu Tolu Group 378
Ocho Rios PA, Jamaica
Australia 306
Queensland 314. 315
Niue378. 379. 380
Guam
350. 353
see also individual currents
Islands 142. 143
Northumberland
Niuafo'ou. Tonga 378
106. 107
Orote Peninsula ERA,
ocean currents 20-1. 300-1
308 149
Oroluk, Federated States of
Micronesia 356
Oaxaca, Mexico
100. 102
Northern Sierra Madre NatP.
Ningaloo Reef. Western
Ramsar
268.
273, 276-7
393
Pr.
350.351-3
306. 321
Islands
225
Qahu. Hawaiian Islands 392.
northeast trade winds 360
Ningaloo MP. Western Australia
Orimas Thila DS. Maldives 223.
Ostracoda 36
166
Nilandu Atolls. Maldives 223-4
Ophiuroidea 39
Osprey Reef. Australia 318. 319
Northeast Archipelago PRes,
Niihau, Hawaiian Islands 393,
Solomon
Orinoco River 166, 168
Current 392
North West Point-West Bay
214,217 Niger River 174-5
of
342,
North Pacific Equatorial
North West Cape. Western
292. 296
Nicobar Islands, India 179,212.
Atoll,
Australia 317
North Sound RpZ. Cayman
292. 296
digitalis
Fiji
224
North Shore Coral Reef
Nichman Kaigan QNP, Japan
Ontong Java
Orienle Transform Fault 141
Reefs.
Nuweiba. Egypt 236
Maldives 223
102
Nicaraguan Rise 130
Ninigo Atoll. Papua
Nukusemanu
nutrients 22. 24
Atoll,
343
Opislhobranch 37
North Rock PA, Bermuda 100,
Nicaragua 110, 122-4
Niphates
Maldives 223
Atoll,
Fiji
343. 344
organ-pipe corals 33
AloU. Tokelau.
Nusa Penida. Indonesia 44
North Nilandu AloU, Maldives
organizations
Ngulu
Nukunonu
Nusa Tenggara. Indonesia
Nggela, Solomon Islands 332-3
NGOs see non-governmental
New
Papua
Islands.
343, 344
North Keppel Island,
Fiji
Islands 330, 331.332
Polynesia 375
North Keeling Island, Western
Oni-i-Lau.
Onotoa. Kiribati 365
Guinea326. 328. 331
Current 183
Queensland 315
Micronesia 356
Nukufetau. Tuvalu. Polynesia
Nukumanu
North Equatorial Counter
Reef 314. 315
Oneata Passage.
372
100, 102
Australia 306, 307
Ngetik, Federated Stales of
French Polynesia
Nukulaelae. Tuvalu. Polynesia
113.281.300
Palau 355, 359
Ngerumekaol Grouper SpnA.
Hiva,
372
296
Bermuda
Ngermach ChannelNgeruangel
North Coast PA, Taiwan 292,
North East Breaker PA.
355, 359
Nuku 387
100, 102
Island. Great Barrier
Palaemonidae 36 Palancar Reef. Mexico Palaster Reef
1 1
MNP, Antigua
and Barbuda 159. 166 Palau 68, 348, 354-7, 359
417
418
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Palawan. Philippines 283, 285.
Palawan Passage, Philippines Palawan
UNESCO
Biosphere
Reserve, Philippines 285, 286
Parque Esladual Marinho do
2U
Palk Bay. Sri Lanka
2U,
Palm Beach,
123, 124
Queensland 312,
Islands,
313,317 Palmerston
Cook Islands
Atoll.
381,383 Palmerston Lagoon HR. Cook Islands 383. 38^
Palmyra
Atoll.
USA/Kiribati 364.
Palolo
Deep Marine
Samoa
R.
palolo
worm
Pamban
Mannar
Island, Gulf of
Panama 93. 125-9 Panama Canal 57,
61. 126. 127.
City,
Panama
126
Pananjung Pangandaran NR, Indonesia 268. 280
1
Gulf, Philippines
285
Pandora Passage, Great Barrier
Pangaimotu Reef
R,
Tonga 378,
Phyllangia
Pangani River. Tanzania 187 Pangavini MR. Tanzania 187,
Pedro Cays, Jamaica 138. 139
Pedum spondyloideum
38
Panglao Island-Balicasag Area
MR/TZ. Philippines 285, 286
Panguana mine, Papua New Guinea 328
Peleng Island, Indonesia 273,
276
Bahamas
Papeete.
Society Islands
Tahiti.
Papua. Gulf
of,
see Gulf
of
Papua 47. 274. 301
308.313,323.325-9
Pigeon
Islets.
Pemba Channel, Tanzania
159,
186,
Pemba
Island. Tanzania 182.
Islands,
Penaeidea 36 penguins 321
UNESCO
Biosphere Reserve.
134, 137
outlying islands
394. 397 see also individual
islands/countries
Pinatubo mountain, Philippines
Polynesian voyages 301
Polyplacophora 37
Pomacanthidae
Pinctada margaritifera 52 of
Pomacentridae
28. 41.
porcelain crabs 36
Pontes spp.
Guinea 326. 329
113, 117, 175,250,
259, 386
Pontes arnaudi 389
390
Ocean
389-91 Bank, British Indian Ocean
Territory 226, 227
Pontes asteroides 150 Pontes heronensis 320
Pontes lichen
113,
Pontes lobata]]3.
327 126. 128, 129
Placencia, Belize 117, 118
Pontes panamensis
Plantagenet Bank 101
Pontes pontes
Piatax orbicularis 352
1
150. 168
platform reefs 17
Pontes sverdrupi 113
protected areas 329
Penrhyn, Cook Islands 381. 382
Platte Island. Seychelles 200.
Porolithon 29
see also Torres
Pentecote Island, Vanuatu 339
Papuan Barrier
New
Strait
Reef.
Papua
Guinea 326, 327
Percy Islands. Queensland 314.
315
Papuans 323
Perle. Mauritius 206. 207
Paracel Islands. South China
Peros Banhos, British Indian
Sea 287, 288
Ocean
Territory 226. 227
202
Port Antonio. Jamaica 138
Platyhelminthes 35
Port Dickson, Malaysia 266, 267
Playa del Carmen, Mexico 114.
Port Hedland. Western
115
Australia 306
Piectorhinchus orientalis 41
Port Honduras. Belize 118
Piectropomus leopardus 304
Port Honduras MR, Belize 118.
Parcel del Abrolhos. Brazil 172
Perth. Australia 306, 307
Pleistocene extinctions 259
Parcel Manoel Luis SMP. Brazil
Peru Coastal Current 133
Plexaura flexuosa 135
Peru Oceanic Current 133
Plexaura homomalla 135
175
13
125, 128, 130,
Pennatulacea 33
biodiversity
42
Great Barrier
Reef 313-14. 315
WMA. Papua New
Pitcairn Islands. Pacific
41
Pomacanthus arcuatus 155 Pomacanthus sexstriatus 348
Pompey Complex.
pink anemonefish 287
Pitt
Polychaeta 35. 49
US minor
Pitcairn, Pitcairn Islands 389.
Taiwan 293. 294
PoloTayabas MuMR,
Polynesia 369, 370
Federated States of
Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba
Pirung
see also
pollution
Polycladida 35
Pikelot,
Indonesia 273. 280
187
Lanka 218
Philippines 285. 286
Guadeloupe
Pinjam/Tanjung Mantop GR.
Darussalam 270
Cuba
328-9
Lucia
Micronesia 356
Pelong Rocks. Brunei
Peninsula de Guanahacabibes
Papua New Guinea
St,
160. 167
Pmgelap. Federated States
100, 102
Penaeus spp 136
388
oil
283
104. 105
Pen-Hu [Pescadores]
PanuiJrus argus 119, 136
Pigeon Island ETC.
Sri
Polillo Islands. Philippines 282.
pollution 24. 28. 57. 69,
134. 136
186. 187. 188
PanulJrus spp, 35
175
Micronesia 355
163
Rouge LtCA, Martinique
160. 167
283
amencana
162
Pemba, Mozambique 190
189
Pointe
Vietnam 288.
Physaiia spp. 32
Hawaiian Islands 393, 396
Kuendu SpR. New
Polhena Reef.
Phyaeophyta 30
Bermuda
Pangani, Tanzania 187
Island.
pearl culture 52, 53, 386,389 Atoll.
lEtang Sale FiR, Reunion 209 Pointe
Caledonia 335. 337
Pearl Cays, Nicaragua 122. 123
Hermes
Kiribati 363.
Phuket. Thailand 261-3. 262
Pelinaion and Rita Zovetto PA,
380
Penh. Cambodia 288
289
worms 35
Micronesia 354, 356, 358, 359 Pointe de Bretagne-Pointe de
Phoenix Islands.
Phu Quoc
Caledonia 335.
Pohnpei, Federated States of
phosphate mining 364. 367
13
Pelican Cays Land and Sea NP,
Reef 311
Phnom
New
337
364, 365
Pelee. mountain, Martinique
Panay, Philippines 281, 285
Poe SpR,
282-6
348, 351
Pedro Bank. Jamaica 138. 139
Panama
Panay
Pavona spp.
Pearl and
128
70.
New
Guinea 326
Phillipines tectonic plate 300.
peanut
2U, 215
249. 386, 389
Pocklington Reef. Papua
Philippines Trench 281
350. 353
Pocdlopora effusus 110
Pocillopora spp. 113, 128, 132.
334, 335
Passage Patteson, Vanuatu 339
peacock mantis shrimp 36
49
Caledonia
Passe de Longogon SFiR,
peacock grouper 369
Palu, Indonesia 273
New
PhllippmesSO,
Guam
Philippines
Pocillopora elegans 128
Petrie Reef,
Philippine Sea 282, 285
NA.
MuMR,
285, 286
Pocillopora damicornis 128. 250
stoplight 99
Pavona clavus 128
375, 376
Bahamas
bump-headed 345
Pati Point
glaciations 93
Poblacion
pharmaceuticals 54
parrotfish 42, 155
Pati-Pati GR, Indonesia 273. 280
Paioia siciUensis 49
Islands 154. 157
Phangnga, Thailand 262
Mayotte 198. 199
39A. 396, 397
Peter Island BS, British Virgin
159, 166
Parque Submarmo La Caleta
Plexaura spp. 168 Pliocene/Pleistocene
104. 105
152
Florida 96
Taiwan
Petite-Terre NR, Guadeloupe
Site,
NP, Dominican Republic 151,
218
Islands,
Peterson Cay NP.
Parque NacionalJeanette
Honduras
Palk Strait, India/Sn Lanka
Ramsar
175
Site, Brazil
Kawas, NP/Ramsar
PalJnura 35, 36
Palm
of Paria
Parcel Manoel Luis,
285
Pescadores Islands see Pen-Hu
Parepare. Indonesia 273
Pana, Gulf see Gulf
288
120 Port Launay
201,204
MNP. Seychelles
Index
Puerto Morelos. Mexico
Port Louis. Mauritius 206 Port Louis FiR. Mauritius
Port Morant. Jamaica 138 Port Moresby. Papua
New
Guinea 326. 327
River
NP
V^/orld
Heritage
black-spotted 228
Port-of-Spain. Trinidad 160
map 334
Portland Bight PA, Jamaica
Pukapuka
UO
Pukapuka, Cook Islands 382 Pukapuka, French Polynesia
319
Panama
Portobelo NP,
126,
387
Portugese man-o'-war 32
Portugueses Islands 190, 192
Prachuab Kirikhan, Thailand
387 Pulap, Federated States of
Praslm, Seychelles 200, 201 Preparis North and South
Andaman Sea 262
President Coolidge and Million Dollar Point R.Vanuatu 341
Bay-Mam Channel MP. Cayman Islands 142. 143
Preston
Prickly Pear Island BS, British Virgin Islands 154, 157
190, 191, 193
Queensland 31
1,
313
see also individual countries/
Pulau Hujung MP, Malaysia
regions
Providence Island, Seychelles
Pulau Jahat MP, Malaysia 270
200, 202, 204
Pulau Kaca MP, Malaysia 267,
Providence-Cerf Bank, Seychelles 200, 204
270
Providencia, Colombia 130, 131 Providenciales. Turks and
Prune IPalml Island WR,
St.
Vincent 160, 167 spp. 113,386 stetiata 128
Pseudoptexaura spp. 135 Pseudopterogorgia spp. 168 Pterois voUtans 289
Puako Bay FMA, Hawaiian Islands 393, 396
Pulau Kapas MP, Malaysia 267,
270
Pueblo Nuevo, Mexico 112 Puerto de Sagua, Cuba 134, 136 Puerto Escondido reefs, Cuba
Philippines 283
UNESCO
Biosphere Reserve, Philippines 286
CoNP/Ramsar
Western Australia 306,
321 of
Micronesia 356
Micronesia 356
131
Punta Frances/Punta Pederales
PNM, Cuba
134, 137
Punta Galeta, Panama 126, 127
Punta Gorda, Mexico 114, 115 Punta Isopo WRef, Honduras
268, 280
123, 124
Punta Majagua, Mexico 114, 115
267, 280
266
Punta Mocambo, Mexico 114, 115
Punta Nizuc, Mexico 115 Punta Patino Ramsar
267, 271
Semama
GR, Indonesia
268, 280
Panama
Site,
126, 129
Punta Ycacos, Belize 117, 118
Pulau Semblian Islands,
Punto Chileno, Mexico 112, 113
Pulau Sembilang MP. Malaysia
Pulau Kuraman MP, Malaysia
Pulau Labas MP, Malaysia 271 Pulau Lang Tengah MP. Malaysia 267. 271
Pulau Langkawi Islands. Malaysia 266
271
Pulau Lima MP, Malaysia 267, 271
267, 271
Pulau Mentinggi MP, Malaysia 267, 271
Pulau Moyo HP/RP, Indonesia 268, 280
Pulau Sibu Hujung MP,
Pulau Sibu MP, Malaysia 267,
Pulau Sipadan, Malaysia 269 Pulau Sipadan BS, Malaysia
Pulau
Qeshm
Island, Iran 252,
255
queen angelfish 12^ queen conch
58. 101-2. 105,
136
271
Sri
Buat MP. Malaysia
267. 271
Pulau Susa Dara MP, Malaysia 267, 271
Pulau Talang Islands, Malaysia 266
Pulau Tengah FoR, Malaysia 267
Pulau Tengah MP, Malaysia 267, 271
Queensland, Australia 308.
311-15
Queensland Department
268, 271
Malaysia 267.
Q Qatar 252, 25^
Malaysia 267, 271
268,271
Lembu MP.
Pulau Sepoi MP, Malaysia 271
Pulau Mensirip MP, Malaysia
134, 136
Puerto Galera, Mindoro,
Malaysia 268, 271
267. 271
273, 280
Pulau
Pulu Keeling
Malaysia 266. 267
Pulau Kasa GR/RP, Indonesia
Caicosia7, 108
Malaysia 268, 271
Pulau
267, 270
Pulu Keeling. Western Australia
Punta Betin, Colombia 130,
267. 271
Pulau Segantang MP, Malaysia
267, 270
Pulo Anna, Palau 354. 355
Puluwat, Federated States of
266
Pulau Satar Islands, Malaysia Malaysia
RP, Indonesia 267,
Pulusuk, Federated States
271
Pulau Sangiang NR, Indonesia
Hanmau MP,
Weh
280
Site,
Pulau Sangalaki RP, Indonesia
270
Pulau
271
Pulau Rusukan Kecil MP,
280
271
306. 307
268, 280
Pulau Rusukan Besar MP.
Pulau Chebeh MP, Malaysia
Pulau Goal MP, Malaysia 267,
Queensland 31
Puerto Galera
Pulau Bunaken NR. Indonesia
267, 270
protected areas, marine 69-72,
Darussalam 270
Pulau Redang MP. Malaysia
280
Pulau EkorTebu MP, Malaysia
Princess Charlotte Bay,
Psammocora Psammocora
Pulau Besar RP, Indonesia 273,
Malaysia
Malaysia 271
Pulau
Pulau Redang Islands. Malaysia
270
Pulau Dua NR, Indonesia 268,
Prince of Wales Island,
Indonesia
Pulau Redang FoR. Malaysia
270
Pulau Besar MP, Malaysia 267,
267, 270
Islands 154, 157
Primeiro Archipelago,
Mozambique
Pulau Aur MP, Malaysia 267,
273, 280
Prickly Pear P, British Virgin
Pombo NR/RP,
273, 280
Pulau Rawa MP, Malaysia 267,
Indonesia 267, 280
MPWR,
267,271
Pulau Tulai MP, Malaysia 267,
271
Pulau Rambut NR, Indonesia
Micronesia 356
266
Pulau Tokong Bahara MP,
Pulau Pinang MP, Malaysia 267,
Pulau Punyit, Brunei
Pulau Anak Krakatau NR,
261
Pulau Perhentian Kecil MP,
Pulau
Pukaruha, French Polynesia
129
271
Pulau Tioman Islands, Malaysia
Pulau Tioman
Malaysia 267, 271
382
Portlock Reefs, Australia 311.
Channels.
Pulau Perhentian Besar MP,
Cook Islands
Malaysia 268,
P,
271
Pulau Tinggi MP, Malaysia 267,
267,271 Pulau Penyu [Turtle Islands]
Malaysia 267, 271 Atoll,
Pulau Tiga FoR, Malaysia 267
Pulau Tiga
271
MP, Malaysia 268, 269, 271
pufferfish
Pulau Tenggol MP, Malaysia 267, 271
Pulau Payar MP, Malaysia 267, Pulau Pemanggil MP, Malaysia
Port-au-Prince. Haiti U9. 151
138, 139.
Site,
Philippines 286
Puerto Rico Trench 153, 158
Vanuatu 341
Pulau Nyireh MP, Malaysia 267, 271
Puerto Rico 63, 153-6, 157
Port Sudan 242. 2/i3 Vila.
14,
Puerto Princesa Subterranean
206. 209
Port
1
115, 116
of
Environment and Heritage 317 Quintana Roo State, Mexico
1
115
Quirimbass Archipelago,
Mozambique
190, 191, 192,
193
Quitasueho Bank. Colombia 131, 132
Quseir, Egypt 236
lA,
419
420
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
early
R
mapping 78-9
Reunion 178,207,209
Egypt 237-9
Rurutu Island, French Polynesia
Reunion hot spot 205, 212, 216,
Israel 238, 239
221,226
rabbitfish. two-lined 351
Jordan 238, 239
Reunlon-Rodrigues chain 180
Rabigh. Saudi Arabia 240, lUl
northern 235-7
Rhizophora mangle
Saudi Arabia 240-1, 242, 245
Rhizophora mucronata 243
southern 244-6
Rhodophyta
Sudan 243
Rhopalaea 40
Yemen
Ria Lagartos ETC, Mexico
racoon butterfly
Radama
fish
234
Archipelago,
Madagascar
195, 196
Radio Mast-Sand Bluff RpZ,
Cayman Ragay
Islands 142, 143
282
Gulf, Philippines
Ragged Cay WRef, Honduras 123, 124
red-footed booby 212, 228
Redonda
Island,
Reef 311, 313
Reef
at
393
Reef
Anse de Pilons MR,
Rakahanga, Cook Islands 381 382
Ramu
Rachette Point MR, St Lucia
Rangiroa
French
Atoll,
Polynesia 369, 385, 387
Rangoon seeYangon Ranguana Cay, Belize
1
Rapa, French Polynesia 386,
390
mapping
boat-based 81-2, 86-8
remote sensing 82-8 stick charts 78-9,
reef monitoring 64-5
Rarotonga Island, Cook Islands
reef protection
global areas 72-3 integrating
Turtle Reserve,
248
Ras
al Khafji,
Ras
el Bir, Djibouti
Saudi Arabia 252
248
Maldives 223
Refugio de Vida Silvestre/Punta
Ramsar
Isopo
Ratak Cham, Marshall Islands
123, 124
Site,
Honduras
Bretagne FIR, Reunion 209
aerial photography 85
Recif Lancaster [Neilson Reef),
ground-truthmg83,
Polynesia 390
Recif des Francais,
Brazil 175
New
Caledonia 334, 335 Recife de Guaratibas, Brazil 172
red crabs 307
236
24, 178,
Rennell,
Point, Belize 118
Solomon Islands
330,
331,333 Biosphere du
Biosphere Reserve, 179,233-4,
Atoll,
Madagascar resolution, of
195, 196
maps 82
Anne MNP, Seychelles
Atoll,
Atoll,
US
Virgin Islands 153,
154, 156
Denis 206
St. Eustatius,
Netherlands
Antilles 158-9, 161
Atoll
NW^R, American
375, 376
St.
Eustasia BS, British Virgin
Islands 154, 157
New
Rota, Mariana Islands 350, 351,
353
St.
Eustatius MP, Netherlands
Antilles 160, 161, 167 St.
Georges
St.
John,
US
Cay, Belize 118 Virgin Islands 154.
155
Australia 306, 307
Rotuma Island, Fiji 343, 344 Round Rock Island BS, Virgin Islands 154, 157
Australia 306,321
River and Delta, Tanzania
Bahamas
John's, Antigua 159
John's Island see Zabargad,
Egypt St, Kitts
and Nevis
159, 162, 167
St.
Leu
St.
Lucia, Lesser Antilles 160,
FiR,
Reunion 209
St.
Lucia Marine Reserve, South
Africa 193
186, 187, 188
Cay,
St.
St.
163-4, 167, 170
Rowley Shoals MP, Western
Rum
159, 166
Brandon see lie du Nord.
Mauritius
St
American Samoa
Island,
Barthelemey NR,
Guadeloupe
Marshall
374-6
Rufiji
Barthelemey
Guadeloupe 159
St, Croix,
Islands 361, 362
201,
204
Marshall
Australia 306, 309 la
Anne, Seychelles 201
St.
St,
Rowley Shoals, Western
reptiles 43
Reserve de
St.
St,
Rottnest Island, Western
Mananara Nord, UNESCO
red algae 28
Red Sea
86-8
sensors 83-4
Rendezvous
SMP,
88
multispectral imagers 85-6 satellite
Recife, Brazil 172
Recife de Fora
limitations
Saikai NP, Japan 292, 296
Reefs MR,
Guinea 326,328
from manned spacecraft 84-5
French Polynesia 390
Safaga, Egypt 236, 238
St.
Rossel Island, Papua
Rawaki, Kiribati 365
Recif President Thiers, French
Artificial
242
Roseau, Dominica 159
active sensors 86
86,
saddleback butterflyfish 183
Sahul Shelf, Indonesia 274
Lucia 160, 167
Samoa
remote sensing 82-8
360, 361
Ravine Trois Bassins-Pomte de
Islands,
Islands 330, 331
Rose
Indonesia 273,
274, 280 Haiti 149, 151
Island, Egypt 239,
Rodney Bay
Rose
Atoll,
277
Sabuda Tataruga OR, Indonesia
Rochelois Bank,
Rongenk
ffeefe a( ff/5* 64, 65, 93, 179,
Rasfari DS, Maldives 223, 225
269-71,288 Sabalana
Islands 361, 362
259, 301 Atoll,
Islands 154
Rongelap
ReefCheck 64-5, 73
Rasdu
Sabah, Malaysia 266, 268,
British Virgin
205, 206, 207
84, 89
Antilles
71, 161, 162, 167
FiR,
Roncador Reef, Solomon
reef rock 53
Ras Hadarba, Sudan 242 NP, Egypt 236,
Rampart
Mauritius 206, 209
St,
68-72
ReefBase
Mohammed
Antilles 159, 162
Saba MP, Netherlands
Rodrigues Island, Indian Ocean
measures 67-8
traditional
161
Saba Bank, Netherlands
Site,
315
consumers 73-4
Ras Fartak, Yemen 248
239
Biosphere
Rockhampton, Queensland
measures 76
legal controls role of
342, 343
Palau 355
enhancement 75
fisheries
RasalHadd, Oman Hadd
UNESCO
Rio Platano
Rocky
Ras Abu Soma, Egypt 236, 238
al
Fiji
Rock IChelbachebl
348
FiS, Philippines 285,
286 Saba, Netherlands Antilles 159,
Ringgold Islands,
121, 123
background 78-80
historical
Raroia, French Polynesia 387
Oman
Saavedra
Rincon de Guanabo reefs, Cuba
robber crab 228
Raraka, French Polynesia 387
248, 250
Saadani, Tanzania 187
Roatan, Bay Islands, Honduras
scale and resolution 82
381,383,384
248, 250
Rimatara Island, French
Road Town,
global 89-90 1
Saad ed Dm, northern Somalia
worms 35
Riviere du
330, 331
reef
15
Honduras 123
Reef Islands, Vanuatu 338, 339
326, 327
1
ribbon reefs 310, 313
ReserveA'Vorld Heritage
reef crest 24, 26
Reef Islands, Solomon Islands
71
Papua New Guinea
River,
294, 295
134, 136
Reef between Grand Caille and
reef flat 25-6
Ramsar Convention
Ras
St.
160, 167
Cham, Marshall Islands
360, 361
Ras
St,
Lucia 160, 167
Raivavae, French Polynesia 390
29-30
28,
River, Tanzania 187
Ryukyu Islands, Japan 292, 293,
Polynesia 390
Malgretoute MR,
at
Islands 331
Ruvu
68
Riau Archipelago, Sumatra 267,
ribbon
Lucia 160, 167
Raita Bank, Hawaiian Islands
1
272, 275
Lesser Antilles
19, 161
Raine Island, Great Barrier
Ralik
245, 246
Red Sea Islands PA, Egypt 239
390 Russel Islands, Solomon
St Luke's Island, St.
103, 104
Myanmar 262
Maarten, Netherlands
Antilles 159, 161, 162, 163
Index
Martin Island, Guadeloupe
St.
Martin NR. Guadeloupe 159,
St.
166 Martin's Island IJinjiradwipl,
St.
Bangladesh 2U, 217 262 Matthias Group, Papua
St.
New
Guinea 326. 327 Paul Subterranean River
St.
island,
Ecuador
St. Pierre,
sandfish 379
Schyphozoa 32
Sandy Bay, Honduras 123
Scilly
Sandy Island MP, Anguilla
159,
Sanganeb
Atoll,
Sanganeb
Atoll
Sudan 242, 243 MNP, Sudan
Shanghai, China 292
IManuaell TRes, French
Shark Bay, Western Australia 305, 306, 307
Polynesia 388, 391
MPMorld
Shark Bay
scleratininan corals 19-22,
34-5
Site.
306. 321
shark feeding 105
Santa Cruz, Ecuador 131, 133
Scorpaenopsis diabotis 220
Shark Reef, Great Barrier Reef
Santa Cruz Islands, Solomon
Scott Reef, Northern Australia
scuba diving see diving sea
339
318 shark/shark
308, 309
fin
fishing 49, 56,
396
59, 246,
shark5 26, 58, 98-9, 391
anemones 33
Pierre FiR, Reunion 209
St.
Raphael, Mauritius 207
Santa Marta, Colombia 130, 131
sea cucumbers 39-40, 58, 76
Caribbean reef 75
St,
Thomas, US
Santo Domingo, Dominican
sea fans 101
grey reef 234
Republic 150, 151
154 St.
Vincent, Lesser Antilles 160,
Vincent and the Grenadines
160, 164-5, 167
Saipan, Mariana Islands 348,
350,351,353 Sakiyama-wan NCA, Japan
Saline I'Hermitage [lagoonl FiR,
Reunion 209 Saline I'Hermitage (reef) FiR,
Salomon
Atoll, British Indian
Territory IChagos
Ocean
Archipelago! 20, 226, 227,
Salt Fish Tail Reef
Salt Island BS, Virgin Islands
Water Point-Beach Point
Cayman
Islands 142, 143
Salway, Gulf see Gulf
Samana
Salwah
of
Samana
Cay,
Bahamas
105
Samar, Philippines 281, 285 Sea, Philippines 285 301, 373-6
Ecuador
131, 133
331
San Esteban NP, Venezuela 168, 169, 171
San Jose, Costa Rica 126 San Jose MuMR, Philippines
1
54
Satawal, Federated States of
Satawan, Federated States
satellites
San Salvador, Bahamas 104, 105
103,
seaweeds 52
166
Shoalwater and Corio Bays
of
83-4
Saudi Arabia 234, 236, 248
Arabian Gulf coast 241, 252,
Ramsar
Segundo Archipelago,
Mozambique
Saumarez
Reef, Australia 318,
Samoa
373, 374,
shore crab 192
Semha, Yemen
shrimp farming 51-2,
247, 248
shrimp
Sepia sp. 38
shrimpfish 203
Sepik River, Papua
New
Guinea
Shuqra. Yemen 248. 249 Sian Ka'an BRINI. Mexico 116
Sept Freres Island, Djibouti 248,
Sian Ka'an
UNESCO
Reserve. Mexico
249-50
Seram Sea
120. 263
fishing 136. 253
Semporna, Malaysia 268, 269
1
Biosphere 16
Sian Ka'an World Heritage Site,
Mexico
273, 274
Seringapatam Reef, Northern
WMA, Papua New
Australia 315,
seine-net fishing 189
Seram, Indonesia 274
319 Savai'i Island,
Site,
321
190, 193
325, 326, 327
Siberul,
1
16
Sumatra 267
Sibuyan Sea, Philippines 282,
Australia 308. 309
Serrana Bank, Colombia 131,
285
SiderastreaUl. 175
132
Serranidae 40
Siderastrea radians 135
Saya de Malha Bank 206
Serranilla Bank, Colombia 131
Siderastrea siderea 125,
Saziley P, Mayotte 198, 199
Set Net Cays. Nicaragua 122,
Sawu
Sea, Indonesia 273
scale, of
maps 82
Seychelles 61, 178, 180,200-4
Scarborough Reef, Philippines
Seychelles Bank 200
283, 288
Scarus vetula 42
1
30,
168 Siderastrea stellata 174
123
scallop 38
SchizocuUna 175
San Pedro, Belize 118
Shikoku Island, Japan 292, 294
sedimentation 22, 24, 57
Scaridae 42
286
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Shidvar WRef, Arabian Gulf 252
166
Shoal Bay MP, Anguilla 159,
Guinea 326, 329
Solomon Islands
Cay East MP, Anguilla 159,
shipwreck sites 359
Sawataetae
Cristobal,
Site
255
seaweed farming 189
Marianas 353
Save River, Mozambigue 190
Cristobal,
Sheedvar Island Ramsar
Seal Island and Prickly Pear
Shipstern PrivR, Belize 118
San Bias Archipelago, Panama
San
shell trade 52
Islands 154, 157
seasnake 43
FiPr,
San Andres, Colombia 130-2
San
sheet coral 196 Virgin
Northern
Sasanhaya
375
125-8
Sheba Ridge, Arabian Sea 247
Shimobishi MP, Japan 296
Red Sea coast 236, 240-2, 245
Republic 151, 152
Shaft al Arab, Arabian Gulf 251
seagrasses 30
seals 44, 395
255
Bay, Dominican
Sharm Obhur, Saudi Arabia 242
Sarmi, Irian Jaya 274 277
Micronesia 356
157
Sheikh PCo. Egypt
sealions 44
Micronesia 355
166
Samar Samoa
163, 247
Japan 292, 296
MNP,
Antigua and Barbuda 159,
RpZ,
135,
Sala Misaki IKagoshimal MP,
228
Salt
171
el
seabirds43-4, 316, 364, 395
The Seal Dogs BS,
Sargassum piatycarpum Sarpassum spp. 52, 121,
Sharm
sea wasps 32
seahorses 58
269-71,288
Sheikh, Egypt 236,
239
sea urchins 39, 58
120
el
238
sea temperatures 20, 59, 61-2
172, 174
350, 352
22
Sharm
Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo, Brazil
Sarigan Island, Mariana Islands
Reunion 209
whale 99
sea squirts 40
Sarcophyton 33
Japan 292, 296
lemon 26
sea levels 26, 139,384 sea pens 33
Sarawak, Malaysia 266, 268,
Sakurajima IKagoshimal MP,
sea kraits 43
Sanya, China 290
Sapodilla Cayes MR, Belize 118, 292,
296
salinity
Santo Domingo NP, Dominican Republic 151, 152
164-5,167 St.
Heritage
Western Australia 305.
St.
Virgin Islands
288,
Scolymia wellsi 1 74
242, 243
Santa Maria Island, Vanuatu
Seychelles 202
Shan HuJiaoNR, China 291
Scleractinia 19-22,34-5
Islands 330, 331,332
NP, Philippines 285, 286
New
Schouten Islands, Papua Guinea 325, 326
166
Matthew's Island, Myanmar
St,
San Salvador 131
159
Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta
NatNP, Colombia
Shabelle River, Somalia 182,
131, 133
Siganus lineatus 351 Sikaiana Atoll IStewart Islands!,
185
Shadeganan Marshes,
Iran
Solomon Islands Silhouette
252
schooling bannertish 205
Shadwan
schoolmasters 127, 137
Shalao, China 290
Island,
Red Sea 236
MNP,
201,204 Sinulana 33
330, 331
Seychelles
421
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Silavatturai Reef.
Sn Lanka
218,
219
South Africa 190, 193
Dominican
Silver Bank.
106, 107
Republic 106. 150-2 silver gull
282, 285
WMA. Papua
NevK Guinea 326. 329
South Equatorial Current 133. 173,
Simeulue. Sumatra 267
Islands 142, 143
Sea 270, 283, 285, 287, 288, 290 squat lobsters 36
staghorn coral 93, 95, 128, 140,
South Jamaica Shelf 138
Starbuck, Kiribati 366
South Keeling Island, Western
starfish 39.
Singapore 267. 269, 270. 271 Singapore Strait 270 Sinub Island
Maldives 223
Sinnath NP, Thailand 262. 265
Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano
NMP. Mexico
Pit
Maldives
224
PA,
Bermuda
100,
41, 120,
264
Bengal 212
South Sound RpZ, Cayman
118. 120
schoolmaster 127. 137 snapping shrimps 36 Society Islands 385, 388
Yemen
248, 249
33
100. 102
Australia 321
Solitary islands. Australia 318.
320-1
biodiversity
21-2
MR. Australia
321
Solomon Islands
326. 330-3
SolomonSea325.
326. 331
Somali Current 183. 185. 234
Somalia
southern 182, 185
Sombrero
Island, Anguilla 158,
159
Sombrero
276. 277
Island
MR/TZ,
Philippines 282, 286
sonar remote sensing 86
Songo Songo Archipelago, Tanzania 186. 187. 188 Sonsorol. Patau 354, 355 Sorol, Federated States of
Micronesia 355 Soufrlere, Mount. St- Vincent
164
St.
and Nevis 159. 167
307. 379
Monserrat 162 Soufriere Marine St.
Southern Islands MNA. Singapore 267, 271
Management
Soufriere MR.
St.
Lucia 160, 167
Soufriere/Scotts Head MR,
Dominica 159, 166
343. 345
Suwarrow
storms
see also
55. 63-4.
Strait of
Malacca
57. 266. 267.
381.382
Suwarrow
Atoll
NP. Cook
Islands 382. 384
Swain Reefs. Great Barner Reef
313-14.315
Straits of Florida 96. 104
Straits of Tiran.
Red Sea 236 Red Sea 236.
Swains
American Samoa
Atoll,
374-6
Swan
Islands.
Honduras
Strombus gigas
119. 136
Sweetings Cay. Bahamas 104, 105
Suakin, Sudan 242, 243
242, 243
sweetlips 41
Synaraea 386
Synngodlum flliforme 06 Systeme pour I'observation de 1
Reina IMA, Cuba 134, 137
la
Terre ISPOTl 83-4
Subarchipielago de los
Subarchipielago de Sabana-
Sudan
IMA. Cuba 134. 137
242. 243
T Taba, Egypt 238
Sudest Island. Papua
New
Guinea 325. 326, 327
Taba Coast PCo, Egypt 236, 239 Tabar Islands, Papua
Suez Canal 237-8
Tabiteuea. Kiribati 365
Suez
Tablas
lEl
Suweisl. Egypt 236
Strait. Philippines
Space Shuttle 84-5
Sulawesi, Indonesia 273, 276-7
Tabuaeran.
Spansoma
99
Sulawesi Sea 268, 273, 281, 285
23, 49, 68,
Sullivan Island,
vlrlde
spawning events 98-9.316 Speakers Bank,
Myanmar 262
Sulu Archipelago. Philippines British Indian
Territory 226, 227
spear fishing 48
273.281.283.285 Sulu Sea, Philippines 268. 281. 283, 285
Sumatra
Spermonde Archipelago.
Sumba. Indonesia 273 Sumbawa. Indonesia 268. 277 Sumilon Island MP. Philippines
179, 267,272. 275
286
spiny lobster 105, 136, 155,
396
Sumilon National Fish Sanctuary
28, 31-2, 135, 149
SPOT see Systeme pour I'observation de
la
Terre
S.
Philippines 285,
286
Sumilon Reefs. Philippines 283. 284
282
Kiribati 363. 364,
366 Tafua Rainforest Reserve ETC,
Samoa
374, 375, 376
Tahanea, French Polynesia
387 Tahiti,
spectral libraries 88
Sphyraena barracuda 1 75
New
Guinea 326, 327
taboos 67. 67-8, 332
sponges
121,
123
Su/asu(a212, 228
Ocean
342. 343
Fiji
Cook Islands
Atoll.
southwest monsoon 261
spinner dolphins 316
Lucia 71. 163-4
Fiji
Stomatopoda 37
Suez, Gulf, see Gulf of Suez
Indonesia 273, 276, 279
Soufriere Hills Volcano.
Islands, Thailand 261
Suva.
Suva Barner Reef.
Camaguey
Southeast Peninsula NP.
southeast trade winds 300-1.
northern 248, 250
Sunn
Canarreos IMA, Cuba 134. 137
southeast monsoons 266. 275.
Kills
Sural Thani, Thailand 261, 262
Stolonifera 33
la
see also individual countries/ regions
Solo Delta. Java 268. 272
348
Subarchipielago de Jardines de
reefs at risk 65
Solitary Islands
Solomon Islands
Suakin Archipelago, Red Sea
Southeast Asia 179. 259-60
Juventud NP.
Surikozaki MP, Japan 292, 296
Atoll,
Stylastenna 32
South West Solitary Island NR.
la
Stewart Islands see Sikaiana
237
South West Breaker Area PA.
Bermuda
55
de
134, 137
surgeonfish 40, 42-3
Straits of Gubal.
South Water Cay MR. Belize
lane 136
1
272
Islands 142, 143
blue-lined 27
soft corals
Pr.
100. 102
Isla
Stetson Bank, Gulf of Mexico 99
cyclones; hurricanes
South Shore Coral Reef
Indonesia 275
216
Sur
stoplight parrotfish 99
Environment Programme
Bermuda
Socotra,
Atoll,
ISPREPI 380
102
Area.
South Nilandu
Strait,
Cuba
stick charts 78-9.
South Pacific Regional
115, 116
Red Sea 242
snails 37
snapper
Atoll,
Sunda
350.351.352
Stephanocoenia michetinit Maldives
Atoll,
South Malosmadulu
Sipuncula 35
Snake
South Male
Shelf. Indonesia 266,
Supply Reef, Mariana Islands
180.302
Stenopodidea 36
223
Sumatra 267
Siyal Islands,
South Keppel Island,
Sunda
Supertyphoon Paka 351
Stenella tongiroslns 316
Queensland 315
WMA, Papua New
Guinea 326.329 Sipora,
165
Australia 306. 307
Islands. Indonesia 268.
273
Sundarbans, Bangladesh 214,
238
237-9
218,
219-20
South Honshu Ridge 294
Sinai Peninsula 55. 233. 236.
Sunda
268. 270. 272. 276
Netherlands Antilles 163 Sinai. Egypt
Sunda Barrier Reef. Indonesia 268. 276
Sn Lanka 179,212,214,
191.300,310.385
South Hole Sound RpZ, Cayman
Simpson Bay Lagoon.
Islands
142, 143
Spratly Islands, South China
South China Sea 259, 268, 270,
358
Simbine Coast
Cayman
Spoil Bay RpZ,
South Caicos, Turks and Caicos
Society Islands 385. 388.
389 Taiaro Atoll. French Polynesia
387
IWA RobmsonI SNR. French Polynesia 387,
Taiaro Atoll
391 Taira Cays, Nicaragua 122, 123
Taiwan 292, 294, 295-6 Taiwan
Strait
292
Take Bone Rate. Indonesia 277
Index
Take Bone Rate NP, Indonesia
Ten Degree Channel. Indian
Ocean 216. 217
273, 280
Takidunguchi MP, Japan 292, 296
New
Takuu Islands, Papua
Tenassenm Mountains. Myanmar 264
Guinea 326. 329 Talibon FishR. Philippines 285.
Guam 350
Taman
Terna Reef. Cook Islands 381,
Tonga Trench 377
Laut Banda RP.
Thailand217. 261-3, 264. 265.
Tambobo MuMR,
Philippines
Thailand. Gulf, see Gulf of
1
Thalassia testudinum 106, 121,
12
Tana River 183
122
Thatassodendron 30
Tandayag MuMR, Philippines
Thaiassoma lutescens 330 Theienota ananas 40 Thiele.
Tanjung Amelango OR.
Thiladhunmathi
Tanjung Blimbing, Kalimantan 268. 276
Tanjung Datu, Kalimantan 268.
Maldives
Tanjung Pamenkan,
268, 276
Tanna
Island.
Vanuatu 340
Tarawa.
Kiribati 364.
Territory 227
Tarpon Hole PA. Bermuda
100,
Three Brothers and Resurgent
Ocean
Territory 227. 229
Queensland
Island.
Tarutao NP. Thailand 262. 265 Tatakoto French Polynesia 387
American Samoa 375
New
Caledonia 335
Tikopia Island,
Solomons
331
Mariana Islands 350,
Tayabas Bay, Philippines 282
Tiran Island, Egypt 236. 237
Tayrona NalNP, Colombia 131.
Tiran-Senafir NP, Egypt 236,
Red Sea
236, 237
239
Tebada. Colombia 131. 132
Tobacco Reef, Belize 118
Telestacea 33
Tobago
Teluk Kelumpang/Selat
Tobago Cays,
Sebuku NR.
Indonesia 268, 280
Teluk Kupang RP, Indonesia 273. 280
Indonesia 274. 280
Teluk
Maumere
RP. Indonesia
273. 280
Tematagi, French Polynesia 387
Tambelan Archipelago. Kalimantan 268. 276
Temoe. French Polynesia 387
160. 165. 166-7, 167 St-
Vincent and
the Grenadines 160
Tobago Cays WR,
St.
Queensland 312.
Palau 354. 355
Toddu
Atoll.
Maldives 223
trade winds 300-1. 307, 360,
commons" 67
trawling 278,317
294
South
Islets
MP, Malaysia 268, 269, 271 Turtle Islands
and Reefs.
Great Barrier Reef 318
WS. Philippines
285, 286 turtles 43, 354,
Tridacna gigas 38, 52, 345, 357,
395
fishing for 49, 58
flatback316
Tridacna tevoroa 345
Great Barrier Reef 316
Tridacnidae 38, 52
green 105, 122, 141,209.316.
Trimmatom nanus 226 Trimmatom offucius 226
395
Trinidad.
Sri
Cuba
hawksbill43. 105. 188.319
Lanka 218, 219
loggerhead
166-7
316
turtleshell 53 Tutuila.
Trobriand Islands, Papua
54.
protection of 68
134. 135
New
Guinea 326. 327
American Samoa 375.
376 Tuvalu. Polynesia 371. 372
trochus 52. 58. 354. 357, 358-9
Two
Trochus Sanctuaries, Federated
Typhoon Linda 289
Mile Reef, South Africa 193
Slates of Micronesia 356
Tromelin seelle Tromelin
Storm Mitch 98
Trou d'Eau Douce FiR. Mauritius 206. 209
trumpet emperor 319
trumpet
fish
136
Polynesia 385. 387
Tubastrea
sp.
U Ujae. Marshall Islands 360. 361
Ujung Kulon NP/Krakatan National Reserve/V\/orld
Heritage Site 267, 280
Tuamotu Archipelago. French
Tokara Islands, Japan 292,
Site.
Turtle Islands IPalau Penyu]
traditional medicine 54
Tofua Island. Tonga 378
277
Tongaland Ramsar Africa 190, 193
379
tsunamis 329
Togian Islands, Indonesia 273,
Turneffe Islands, Belize 118,
119
Tofua Arc, Tonga 378
Tofua Trough 377
maps 87-8
Turtle Beaches/Coral Reefs of
Trachinotus btochii 43
Tropical
Vincent
and the Grenadines 160. 167 Tobi.
Teluk Laut Cendrawasih NP,
Townsville.
Trinidad and Tobago 160. 165.
351,353
satellite habitat
Turks Island Passage 107
Tnncomalee.
285, 286 Tinian,
335,
379
Tiran. Straits.
Laut/Selat
Turks Bank, Caribbean 106. 107 Turks and Caicos Islands.
337
Tregosse
Tigris River 251
Taunton PA, Bermuda 100, 102
133
Tortola. British Virgin Islands
"tragedy of the
311
Tinaogan MuMR, Philippines
102
Turbinaria 121, 163
Turiamo Bay, Venezuela 168
318
Islands 330. 331
365
P.
Malaysia 267, 271 Tupai. Society Islands 388
326
SpMR, New Caledonia
Thousand Islands see
TimorSea274, 276, 302. 308 Tinakula, Solomon Islands 330.
Tanzania 186-9
287
Atoll
protected areas 107. 108
Vietnam 289
Island,
Tikehau, French Polynesia 387
268, 276
Tanjung Setan. Kalimantan 276
Tunku Abdul Rahman
Caribbean 95, 106-8
Tiga.
Tanjung Selatan. Kalimantan
Torres Strait. Australia 302.
Tournante de Marine Faune
Thursday
276 Tanjung Sambar. Kalimantan
288. 292
Tho Chau
Islands 5NR, British Indian
276 Tanjung Putih, Kalimantan 268,
350
tourism46. 54-5. 70-1.73-4
Ocean
Tanjung Pengujan. Kalimantan
Guam
Thio River. Grande Terre 336-7
Three Brothers, British Indian
Kalimantan 276
Bay,
Tung Sha
154, 156
Kepulauan Seribu. Java
276
Ta'u,
Atoll.
Tumon
Torres Islands. Vanuatu 339
317
221.223
Indonesia 273. 280
194, 195.
Tung-Sha. South China Sea 287,
289. 290
Torres Strait Islanders 304, 316,
Gerhard 85
Tanga. Tanzania 187
Madagascar
196
Tulum. Mexico 115
380
304.308.310.311,313.317,
Tanahmerah, Indonesia 274 285. 286
Tonga 378.
Ton Shima Reef. Japan 292
Thailand
285. 286
Tampico, Mexico
Island.
FiS. Philippines 285.
286 Tulear.
Tongatapu
Tonkin Gulf. China/Vietnam 288,
267. 288
Tujuh Belas Pulau NR. Indonesia 268. 280
378
388
anemones 33
Tulapos
Tongatapu Group. Tonga 377.
Tetiaroa, Society Islands
Indonesia IIU. 280
Bay. Sulawesi 273, 277
Tonga 300, 369, 377-80
382
tube
Tubuai. French Polynesia 390
Teraina. Kiribati 363
tern 73, 183
286 Talofofo Bay.
Cebu. Philippines
284
Tommi
124
Papua New
City.
Philippines
Site,
285
Tokelau 373. 375. 376 Toledo
Site/World Heritage
Site/Ramsar
292. 296
TeonostalWRef. Honduras 123,
Guinea326. 328. 331 Talele Islands PP.
Tokashiki lOkmawa] MP, Japan
175
Tubbataha Reefs. Philippines 283
Tubbataha Reefs NP/Ramsar
Ulithi,
Federated States
of
Micronesia 355. 358
Ulveah iLopevi) Island. Vanuatu 338. 339
Umatac,
Umm
Guam
350
al-Qamari Islands PA,
423
424
WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS
Vieques Passage, Puerto Rico
Biosphere Programme 71
Unguja see Zanzibar Unilever 74 Union,
St,
Vincent and the
St.
252
Guam
353
University of the South Pacific,
Samoa
373. 375
155-7
Virgin Islands
NP
Virgin Islands
Trough 153
Mariana Islands
164,239
69, 71,
Bermuda
Islands,
Island.
Solomon Islands
330,331 Uturoa. Society Islands 386.
388
Atoll,
343, 344
Northern
Australia 308
Vangunu
Solomon
w
330,
Vankalai Reef,
Sn Lanka
218,
Vanua Balavu
Island.
Fiji 3*13,
Vanua Lava
Island,
Vanuatu
339
Vanua Levu,
Fiji
342-5
Vanua Levu Barrier Reef.
Fiji
Atoll.
Polynesia 394, 397
Bahamas
Walker's Cay,
Vanuatu 338-41
Vatoa Island. Ira
Fiji
343. 344
Cfiannel,
Fiji
342, 343
Vava'u Group, Tonga 377, 378,
369.371,372
Wandur [Mahatma Gandhil MNP, India 216. 217 War in the Pacific NHP. Guam
Waturu
Veracruz, Mexico 112, 114, 115
West
Veracruz reefs, Mexico
West Bay Cemetery-Victoria
Vero Beach, Florida 96, 97 Victoria, Seychelles 201
Islands 142, 143
West Caicos Marine NP. Turks
Victory Bank, British Indian
Ocean Territory 227
Viemandu Channel, Maldives 224 Vientiane 288
Zagros Mountains, Iran 251
107
World Resources
Institute
71
65
and Caicos
St,
Vincent and
West Fayu, Federated States Micronesia 355
of
Delta,
Mozambique
190
Zamboanga
Peninsula,
Wotje. Marshalllslands361
Zanclus cornutus 291
wrasse 330
Zanzibar, Tanzania 186-9
bandcheck 353
Zanzibar Channel, Tanzania 187 Zealandia Banks, Mariana
cleaner 41. 42. 199 42. 49,
Wreck Wreck
Islands 350, 352
Zhongsha Qundao see Reefs. Australia 318, 319 of the
Rhone MP,
Virgin
Macclesfield Bank. South
China Sea Zoantharia 33, 184 zooxanthellae 31. 33. 35, 39, 59
1
15 112, 115.
116.118 Xing Da Area PA,
Bermuda
100,
107. 108
the Grenadines 160, 167
Zambezi
Philippines 285
102
West Cay WR.
(Okinawa) MP, Japan
292, 296
Micronesia 355
Xincun Bay. China 290
142, 143
John's Island).
Zamami
XcalakNMP. Mexico
West Caicos, Turks and Caicos
[St,
Egypt 239. 242
Woleai, Federated States of
Xcalak. Mexico
House RpZ, Cayman Islands
Caledonia
Wizard Reef. Seychelles 202
X
Africa 147, 173, 174-5
House-Sand Cay Apartments MP, Cayman
Victoria
365
Kiribati 363,
182. 185
Weipa. Queensland 308. 31
14
Zabargad
381.383
Maldives 221,
Atoll.
New
Antilles,
Islands 154. 157
169
Watamu MNP, Kenya
IR,
335, 337
58
311,313
Venezuela 147, 168-70, 171
1
56
humphead (Napolean)
223-4
380
Yves Merlet
1
165
Washington-Slagbaai. Bonaire
223-4, 225
Windspint
Windward Islands see
World's End Reefs. Grenadines
Sulawesi
Warrior Reefs. Australia 310,
Vataru Kandu DS. Maldives
Yucatan Current 114
World Heritage Convention
105
350, 353
342. 343
Vatu
Say. Oahu. Hawaiian
Yucatan Channel. Mexico 115
Yucatan Peninsula. Mexico 118
Winslow Reef,
Islands 393
and
Wilkes Exploring Expedition 79
Winslow Reef. Cook Islands Islands
Wallls and Futuna. Polynesia
344
New
FMA. Hawaiian Islands 393.
MLCD, Hawaiian
Island. St. Vincent
the Grenadines 160
Territory 226, 227
Netherlands
Head
Wallacea see Nusa Tenggara;
219
292. 296
Young
396
Wake
331
296
Yoshino-Kumano NP, Japan
Windward Islands Windward Passage 151
Waimea
Solomon Islands
Yoronto (Kagoshimaj MP, Japan
150
Guinea 325
393. 396
Islands 331. 333 Vanlkolo.
filefish
Wilhelm, Mount, Papua
Watkiki
Island,
Ocean
Yongala HShip, Australia 321 Yorke Islands, Queensland 31
damsel 374
Wight Bank. British Indian
393
Gulf.
Gulfof Aden 248, 249
Queensland 312. 313. 315
Fiji
yellow band disease 140
Yemen
Whitsunday Islands.
Japan
342, 343
Red Sea 245, 246
whitespotted
100, 102
Waikjki Island-Diamond
Van Diemen
Mexico
Fiji
yellowspot emperor 41, 251
white-belly
Waikiki. Oahu. Hawaiian Islands
V
Site.
white band disease 62. 93. 98.
Vostok, Kiribati 366
Vuata Vatoa
361,362
yellow goatfish 162
whales44, 316. 395
Volcano Islands see Kanzan
Utnk AtoU. Marshall Islands
of El Vizcaino
whale shark 99
342-5
Indonesia 274
Strait.
Yasawa Group.
140. 155
Fiji
Vixen PA.
urchins see sea urchins
Yapen
Site 311
whelk 105
Levu,
of
Micronesia 68, 355. 358, 359
Queensland
World Heritage
Myanmar 262
Yap Island, Federated States
112
154, 157
Visayan Sea, Philippines 281,
Viti
of
Whale Sanctuary
Virgin Islands 153, 154,
Yangon,
180,
countries/regions
World Heritage
281,283
Uracas see Farallon de Pajaros,
Utupua
'
Visayas Islands, Philippines
upwellings 20, 130
240-1.242
Wet Tropics
Lucia 160, 167
285
Suva 344
user fees
Reef MR,
Islands 154, 156
United Arab Emirates 248. 251.
Upolu,
Artificial
Virgin Gorda, British Virgin
Grenadines 160
University of
Beach
Yalong Bay, China 291
Yanbu Al Bahr, Saudi Arabia
regions
181-2. see also individual
Vietnam 288, 289-90, 291 Vigie
10-12, see
Western Indian Ocean
154
and the
1
aiso individual countries/
154, 155
World Conservation Monitoring Centre 89-90
UNESCO Man
Western Caribbean
Vieques. Puerto Rico 63. 153.
Saudi Arabia 2i 1.242
UNEP
Y Yaeyama 294
Islands.
Japan 292,
its
detailed descriptive texts
experts, this full-color
for
and images by leading
volume
everyone interested
in
will
these
be a
vital
critical
environments.
The World Atlas of Coral Reefs contains 85
new/ly researched
resource
full-page.
and drawn color maps: more than
200 color photographs
illustrating reefs
and reef ani-
mals: and 85 images of coral reefs from space, taken
by
NASA
astronauts from the space shuttle
including those
flights.
2000 and 2001. The authors provide
in
a wealth of information on the geography biodiversity
and human uses
of coral reefs
as well as details about
the threats to their existence.
Centre
in
Cambridge, UK, the United Nations
office
responsible for providing authoritative information on
the condition of global biodiversity the World Atlas will
be welcomed by
and
will
policy
all
serve as a
coral reef enthusiasts
and divers
critical tool for scientists,
makers, and planners
students.
at local, national,
and
International levels alike.
Jacket illustration False clown anennonefish fAmphipnon oceltans!. Great Barrier Reef, Australia
Barbara Jellow
©
2001 Stuart Westmorland/Stone Jacket design by
f^\
^\
^^^^
l^M^
^y^
Marine and Coastal Programme, with a leading role
UNEP WCMC -^^
/
°
mangrove
SPALDING. MA,
forests.
Reefs at Risk. He Unit. University of
*•r-
He
is
programme
lead author of the World
is
in
UNEP-WCMCs
officer of
research into coral reefs and
Mangrove Atlas and coauthor
of
also research associate at the Cambridge Coastal Research
Cambridge.
CORINNA RAVILIOUS UNEP-WCMC.
Ph.D.. is senior
is
a geographic information
with primary responsibility for
systems technical
managing the Centre s
officer at
coral reef
and
ICLARM
...................
forest datasets.
She
is
coauthor of
A
Global Overview of Forest Conservation and
has prepared maps for many publications, including Global
Biodiversity.- Earth's
Living Resources in the 21st Century.
EDMUND
P.
GREEN. MA. PhD
Programme, overseeing
its
.
is
head
active projects
of
UNEP-WCMCs
Marine and Coastal
and developing others with a wide range
of international collaborators. His research interests include coral reef
coral diseases,
and the trade
in
coral reef organisms.
He
is
mapping,
lead author of
Remote
Sensing Handbook for Tropical Coastal Management and The Global Trade
Above
left:
in Coral.
Grand Cayman
from space The snatlow lagoon is
surrounded by extensive and
important mangrove areas.
NASA 199^, reefs,
photo SSTS062-84-70.
Above
right:
Map shows
mangroves, dive centers,
and protected areas.
Left;
Massive corals Montaslrea
and gorgonians in
Winner,
Mary B. Ansari Best Reference
(or
sea fans)
the Caribbean,
V/ork Award, Geoscience Information Society
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley 94720
wvvw,ucpress,edu
